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Vol.19. The Indians of Oklahoma. The Wichita. The Southern Cheyenne. The Oto. The Comanche. The Peyote Cult.{view image of page i} THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN {view image of page ii} ctirfid Eit t id r imittrt to $ibe 3kunlfrrt'a Aeta of tlfticf thid id, tmber.....0. {view image of Frontispiece} The Washita [photogravure plate] {view image of page iii} THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN BEING A SERIES OF VOLUMES PICTURING AND DESCRIBING THE INDIANS OF THE UNITED STATES, THE DOMINION OF CANADA, AND ALASKA WRITTEN, ILLUSTRATED, AND PUBLISHED BYEDWARD S. CURTIS EDITED BY FREDERICK WEBB HODGE FOREWORD BY THEODORE ROOSEVELT FIELD RESEARCH CONDUCTED UNDER THE PATRONAGE OF J. PIERPONT MORGAN IN TWENTY VOLUMES THIS, THE NINETEENTH VOLUME, PUBLISHED IN THE YEAR NINETEEN HUNDRED AND THIRTY {view image of page iv} COPYRIGHT, I930 BY EDWARD S. CURTIS THE PLIMPTON PRESS * NORWOOD * MASSACHUSETTS PRINTED IN T HE U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA {view image of page v} I:,, p, 28,.2: C\ j / Contents of Volume Nineteen ILLUSTRATIONS........ ALPHABET USED IN RECORDING INDIAN TERMS THE INDIANS OF OKLAHOMA. Historical Introduction...... The Five Civilized Tribes Cherokee..... Seminole..... Creeks. Choctaw and Chickasaw... Yuchi.... Algonquian Tribes... Arapaho. Illinois Confederacy. Ottawa and Potawatomi.. Sauk and Foxes. Shawnee. Delawares Kickapoo Iroquoian Tribes Hurons or Wyandot.. Seneca Siouan Tribes Iowa, Oto, and Missouri Osage Ponca and Omaha Quapaw..... Kansa.... Caddoan Tribes....... Pawnee.... Caddo..... Kiowa.... Athapascan Tribes... Kiowa Apache... Lipan Apache... Tonkawa Modoc. Population of the Indians of Oklahoma v PAGE...... ~ 1ix...... xii...... 3 4 4 8..... II 12 13 13 14 15 6...... 17 19...... 21...... 22 23 23 24 24 25 26 26 27 27 27 27 28 29 30 30...... 30...... 30 31 32 {view image of page vi} vi CONTENTS THE W ICHITA..................... General Description................ Religious Beliefs........ Genesis Legend............ The Deluge................ Witchcraft.. The Strong Man Who Overcame the Witches The Snake Sorcerer Trial by Combat... The Wizard Who Became Crazy... The Youthful Sorcerer...... The Caddo Sorcerer...... The Owl Wizard...... Ceremonies. The Deer Dance and the Building of the Grass PAGE 35 35 44 48 50 56 58 59 60 6i 6I 62 64.1 house.. Surround-the-fire Ceremony... Rain Ceremony... Buffalo-bundle Ceremony.... Mythology.... The Buffalo Ghost... The Morning Star....... Bear Broken Leg.... The Water Spirit.... The Wolf Society... The Man Who Married a Fish.. The Girl in the Moon. The Woman Who Married a Star The Chief's Son and the Chief's Dat The Man Who Was Transformed in...... 64...... 72 74...... o So...... 85...... 85...... 87...... 90 *...... 93 95 98...... IOI.. 102 ighter... 103 to a Snake. I04 THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE............... Introduction Origin of the Forty-four Chief-sticks and the Election of Chiefs.......... Ceremonies...... The Sacred Arrow Ceremony.... Legend of the Sacred Arrows.... The Sun Dance...... The Buffalo Ceremony..... Buffalo-dance Legend..... Animal-dance Legend..... Band and Society Legends. Isiometa ye, the Ridge Hill Band... HTmata"nohish, Bear Bow-string Society. W itchcraft......... The Sweat-lodge........ Mythology........ Seven Star Story....... 107 I07 IIO 112 112 ii6 121 128 I3I I33 I35 I35 I37 138 I40 I43 I43 {view image of page vii} CONTENTS Vii PAGE THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE Continued Mythology - Continued Feather In The Head Wins a Wife......I44 Mad Bull Story............ 45 THE OTO....................... I5 General Description................ 15 Genesis of the Clans...........58 The Bear, Beaver, Elk, and Eagle Clans... I58 The Buffalo, Owl, Pigeon, and Snake Clans.. I62 How the People Learned to Make War.... 63 Mythology.................. 164 Turtle's War Party..........64 The Red Ducks.. 66 Why it Does Not Pay to Steal........ 68 Little Sister Rescues Her Brothers..68 How Skunk Gets His Game.....70 Why the Buzzard is Not Good to Eat.....17 The Boy Who Went to the Moon..... 17 The Boy Who Returned to His Tribe... 73 Why Manyikafihe is Called the Thief..73 Death of Ishfhinke............ 75 Mink Deceives Bobcat........... 76 THE COMANCHE.................... 181 General Description................ 181 M ythology..................89 Old Woman in the Moon..........89 The Eye of the Raccoon.......... 90 Fox's Medicine...............190 Fox and Pelican............. 90 Fox and Beaver...191 Fox and Owl................19 Fox and the Bears........... 191 The Man and the Fox............192 Fox and Opossum............. 192 Coyote and Polecat...... I92 The Woman Who Betrayed Her Husband.. 93 The Woman Who Married a Horse......193 The Boy Who Was Stolen by a Water Lizard..194 How the People Obtained Buffalo....... I94 The Boy Who Escaped from the Giant.... I95 The Skeptical Comanche........ I95 The Ant Who Went up in the Sky......I95 The Magic Arrows......... I95 The Woman and the Dwarf........ 95 The Woman Who Married a Giant...... I96 {view image of page viii} Viii CONTENTS PAGE THE PEYOTE CULT................. I99 Peyote Ritual..... 203 Peyote Experiences................ 213 THE "STOMP" DANCE AND THE FORTY-NINE DANCE.... 214 APPENDIX TRIBAL SUMMARY.................. 223 Wichita................ 223 Southern Cheyenne............ 224 O to..................... 226 Comanche.... 228 VOCABULARIES.................... 230 INDEX........................ 241 {view image of page ix} Illustrations The Washita Frontispiece A Wichita matron 36 Walter Ross - Wichita 38 Old grass-house - Wichita 40 Interior of Wichita grass-house 42 Wichita summer arbor 44 Ceremonial house - Wichita 46 Wichita mortar 48 Peeling pumpkins - Wichita 50 Peeled squash - Wichita 52 Braided squash - Wichita 54 The buffalo plains 60 The dance - Wichita 64 Dancers - Wichita 66 A Wichita dancer 68 Skidi and Wichita dancers 70 Modern dance costume - Pawnee 74 Woman's costume - Cheyenne 76 Cheyenne child 78 Cheyenne baby-carrier 80 Cheyenne footwear 82 Old Crow - Cheyenne 84 Wife of Old Crow - Cheyenne 86 Black Wolf - Cheyenne 88 Wife of Howling Wolf - Cheyenne 90 Red Bird - Cheyenne 92 Man On The Cloud - Cheyenne 94 Magpie - Cheyenne 96 Drying meat - Cheyenne 108 {view image of page x} Chiefs in the sun dance parade - Cheyenne 110 Hivihhnihpoih Society, Cheyenne sun dance 112 Hefatyu Society, Cheyenne sun dance 114 Preparatory lodge, Cheyenne sun dance 116 Sun dance lodge - Cheyenne 118 Interior of sun dance lodge - Cheyenne 120 Sun dancers - Cheyenne 122 Buffalo society, animal dance - Cheyenne 124 Buffalo dancers, animal dance - Cheyenne 126 Animal dance - Cheyenne 128 Brush huts, animal dance encampment - Cheyenne 130 Brush lodge - Cheyenne 132 The clowns, animal dance - Cheyenne 134 The wolf, animal dance - Cheyenne 136 Deer society, animal dance - Cheyenne 138 Healing rite of the Deer society, animal dance - Cheyenne 140 Black Man - Arapaho 142 An Arapaho 144 Arapaho shield 146 Seeing High - Oto 152 Standing On The Earth - Oto 154 Oto puberty lodge 156 Wife of Wakonda - Oto 158 White Elk - Oto 160 A little Oto 162 Big Heart - Osage 164 Osage summer arbor 166 Frame of Osage arbor 168 A Ponca dancer 170 White Weasel - Ponca 172 The Whip - Ponca 174 First Walker - Ponca 176 Kicha - Comanche 182 Pakewa - Comanche 184 Comanche mothers 186 A little Comanche 188 {view image of page xi} Comanche footwear 190 A Comanche child 192 A Comanche girl 194 Wilbur Peebo - Comanche 196 The story-teller - Ponca 200 White Deer - Ponca 202 Oscar Makes Cry - Ponca 204 Frame of peyote sweat-lodge 206 Altar peyote with rattle - Osage 208 A Cheyenne peyote leader 210 {view image of page xii} Alphabet Used in Recording Indian Terms [The consonants are as in English, except as otherwise noted] a a a a ai e i I o 0 6 6 u I1 h h h h as in father as in cat as in awl a greatly shortened t as in aisle as in they as in net as in machine as in sit as in old as in not as in how as in oil as in ruin as in nut as in German Hiitte as in push always aspirated not aspirated as ch in German Bach k a non-aspirated k k velar k q hi dl n n P (h Sh t th fs I as kw the surd of 1 fused d and 1 as ng in sing nasal, as in French dans a non-aspirated p as in church as in shall a non-aspirated t as in thin as in thee as in hits a glottal pause stresses enunciation of the preceding consonant superior vowels are voiceless, almost inaudible {view image of page 1} The Indians of Oklahoma VOL. XIX-I {view image of page 2} I {view image of page 3} THE INDIANS OF OKLAHOMA Historical Introduction THE vicissitudes which many of the native tribes experienced in their contact with advancing civilization resulted in the settlement of many of them in the present Oklahoma, where they form nearly a fourth of the Indian population of the United States. Classed by linguistic stocks for the purpose of showing their relationships, these tribes or their remnants are as follow: Algonquian: Arapaho, Cheyenne, Delawares, Illinois Confederacy (Cahokia, Kaskaskia, Peoria), Kickapoo, Miami, Ottawa, Piankashaw, Potawatomi, Sauk and Fox, Shawnee, Wea. Athapascan: Chiricahua Apache, Kiowa Apache, Lipan Apache. Caddoan: Caddo, Pawnee, Wichita, and affiliated bands. Iroquoian: Cherokee, Seneca, Wyandot (Hurons). Kiowan-Tanoan: 1 Kiowa. Lutuamian: Modoc. Muskhogean: Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creeks, Seminole. Shoshonean: Comanche. Siouan: Iowa, Kansa, Osage, Oto and Missouri, Ponca, Quapaw. Tonkawan: Tonkawa. Uchean: Yuchi (with Creeks and Shawnee). Owing to the great wealth derived from oil and minerals, some of the Indians of the state occupy an unparalleled economic position. In a score of years the situation changed from semi-savagery and primitive poverty to idle wealth. Individuals who about twenty years ago were characteristically poor, drawing scant sustenance from limited agriculture and hunting, now ride proudly and arrogantly 1 The Kiowa were supposed to constitute a distinct linguistic family until determined by Mr. John P. Harrington, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, to be related to the Tanoan stock of New Mexico. 3 {view image of page 4} 4 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN about in expensive motors, while chauffeurs are employed to care for them. The women have quickly taken advantage of these changed conditions and no Osage woman of standing now thinks of performing any domestic task, white women being employed for the purpose. The future of these wealthy Indians is a matter for serious thought. The unrestricted members of the tribe use their income with no thought of tomorrow; in fact, with rare exceptions they are hopelessly in debt, hence from now onward their incomes will rapidly lessen. The saving feature of the situation is that the restricted members of the Osage are allocated only a part of their income, the remainder being held in reserve. At the present time these restricted Indians derive a per capita income of $4000 a year, and as a result of this wise policy they will receive a similar annuity for many years. On the other hand, in a comparatively short time the unrestricted members will become pauperized, depending for their very existence on what they can wheedle from their restricted fellows. It must not be assumed, however, that all the Indians of Oklahoma are so fortunately situated as the Osage, since many of the tribes occupy lands that produce no oil and must live in the usual Indian way. The so-called Five Civilized Tribes, the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creeks, and Seminole, with an aggregate population of 101,259, including all degrees of admixture, form a substantial part of the population of Oklahoma.1 The Five Civilized Tribes Cherokee Owing to their numerical strength and inherent political sagacity the Cherokee have long been the dominant unit of the Five Civilized Tribes; but it may well be claimed that much of the political wisdom which they have manifested during the last two centuries has been due to the strong infusion of Caucasian blood. History indicates that the Cherokee welcomed rather than discouraged intermarriage with the white race, and, being a powerful and advanced nation, white men desiring Indian wives commonly turned to them. This blending commenced at the time of the earliest contact with the white race before the middle of the sixteenth century, hence in the course of time a considerable infusion of Spanish, French, and Irish resulted. John Ross, the greatest Cherokee chief and leader during later his1 See page 32. {view image of page 5} HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 5 torical times, born October 3, I790, was of only one-fourth Indian blood, while Sequoya, inventor of the Cherokee alphabet, was also a quarter-blood. A minor factor in the disintegration of Cherokee blood was the early mixture with negroes, for slavery was long a Cherokee institution. A close study of these people, however, supports their claim that there was far less blending of Cherokee and negro than occurred between whites and the negro race, similarly situated. Socially the Cherokee and negro did not amalgamate, and, although at the close of the Civil War all slaves were admitted to the tribal rolls and given land allotments, they were neither received into the tribal councils nor considered a part of the body politic. In fact, the Cherokee views the negro in much the same way as did the white slaveowner. In language the Cherokee belong to the Iroquoian stock. When visited by De Soto in 1540 they were in possession of the southern Allegheny region; and tradition indicates that even then they occupied a territory south of their original habitat. Not many generations before the coming of white men, it is related, they resided on the southern shores of Lake Erie and that from the beginning of historic times their movements have been ever southward and westward. By I690 their relations with the Carolina government began, with the inevitable attrition that always resulted between Indians and whites, so that in I759, under the leadership of the celebrated Oconostota, war was waged against the colonists and continued almost uninterruptedly for thirty-five years, so that during the Revolution the Cherokee espoused the British cause. Contention also arose between the conservative and the progressive elements of the tribe, and to rid themselves of pressure, some of the former, under Dangerous Man, migrated at an unknown date west of the Mississippi, ultimately becoming known as the "Lost Cherokee." During and following the Revolution other parties pushed down the Tennessee river to the Tennessee-Alabama boundary, to be followed by others, who migrated beyond the Mississippi and established themselves in the wilds of Arkansas, at first by permission of the Spanish government, where they remained in peace until the ultimate Louisiana Purchase in I803 placed the Indians again under American jurisdiction; but until 1822 there was constant conflict with the Osage, into whose domain the Cherokee had intruded. In 1736 Christian Priber, probably a Jesuit, established a mission among the Cherokee, and shortly after the opening of the nineteenth century missionary and educational work became so active and such {view image of page 6} 6 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN marked advance was made that in 1820 the Cherokee adopted a form of government modeled after that of the United States. In the following year George Guess, Gist, or Guest, known also as Sequoya (Sikwayi), an unlettered quarter-blood, after twelve years of labor submitted to the chief men of the nation a syllabary which he had devised for recording the Cherokee language, and on their approval the Cherokee of all ages set about to learn it with such zeal that, after a few months, thousands were able to read and write their own language. The new method was introduced by Sequoya among the Arkansas Cherokee in 1822, and parts of the Bible were translated and printed in the Sequoya characters by 1824; four years later The Cherokee Phaenix, a weekly newspaper, began to appear, and the Cherokee were on the high-road to complete civilization. At the height of their prosperity gold was discovered in 1815 near the present Dahlonega, Georgia, within the domain of the Cherokee Nation, resulting, as has ever been the case in similar circumstances, in a powerful agitation for the removal of the Indians. After years of struggle under the leadership of John Ross, the Cherokee were compelled to yield to the inevitable, and by the treaty of New Echota, Georgia, December 29, 1835, they parted with what remained of their territory in the South after various treaties of cession, beginning in 1785, negotiated to sate the avarice of white men, and agreed to remove beyond the Mississippi to a tract to be set aside for them - the later Cherokee Nation in Indian Territory (Oklahoma). The removal was not accomplished until I838-I839, after untold hardships and the loss of nearly a fourth of the unwilling seventeen thousand who were driven from their homes by military force to take the long "trail of death" for a distance of almost six hundred miles, mostly afoot and for the greater part in midwinter. James Mooney, who forty years ago gleaned much information from the lips of actors in the tragedy, spoke of the removal as one that "may well exceed in weight of grief and pathos any other passage in American history"; while a Georgia volunteer, afterward a colonel in the Confederate service, said, "I fought through the Civil War and have seen men shot to pieces and slaughtered by thousands, but the Cherokee removal was the cruelest work I ever knew."' The early years in the new surroundings were marked by discord and strife. The Cherokee of the West, or "Arkansas Cherokee," who also were known as the "Old Settlers," had been on the ground 1 Mooney, Myths of the Cherokee, Eighteenth Annual Report Bureau of American Ethnology, page I30, Washington, I900. {view image of page 7} HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 7 for years under previous treaties. Unwilling to be overwhelmed by the numerically superior newcomers, an attachment was formed with the minority treaty party under Major Ridge against the national party under Ross, and so intense did the jealousies become that Ridge, his son John, and Elias Boudinot, all leaders of the treaty party, were killed on June 22, 1839, in accordance with the Cherokee law which regarded as treason the ceding of tribal lands except by act of the national council. But the troubles were gradually dispelled and the Cherokee were ultimately reunited by the adoption, on September 6, I839, of a new constitution and the establishment of the Cherokee Nation. From an economic point of view the Cherokee made good progress during the first two decades in the new country. Lands were broken and cultivated, homes were established, and stock-raising flourished. But this prosperity was to be short-lived, for the clouds of the Civil War were gathering. In addition to the lingering resentment of the injustice that had been dealt them by the Federal government, there were among the Cherokee many slaveholders, the majority of whom were either mixed-bloods or white men who had married into the nation. Nevertheless, John Ross and most of those of full-blood favored loyalty to the Union, and for a while he was successful in his efforts to have the council vote for neutrality. The old Ridge adherents, with the mixed-bloods, however, after a great mass-meeting decided to cast their lot with the Confederacy, an influential factor in this decision being the failure of the Government to pay the annuities due under treaty stipulations. The years of the Civil War were disastrous to these unfortunate people. The Confederacy failed to keep its promises; the country was raided and pillaged by the armies of both sides, Cherokee fields were destroyed, stock stolen, homes burned. By the close of 1862 the Cherokee had grown more than weary of their alliance with the Confederacy; in February, 1863, the council voted to withdraw from the Southern cause, to ally the nation with the Union, and to free all slaves. This action, however, did not change the attitude of Stand Watie (Degattgag), leader of the Southern adherents and bitter opponent of Ross, for with his followers he continued actively in the strife even after the surrender of General Lee, his handful of followers for a while constituting the entire Confederate army. At the close of the war the Indian Territory was a land of desolation. Thousands of Indians had died of hardship and starvation; ash-heaps were all that remained to show where homes had stood; {view image of page 8} 8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN live-stock had disappeared, farms were no more. Yet with all their sufferings they had a further blow to face. Again in absolute control, and following its usual policy of making as good a bargain as possible with the Indians, the Government now stipulated that before the Cherokee and other tribes could be forgiven for their erstwhile disloyalty and brought into the Federal fold, they must part with large tracts of land for the use of other Indians whom the Government desired to settle in the Indian Territory, as well as of their slaves, who now had their freedom and must be adopted as a part of the tribal entity - a bitter dose indeed, considering the attitude of the Indians toward their negro bondmen. At the opening of the Civil War the Cherokee slaves alone numbered more than five thousand. Seminole The Seminole, who emigrated to Florida about the middle of the eighteenth century, consisted chiefly of descendants of Hitchiti and Creeks of the Lower Creek towns, with a considerable number of Upper Creeks after the Creek War of I813-14 against the Americans, together with the remnants of Yamasee and other conquered tribes, Yuchi, and a large negro element from runaway slaves. While still under Spanish rule the Seminole became involved in hostility with the United States, particularly in the War of 1812, and again in 1817-18, the latter being known as the first Seminole war. Florida passed from Spain to the United States in I8I9, and four years later, at the treaty of Camp Moultrie on September I8, the Seminole ceded most of their lands except a central reservation. But by reason of pressure by the border population for their complete removal beyond the Mississippi and their settlement among the Creeks, another treaty, as fraudulent as any that blackens the history of our relations with the Indians, was negotiated by James Gadsden, under instructions of President Jackson, at Payne's Landing on May 9, I832. The dire need of the Indians at the time was used as a cudgel to force its signing, not by Micanopy, the recognized chief of the tribe, nor by any others of authority or note, but by Halpatter Micco, known also as Billy Bowlegs, a youthful and almost unknown sub-chief who is said to have been flattered or bribed into appending his mark. Nevertheless, the treaty specifically provided that it was not to be binding upon the Indians until the exploring party which they were to send West in search of a home had returned and reported favorably. {view image of page 9} HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 9 Jackson now appointed a commission which seemed to have been empowered with varied authority. In the spring of 1833 it negotiated at Fort Gibson, in the present Oklahoma, a treaty with the seven Seminole representatives who had been sent West by the tribe to seek a new home and not to conclude an exchange for one until they had reported to their constituents in Florida. Notwithstanding this, the commissioners prevailed on these delegates to sign away the birthright of their people by negotiating a new treaty which practically gave immediate force to that of Payne's Landing the year before. This third treaty was destined to go down in the annals as the direct cause of the second Seminole war. The allotted three years from the time of the fraudulent but now effective treaty of Payne's Landing in 1832, when the Seminole were to be removed, was extended six months, thus giving further opportunity for the cauldron to seethe, especially when it was decided at a tribal council about the close of the year to retain possession of their country at all hazards and to condemn to death all opposed to this view of the majority. In consequence of this vow, Charley Amathla, chief of the Wetumpka band, visioning the inevitable, commenced to bring in his cattle to the agent preparatory to the removal, and paid the threatened penalty on November 26. The money in his possession was forbidden by a forceful young Seminole to be touched, declaring that "it was the blood of the Indian." This young man was Osceola, who boldly had threatened the chiefs friendly to the whites and was so undisguised in his threats and insults toward General Wiley Thompson, the agent, that his imprisonment ensued. "The sun is so high; I shall remember the hour!" declared Osceola. "The agent has his say; I will have mine!" Said to have been a master of dissimulation during his incarceration, Osceola was granted his liberty on condition that he promise to throw no further obstacles in the way of the agent, but would meet the friendly chiefs in council and subscribe to the treaty. His promise was redeemed; but he had not forgotten his declaration. On December 28 Thompson and Lieutenant Constantine Smith were murdered within sight of Fort King, near the present Ocala, by a band of fifty or sixty Mikasuki warriors led by Osceola, whose threat of vengeance was now fulfilled. On the same day a body of I80 of his warriors set out to meet the command of Major Francis L. Dade, who was advancing from Fort Brooke, now Tampa, with I39 men and having a six-pound field-piece and a wagon with ten days' provisions. Dade did not live to know that there was now imminent a war that would VOL. XIX-2 {view image of page 10} IO THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN drag through nearly seven years. A negro slave, enlisted as a guide, proved the traitor by informing the Indians of the intended march, so without a sound of warning they ambushed the unsuspecting soldiers in the palmettos on the line of march and before the bloody encounter was over only four had escaped to tell the awful story.' After the massacre of Dade's command, Osceola secreted the women, children, and old men in the depths of a swamp where the troops were unable to find them, then turned his energy to the complete desolation of the country between Fort Brooke and Fort King, and to harassing the Government forces whenever and whereever they made their appearance. Beginning with General Gaines, one after another officer was placed in charge of the army sent against this intrepid warrior and his followers, who were far outnumbered by the invading forces. But they were successively baffled, owing largely to the physical character of the Seminole country and to insurmountable difficulties in transporting supplies. In June, 1837, some of the chiefs intimated a willingness to submit, and after negotiations declared their intention to emigrate, requesting a cessation of hostilities until they could bring in their people. This was granted, and Micanopy and some others were delivered as hostages; but after a few days they were forcibly rescued by Osceola and others, and the war was resumed with its former vigor. In the autumn a similar stratagem was attempted, when General Hernandez, heading a band of volunteers, captured Philip (Eemathla or Neamathla), a prominent chief, which opened another negotiation. Coacochee, son of Philip, had been captured, but at Philip's request General Jesup had sent him out with messages to the chiefs and warriors, and he returned to Fort Peyton about November 17 with Osceola, John Cavallo, and most of the others concerned in the abduction. The Indians were avowedly friendly, but could not be prevailed on to enter the fort; rather they sent a message to Hernandez requesting a meeting without an escort, with the assurance that he would be perfectly safe. In other words, the Indians had come bearing a flag of truce; but by reason of the abduction of Micanopy under his very nose, Jesup had lost faith in them, whereupon he 1 Among the Creeks and the related tribes from which the Seminole had sprung, certain rites were performed in which the so-called black drink, brewed from Ilex cassine, called "Carolina tea" and in the Muscogee language assi-luputski, "small leaves," was drunk for ceremonial purification and for producing the disordered imagination necessary to "spiritual power." In these ceremonies the attendant sings a long-drawn "Yah6lo!" while each man successively drinks the assi. Thus we have the origin of the name of our warrior, Assi-yaholo, which in the mouths of the whites became "Osceola." {view image of page 11} HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION II directed Hernandez to meet the Indians only with a strong escort, and while the council was in progress, the Indians were surrounded by a squadron of dragoons and made prisoners, an act condemned as inexcusable treachery by the very public that had urged Jesup on and gaining for Osceola widespread sympathy. Osceola and the other captives, with members of the tribe numbering 250 in all, were taken to Fort Mellon, Florida, thence to Fort Moultrie at Charleston, South Carolina, where they were incarcerated and where Osceola was soon regarded as the hero of the war. While thus imprisoned, Osceola suffered a violent attack of quinsy, and was nursed to the end with great solicitude and tenderness by his two wives, who had accompanied him. He died January 30, 1838, probably less than thirty-five years of age, and was buried at the fort, where a monument was placed over his grave. Those of the Seminole who did not succeed in hiding in the Florida swamps were settled on Creek lands in Indian Territory in 1842 and became a part of the Creek Nation, an arrangement not entirely unsatisfactory, for, being in the minority, the Seminole had little voice in administrative affairs. A few of the restless spirits later made a journey to Mexico in the hope of finding a more desirable home, but returned after a fruitless search. In 1856, by a new treaty, they were given a separate reservation and established their own tribal government, under the name Seminole Nation, as one of the Five Civilized Tribes, but this came to an end in I906. Creeks The Creeks, or Maskokalgi (singular, Maskogi), whose habitat at the beginning of the period of Caucasian contact included most of the present Alabama and Georgia, parted with some of their territory to Great Britain in colonial times, and by various treaties with the United States, beginning in I790, ceded several vast areas of their domain. By a deal between Georgia and the Federal government in consideration of the relinquishment by that state of its claim to the Mississippi territories, the United States in I802 engaged ultimately to extinguish the Indian title to lands within the Georgia borders, in pursuance of which a cession of millions of acres of Creek lands were transferred in I805. The people of the state constantly clamored for the fulfilment by the Government of its compact, and the Creeks, now alarmed at the prospective wholesale alienation of their ancient domain, in 18II enacted a law forbidding the sale of any of the re {view image of page 12} I2 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN maining land under penalty of death. In 1814, following the Creek war, in which Jackson took a prominent part, the Creeks were compelled by treaty to part with the equivalent of an empire in Georgia and Alabama, the Government thereby exacting payment of the expense of conducting its part of the hostilities. Constantly urged by Jackson, the people of Georgia continued to insist that all Indians be driven from the state, in consequence of which more lands were relinquished by the Creeks in I8i8. In 1821 the Georgians negotiated another treaty, acting on the part of the United States, with William Macintosh, a Scotch-Creek half-breed in the pay of the whites, and a dozen other chiefs controlled by him, while thirty-six other chiefs refused to sign, making clear to the commissioners the irregularity of a cession arranged with a party representing only a tenth of the nation, which to be legal must have the consent of the entire nation assembled in council. After an attempt by Macintosh two years later to make further cessions, the law punishing with death any Creek who offered to cede more land was reenacted in I824, when three-fifths of the tribal holdings of 25,000,000 acres had been alienated. In February, 1825, at Indian Springs, Georgian commissioners, working on the avarice of Macintosh, induced him and his followers to set their names to a treaty ceding what remained of the Creek domain, but, although confirmed by Congress a month later, a subsequent treaty, January 24, 1826, declared the negotiations of I825 to be null and void. Macintosh paid the penalty for his perfidy when, on May I, 1825, a party of warriors surrounded his house and shot him and a companion as they tried to escape. Two other signers of the iniquitous treaty negotiated with the Georgians were also executed under the law which MacIntosh himself had originally proposed. By the treaty of 1826 and a supplementary treaty in the following year the Creeks parted with their last holdings in Georgia and agreed to remove to the Indian Territory on lands of adequate extent to be acquired for them by the Government. By a treaty in 1832 their remaining lands in Alabama were relinquished, and between I836 and I840 they were removed to Indian Territory. Choctaw and Chickasaw The Choctaw and Chickasaw, whose late historic habitat was the present state of Mississippi, suffered the same experience as the other Civilized Tribes in ceding their lands little by little, finally signing {view image of page 13} HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION I3 treaties in I830 and I832 respectively, relinquishing all their holdings east of the Mississippi and agreeing to move to Indian Territory where they became members of the so-called Five Civilized Tribes. Far advanced in the ways of civilization even before their removal, and largely permeated with Spanish, French, and Scotch-Irish, the Choctaw and Chickasaw have continued to advance, amalgamate, and become a part of the body politic of the state and of the nation, a striking forecast of the ultimate solution of what is now regarded as the Indian problem. Yuchi The Uchean linguistic stock is represented by a single tribe, the Yuchi. Their early habitat seems to have been about the midcourse of the Savannah river, Georgia, extending to some distance on each side, and they are known to have had also a settlement on Tennessee river. Historically they have been associated with the Creek Nation, though the status of the relationship is one of divided opinion. One is that they were in confederacy with the Creeks but did not mix with them; another that they were continually at war with the Cherokee, Catawba, and Creeks. The Creeks themselves claim to have subjugated them and regarded them as slaves. However that may be, the Yuchi participated with the Creeks in 1813 in the war against the United States, in consequence of which their villages were destroyed. The Yuchi were removed with the Creeks in I836 to the present Oklahoma, where the main body of their descendants live with the Creek Nation. A part resides with the Shawnee, being designated as the Shawano Yuchi. Algonquian Tribes The tribes of the Algonquian linguistic family removed to the present Oklahoma consist of the Arapaho, Cahokia, Cheyenne, Delawares, Kickapoo, Kaskaskia, Miami, Ottawa, Peoria, Piankashaw, Potawatomi, Sauk and Fox, Shawnee, and Wea. The early historic habitat of most of these tribes, some of them now represented by little more than their names, was the region of the Great Lakes. The Cheyenne and Arapaho, however, came originally from the Red River valley of Minnesota, while the Shawnee dwelt along Cumberland river in Tennessee and Kentucky, and the range of the Delawares, or Lenape, extended over southern New York, {view image of page 14} I4 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN New Jersey, eastern Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Through wars with French and British, against other tribes and amongst themselves, which sometimes were waged almost to the point of extermination, the Algonquian tribes of the Midwest were gradually forced across the Mississippi into the region of the present Kansas and Iowa, where they found a brief resting-place. When the Civil War had passed and white settlers were crowding into the West, these tribes were found to occupy highly desirable lands, which, as always, were coveted by the intruding whites. As the Government policy of placing as many Indians as possible on reservations in Indian Territory had become well established, Indians everywhere became more and more unpopular as the whites advanced and settled the new country, hence the cry everywhere arose that the Indians must be removed. They were in the white man's way. If the Indians resented the interference, killing often followed, and a general attack was a common result. In one treaty alone, in 1867, the Seneca, Miami, Hurons, Ottawa, Confederated Peoria, Wea, Piankashaw, and Kaskaskia ceded their lands in Kansas and were removed to the present Ottawa county, Oklahoma. Largely by reason of their environment, such tribes as the Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Kickapoo developed the Plains culture, while others show an intermingling of the cultures of the Plains and the Northern Woodlands. Arapaho By tradition the Arapaho once lived about the Red River valley of northern Minnesota. Historically they have been allied with the Cheyenne from about the beginning of the nineteenth century. One branch of the Arapaho, the Atsina, after entering the Dakota plains, drifted up the Missouri, there joining the Assiniboin. The Atsina, now known as Gros Ventres, formerly Gros Ventres of the Prairie and Minnetarees of the Prairie to distinguish them from the Hidatsa or Gros Ventres of the Missouri, are at the Fort Belknap agency, Montana. The main tribe of Arapaho, however, migrated in a southerly direction to the Black Hills of South Dakota, this movement probably being accelerated by the numerically superior Sioux. A split occurred in the band about 1835, when they moved southward from Platte river. Part of the Cheyenne and part of the Arapaho departed down the Arkansas river, while the rest remained about the head of the North Platte. Since that time the two divisions have been known as Southern and Northern Arapaho respectively. The Northern {view image of page 15} HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 15 Arapaho, who are now on Wind River reservation in Wyoming, are considered to be the main body, since they have retained all their tribal religious paraphernalia. The Southern Arapaho, together with the Southern Cheyenne, were placed on a reservation in Indian Territory in 1867; in I892 they accepted allotments and their surplus lands were opened to settlement. Illinois Confederacy The Illinois Confederacy, once occupying southern Wisconsin, Illinois, and parts of Arkansas, Iowa, and Missouri, consisted of the Cahokia, Kaskaskia, Michigamea, Moingwena, Peoria, and Tamaroa tribes, the names of most of which have been indelibly impressed on the geography of the general region. Almost the only knowledge of these confederated tribes of earlier times is that recorded by Jesuit and other French explorers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and while these are indefinite as to the location of the various villages at the period of the first contact, the major portion of the tribes resided chiefly on Illinois river, where nearly all of them later settled for protection against the hostilities of the Foxes, Sioux, and other northern tribes, and later of the Iroquois, the result of which, together with the ravages of liquor, greatly reduced their numbers. In i680 they were said to number 6500, but by I750 there were only I500 to 2000. The murder by a Kaskaskia of the famous Ottawa leader Pontiac, in I769, provoked the vengeance of the tribes of the Great Lakes, in consequence of which a war of extermination was begun, which in a few years reduced the Illinois to a mere handful who sought refuge with the French at Kaskaskia, while the Sauk, Foxes, Kickapoo, and Potawatomi took possession of their lands. In 1778 the Kaskaskia, numbering 2IO, lived in a village near Kaskaskia, Illinois, while the Peoria and Michigamea together numbered I70 in a village on the Mississippi farther up. The Foxes claim to have annihilated the Peoria for the help they gave the French and other tribes in the wars against the Foxes. The Moingwena were probably absorbed by the Peoria about the year 1700, while the Tamaroa became extinguished as a tribe about the beginning of the nineteenth century. In 1832 the remnant tribes of the old confederacy sold what was left of their lands in Illinois and Missouri, and under the names Peoria and Kaskaskia were assigned a reservation on Osage river, Kansas, where they were joined in 1854 by the Wea and Piankashaw. In I868 the entire body was removed to Indian Territory. {view image of page 16} I6 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Ottawa and Potawatomi The earliest historical home of the Ottawa was along the north and south shores of Georgian bay and on Manitoulin island in Lake Huron. By tradition, the Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi were formerly one people who came from north of the Great Lakes and separated at Mackinaw, Michigan. After the destruction of the Hurons in I648-I649, the Iroquois turned their arms against the Ottawa, who, always better traders than warriors, fled with a remnant of the Hurons to the islands at Green bay, where they were cordially received by the Potawatomi. Soon afterward a part moved to Keweenaw bay, while another band fled with some Hurons to the Mississippi and settled on an island near the entrance of Lake Pepin, Minnesota, whence, harassed by the Sioux, they were driven north to Black river, Wisconsin, where the Hurons built a fort, while the Ottawa pushed eastward and settled on Chaquamegon bay. Again beset by the Sioux and promised protection by the French, they returned in I670-I67I to Manitoulin island, but by I680 most of them had joined the Hurons at Mackinaw. About the year I700 a portion of the Ottawa obtained a foothold on the west shore of Lake Huron between Saginaw bay and Detroit, where they were joined in I706 by the band which had moved to the southeastern part of the lower peninsula of Michigan. Soon after, the chief seat of a portion of the Ottawa was at L'Arbre Croche on Lake Michigan, whence they spread in every direction - to the eastern shore of the lake, to southern Wisconsin, and northeastern Illinois. A prominent event in Ottawa history was the Pontiac War of I763, waged chiefly around Detroit. The Canadian branches of the tribe are now on Walpole island in Lake St. Clair, others are on Manitoulin and Cockburn islands and the adjacent shores of Lake Huron. The Ottawa lands on the west shore of Lake Michigan were ceded and their occupants removed to Kansas under the provisions of the treaty of 1833; those who had settled in Ohio were removed west of the Mississippi in 1832 and with the others were ultimately established in Indian Territory. The main body, however, remain in the lower peninsula of Michigan, where they are scattered in a number of small settlements. The Potawatomi, when first known, resided on the islands and at the head of Green bay, Wisconsin, having separated from their congeners the Ottawa and Chippewa about the upper end of Lake Huron, about three centuries ago. Like the Ottawa they were compelled to {view image of page 17} HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION I7 flee before the Sioux; in I670 some of them were reported to be moving southward from their old Green Bay habitat, and by the close of the century were established on Milwaukee river, at Chicago, and on St. Joseph river, chiefly in territory that had been inhabited by the Miami. About 1765 they took possession of the lands of the defeated tribes of the Illinois Confederacy, in the present Illinois, northeast of the region seized by the Sauk, Foxes, and Kickapoo, at the same time spreading over southern Michigan and gradually approaching the Wabash, there encroaching on Miami territory. By the beginning of the nineteenth century they were in possession of the country around the head of Lake Michigan from Milwaukee river, Wisconsin, to Grand river, Michigan, extending over a large part of Illinois eastward across Lake Michigan to Lake Erie, and southward in Indiana to the Wabash. They were allies of the French to the peace of I7I3, were prominent in the Pontiac War, and in the Revolution took arms against the United States and continued hostilities until the Greenville treaty of I795. They espoused the British cause also in the War of I812. Pressed by advancing civilization, most of them gradually sold their lands in I836-I84I and were removed to Iowa and Kansas, but in 1846 were united on a reservation in southern Kansas, where they remained until I868, when they were taken to Indian Territory and settled on a reservation with the Absentee Shawnee. A large part of the Potawatomi living in Indiana, however, refusing to leave their homes, were driven out, a part of them settling on Walpole island in Lake St. Clair. A part of the Potawatomi still live in Wisconsin and another body in lower Michigan. Sauk and Foxes The Sauk and Fox tribes have long been intimately associated. The traditional home of the former was in lower Michigan, but when first known to the French, in the latter half of the seventeenth century, they had joined the Foxes in the vicinity of Lake Winnebago or along Fox river in eastern Wisconsin, having been driven by the Chippewa from the southern shores of Lake Superior not very long before. In character the Foxes were not only warlike, but were regarded by their neighbors as stingy, avaricious, thieving, passionate, quarrelsome, and brave. They engendered an intense hatred toward the French because the latter aided the Chippewa and other enemies by supplying them firearms; indeed so bitter was the enmity that the French seriously considered their extermination. The Foxes formed VOL. XIX-3 {view image of page 18} i8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN an alliance with the Iroquois in the seventeenth century and often were joined by the Sioux in their hostilities against the Indian allies of the French, especially the Chippewa. It was this tribe that in 1712 planned the attack on the fort at Detroit, which would have been destroyed but for the bravery of Buisson, its commandant. They were almost constantly at war with the tribes of the Illinois confederacy, and with the aid of the Sauk finally succeeded in driving them from a large part of their country, of which they took possession. But the power of the Foxes was ultimately broken by the combined Chippewa, Menomini, Potawatomi, and French, and before the middle of the eighteenth century they lived at Little Butte des Morts on Fox river above Green bay, where they exacted tribute from all traders who put ashore until a force of French and Indians, after severely punishing the Foxes, drove them down Wisconsin river, where they settled about twenty miles above the mouth. About 1780, in alliance with the Sioux, they attacked the Chippewa at St. Croix falls, when the Foxes were almost exterminated. The remnant incorporated with the Sauk, and, although officially regarded as one, the two tribes have preserved their identity. Starting in traditional times from the shores of Saginaw bay (which derived its name from this tribe), the Sauk retreated northwestward across Mackinac strait into northern Michigan, thence westward around Green bay and Fox river, where they were first found by early French explorers. The alliance of the Sauk and Foxes, and of the latter with the Sioux when occasion demanded, did not prevent the expatriated Hurons from corrupting the Sauk and Foxes to join them in an expedition against the Sioux in 1671-1672, which resulted in a rout for the allied warriors and great loss to the Sauk. In 1721, still resident on Green bay, Wisconsin, they became separated into two factions, of which one was attached to the Foxes and the other to the Potawatomi and the French. In 1728 the Sauk and other tribes were at war with the Foxes. In I733 the Sauk gave asylum to some refugee Foxes in their village near the present Green Bay; when their surrender was demanded by the French, the Sauk resisted and in a fight repulsed the French and their Indian allies. Evacuating their fort, the Sauk and Foxes were pursued and overtaken by the French, probably at Little Butte des Morts, near the present Appleton, and after several hours of fighting the Indians were defeated after considerable losses on both sides. This action led to the close confederation of the Sauk and Foxes, above referred to, and to their removal to the country of the Iowa west of the Mississippi, {view image of page 19} HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION I9 from which time they became commonly known as the Sauk and Fox tribe. A Sauk band later known as the Missouri River Sauk had been in the habit of wintering near St. Louis. About I804 the headmen of this band were induced to enter into negotiations with Government officials whereby the Sauk and Foxes were to relinquish all claim to lands in Wisconsin, Illinois, and Missouri. This so incensed the Foxes that they gradually withdrew from the Sauk and in the course of a generation had moved to their hunting-grounds in Iowa. Although agreements were made with the three bands before the other negotiations were put in effect, the discontent developed thereby and the general unrest of the tribes of the region resulted in the Black Hawk War in 1832, in which the hostilities were not so much against the Government as between the Sauk on the one hand and the Sioux, Omaha, and Menomini on the other. The Sauk, thoroughly beaten, sought refuge among the Foxes in Iowa, where, although now broken in power but not in spirit, the two tribes united to avenge themselves against the Sioux, Omaha, and Menomini, whom they chastised so severely that the Sioux and Menomini left Iowa forever. In 1837 the Sauk and Foxes exchanged their Iowa lands for a tract across the Missouri river in Kansas, where they lived as one people for twenty years. But internal dissensions, due largely to Keokuk, arose, which caused them to drift apart and to live in separate villages. Then, to make bad matters worse, about 1857-1859 the leading Foxes, returning from a buffalo-hunt, found that the Sauk during their absence had been tricked into making a treaty with the Government to take up their lands in severalty and to sell the remainder. Thoroughly disgusted, many of the Foxes left for Iowa, where finally they found a place on Iowa river, near Tama, where they bought a small piece of land, since increased to about 3000 acres, which they hold in common. In 1867 the Sauk and the remaining Foxes in Kansas ceded their lands and were given a tract in Indian Territory (Oklahoma); in 1891 they took up lands in severalty and sold the remainder to the Government. The Sauk and Fox reservation is just west of the territory of the Creek Indians, between the North Canadian and Cimarron rivers. Shawnee From a historical point of view the Shawnee were one of the most important tribes of the Algonquian family, for they early came in contact with the colonists and had important relations with the American government after the Revolution. They are closely related {view image of page 20} 20 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN in dialect to the Sauk and Foxes. According to Delaware tradition the Shawnee were originally one with the Delawares and the Nanticoke, the separation having taken place after the expulsion of the Cherokee from the north, when the Shawnee migrated southward. According to their own traditions they lived originally in the Cumberland basin of Tennessee, with an outlying colony on the Savannah (i.e., Shawano, Shawnee) river in South Carolina. In these regions they first became known to white people in 1669-1670, when the two divisions were separated by the Cherokee, their friends at that time, both tribes being enemies of the Catawba and others. The Carolina Shawnee were on amicable terms with the British in the late years of the seventeenth and the early part of the eighteenth century, although they bore the reputation of being warlike by nature. Dissatisfied, however, with the later attitude of the English, who favored their Catawba enemies at their own expense, and owing also to Catawba pressure, the Shawnee gradually removed to the north, beginning about 1677 and continuing for about thirty years, settling in Virginia and Maryland during this migration, then in Pennsylvania, where in I70I they made a treaty with William Penn. In 1694 about 700 of them settled with the Munsee on Delaware river, Pennsylvania, at the mouth of the Lehigh and as far down as the Schuylkill, while others joined the Mahican. Here peace was made with the Iroquois, and after some years those who had settled on the Delaware river removed to the Wyoming valley; in I742 they were joined by the Delawares and Munsee who were forced to leave the Delaware valley. The Shawnee at Wyoming on the Susquehanna, owing to missionary influence, remained neutral for some time during the French and Indian War, which began in I754, although their relatives on the Ohio became allies of the French. But a year or two later the Shawnee on the Susquehanna joined their relatives on the Ohio, as others in Pennsylvania had done from time to time, and thus espoused the French cause. Meanwhile the Shawnee body on the Cumberland river of Tennessee and Kentucky preceded the Carolina Shawnee to the region of the upper Ohio river. This movement commenced about I7I4 in consequence of war with the Cherokee, their former allies, aided by the Chickasaw, an enmity that was not terminated until the Shawnee and the Delawares in the north combined against the Cherokee and compelled them to sue for peace. The migration was gradual. They stopped for some time at points in Kentucky, and also probably in Illinois, but finally, about I730, settled by permission of the Wyandot {view image of page 21} HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 21 on the Ohio river in Ohio and Pennsylvania from the Allegheny to the Scioto. In 1748 this branch of the tribe was said to number about 600. A few years later they were joined by their kindred of the Susquehanna. Until the treaty of Greenville in I795, the Shawnee were almost constantly at war with the English or the Americans, and great was their destruction on the frontier during that period of forty years. After the Revolution a large number joined the hostile Cherokee and Creeks, while in 1793 a considerable body, by invitation of the Spanish government, settled in Missouri, where they were later joined by others. In 1798 some of the Ohio Shawnee settled in Indiana by invitation of the Delawares. A few years later the Shawnee Prophet, a medicine-man, brother of the celebrated Tecumseh, began to preach a new doctrine among the tribes of that region. His followers rapidly increased and they established themselves in a village at the mouth of Tippecanoe river, Indiana. The Prophet's intentions becoming hostile, a force was sent against him under General William Henry Harrison in I8II, resulting in the total defeat of the Indians in the battle of Tippecanoe. Tecumseh, endeavoring to enlist their aid against the United States, was then among the Creeks, but returned in time to take command of the northwestern tribes in the British interest in the War of I812. The death of Tecumseh in the battle of the Thames, near Chatham, Ontario, October 5, 1813, broke the spirit of the tribes whose confederation he had attempted to organize. In 1825 the Shawnee sold their Missouri lands and removed to a reservation in Kansas, after a large part of them had migrated to the Sabine river in Texas but were driven out in 1839. The Shawnee of Ohio sold their remaining lands in 1831 and joined those in Kansas. A large part of the tribe left Kansas about 1845 and settled on Canadian river, Indian Territory (Oklahoma), where they are now known as Absentee Shawnee. In 1867 some Shawnee living with the Seneca removed also from Kansas to Indian Territory and are now known as Eastern Shawnee; while those known as Black Bob's Band at first refused to remove from Kansas but later joined the others. In 1869 the main body became incorporated with the Cherokee Nation. Delawares At one time the Delawares, or Lenape, formed a confederacy, the most important of the Algonquian stock, consisting of the Munsee, Unami, and Unalachtigo divisions, speaking different dialects and occupying the basin of the Delaware river in eastern Pennsylvania and {view image of page 22} 22 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN southeastern New York, and also most of New Jersey and Delaware. According to tribal tradition the Delawares had a common origin with the Nanticoke, Conoy, Shawnee, and Mahican. When they made their first treaty with William Penn in 1682 their council fire was at Shackamaxon, about the present Germantown, Pennsylvania. One of their great chiefs at this period was Tamanend, from whom the Tammany Society takes its name. In 1720 the Iroquois assumed dominion over them. This condition lasted until about the opening of the French and Indian War. Encroachments by the whites forced them across the mountains; by 1724 the first of them settled on Allegheny river, and by I742 the main body located on the Susquehanna, at Wyoming and other points. Owing to Iroquois pressure and by invitation of the Hurons they commenced to form settlements in eastern Ohio, and in a short time the greater part of the Delawares, together with the Munsee (often referred to as distinct) and Mahican, had become established on the Muskingum and other streams of that region. Being now within reach of the French and supported by the western tribes, the Delawares were enabled to cast off the Iroquois yoke, and up to the treaty of Greenville in I795 they were the most determined opponents of the advancing whites. By permission of the Miami and Piankashaw, about I770, they settled in the country between the Ohio and White rivers in Indiana, and with the sanction of the Spanish Government in 1789 a part of them, together with some Shawnee, moved to Missouri and later to Arkansas. By I820 the two bands had found their way to Texas, where at that time the Delawares numbered about 700. By I835 most of the tribe had been gathered on a reservation in Kansas, whence they were removed in 1867 to Indian Territory (Oklahoma) and incorporated with the Cherokee Nation. Another band is affiliated with the Caddo and Wichita in western Oklahoma, and in addition there are a few scattered remnants in the United States and several hundred in Canada where they are known as Delawares, Munsee, and Moravians. Kickapoo In history the Kickapoo, who have a close ethnic and linguistic connection with the Sauk and Foxes, first appeared about the middle of the seventeenth century between Fox and Wisconsin rivers in Wisconsin. After taking part in the destruction of the Illinois Confederacy about 1765, they moved southward, establishing headquarters at the site of Peoria, Illinois. Gradually extending their range, a {view image of page 23} HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 23 portion, centring around Sangamon river, became known as the Prairie Band, while a part, ranging east to the Wabash river, were designated the Vermilion Band. This tribe with other Mississippi Valley peoples took a prominent part in the Tecumseh uprising in 181 and the Black Hawk War of 1832. In I809 they ceded their lands on Wabash and Vermilion rivers, and ten years later all their claims in central Illinois, and were removed to Missouri and thence to Kansas. About I852 a large party of Kickapoo, together with some Potawatomi, went to Texas and to Mexico where in 1863 they were joined by other dissatisfied Kickapoo. These caused so much annoyance to the border settlements that about half the tribe were induced to settle in Indian Territory in I873. The lands of the Kickapoo were allotted in severalty and the surplus opened to settlement in I895. Since then most of them have moved to Chihuahua and joined the so-called Mexican Kickapoo. Iroquoian Tribes Hurons or Wyandot The original domain of the Hurons was east of Lake Huron in Canada. In 1648, after a long series of wars with the Iroquois, they became involved in a final conflict of extermination, resulting in their complete disorganization and demoralization. The greater portion were either killed or kept in captivity among the several Iroquois tribes, or perished from hunger and exposure in their flight. The refugees, driven ever westward and some even reaching the Sioux country, found asylum amongst many tribes, but wherever they fled they were pursued by the vengeful Iroquois. Finally, by a treaty made in I666 between the French and the Iroquois, the Hurons were allowed to remove to Michilimackinac, Michigan, and later became established at Sandusky, Ohio, and at Detroit. During that time, in spite of greatly reduced numbers, they attained a great degree of influence among the tribes of the Great Lakes and the Ohio river. Historically the Hurons sided with the French during the French and Indian wars, entered the Pontiac War in an effort to dislodge the British from the Great Lakes, and espoused the British cause in the Revolution and the War of I812. After this last conflict a large reservation was set aside for them in northwestern Ohio and southeastern Michigan, in 1815, but four years later a part of this tract was sold, and the remainder was disposed of in 1842 when the Hurons {view image of page 24} 24 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN moved to a large reservation in Wyandotte county, Kansas. By treaty of I855 the Hurons became citizens, but in 1867 tribal relations were reestablished and they moved to northeastern Indian Territory (Oklahoma). Seneca The so-called Seneca in Oklahoma are a remnant of the Erie, Neuter, and Conestoga tribes which had fled, after a disastrous war with the Seneca proper, to the Ohio river where they became known as the Seneca of Sandusky and hence are not true Seneca. They were joined later by some Cayuga who had sold their lands in New York, only to cede these holdings to the Government in 1831 and move to Missouri and Kansas. From here, by treaty of 1867, they were removed to what is now Ottawa county, Oklahoma. Siouan Tribes The Siouan Indians' were and still are one of the most populous linguistic families north of Mexico. The principal body extended from the west bank of the Mississippi northward from the Arkansas, nearly to the Rocky mountains, with the exception of territories claimed by the Pawnee, Arikara, Cheyenne, Blackfeet, Arapaho, Comanche, and Kiowa. The Dakota proper occupied also the eastern side of the Mississippi from the mouth of the Wisconsin to Mille Lacs, Minnesota, while the Winnebago were about the head of Green bay and Lake Winnebago, Wisconsin. Certain other Siouan tribes resided in Canada in the direction of Lake Winnipeg; others were in North Carolina, South Carolina, and the Piedmont region of Virginia; while still others were in Mississippi on the Gulf coast and on Yazoo river. Of the groups now living in Oklahoma, the Chiwere, so-called by James Owen Dorsey, consisting of the Iowa, Oto, and Missouri, separated from the parent Winnebago and moved to the Missouri river from the southern Minnesota region. The Dhegiha group, as named by Dorsey, the present Omaha, Ponca, Kansa, Osage, and Quapaw, were originally a single tribe on the Mississippi river; but a part of them moved downstream, becoming the Quapaw, or "Downstream people"; while others, the Omaha or "Upstream people," migrated northwestward along the river and gradually became segregated. There were wide differences in the habits and customs of the tribes composing the stock. 1 See Volume III. {view image of page 25} HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 25 Iowa, Oto, and Missouri The Chiwere tribes, above noted, according to tradition came with the Winnebago from the region north of the Great Lakes, but the Winnebago stopped on the shores of Lake Michigan in Wisconsin while the others continued southwestward to the Mississippi. Here the Iowa separated from the others and according to tradition migrated successively to the junction of Rock river, Illinois, with the Mississippi, or to the Des Moines above its mouth in Iowa; to southwestern Minnesota; to the mouth of the Platte in Nebraska; thence successively to the headwaters of the Little Platte in Missouri; the west bank of the Mississippi above Des Moines river in Iowa; a short distance farther up the same stream; southwestwardly to Salt river, thence to its extreme headwaters and to the upper part of Chariton river, Iowa; to Grand river, Missouri; to the Missouri river opposite Leavenworth, in Missouri, where they trafficked with traders from St. Louis in skins of beaver, otter, raccoon, deer, and bear. In 1836 they were moved to a reservation in northeastern Kansas, from which they were subsequently removed to central Indian Territory. In I890 their lands were allotted in severalty and the remainder thrown open to settlement. The Oto and Missouri continued westward after separating from the others, reaching the Missouri river at the mouth of Grand river, Missouri. Here the Oto withdrew and moved farther up the Missouri river. The Missouri tribe in I798 was conquered and dispersed by the Sauk and Foxes and their allies. Of the remnant some joined the Kansa, some the Oto, and the rest settled with the Osage. In time they recovered their strength, but later were reduced in numbers by epidemics of smallpox. Again in war they lost to the Osage, and a part joined the Iowa and others the Oto. They accompanied the Oto when they were removed to Indian Territory in 1882 and are officially classed with them. After separating from the Missouri tribe, the Oto moved up the Missouri river as far as the Platte in Nebraska, and later resided on that stream about eighty miles above its mouth, but later were driven southward probably by northern tribes. They were so greatly reduced by war and smallpox that they migrated to and were protected by the Pawnee, the Missouri tribe then being incorporated with them. In i880 a part of the Oto went to the Sauk and Fox reservation in Indian Territory; in 1882 the remainder followed and were placed with the Ponca under the Oakland agency. VOL. XIX-4 {view image of page 26} 26 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Osage Geographically considered, the Osage consisted of three bandsthe Great Osage, the Little Osage, and the Arkansas Band. When first known to the French in the latter half of the seventeenth century they resided on the Osage river, Missouri, and were ever at war with most of the surrounding Indians. The Caddoan tribes feared them, and the Illinois were inveterate enemies. In 1802 a party of the Great Osage migrated to the Arkansas river and have since been known as the Arkansas Band. In 1804 the Great Osage were located by Lewis and Clark on the south bank of Osage river, and the Little Osage about six miles away. In 1808 the Osage ceded the larger part of what is now the State of Missouri, and the northern part of Arkansas; their remaining territory, all of the present Oklahoma north of the Canadian and Arkansas rivers, was later greatly reduced by provisions of the treaty of St. Louis in 1825, of Fort Gibson in the present Oklahoma, in 1839, and of Canville, Kansas, in I865. The limits of the present reservation were established in 1870. By the act of 1906 an equal division of lands and funds of the Osage was provided for. Ponce and Omaha The Ponca and the Omaha have the same language, differing only in some dialectic forms; it approximates the Quapaw rather than the Kansa or the Osage. After the first migration of the entire body of Ponca, Quapaw, Osage, Kansa, and Omaha to the mouth of Osage river, where the Osage settled, the Kansa went up the Missouri while the Ponca and Omaha crossed to the north side and ultimately reached the southwestern part of Minnesota. Defeated by the Sioux, they fled to the present South Dakota and again ascended the Missouri river, this time to the mouth of White river. The Ponca went to the Black Hills in South Dakota, then descended the Missouri river to the Niobrara river in Nebraska, where they remained, while the Omaha settled on Bow creek, Nebraska. The removal of the greater part of the Ponca to Indian Territory took place in 1877, a smaller portion retaining their reservation in Nebraska. The Omaha participated with other tribes in the treaties of 1830 and 1836, and by the treaty of Washington, in 1854, ceded all their lands west of the Missouri river and south of a line running due west {view image of page 27} HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 27 from the point where the Iowa river leaves the bluffs, retaining their lands north of this line for a reservation. In 1865 a part of this Nebraska reservation was sold for the use of the Winnebago. Quapaw When the other members of the so-called Dhegiha migrated northward, the closely related Quapaw moved southward. Their village was on the west bank of the Mississippi north of the Arkansas river in Arkansas. In their southward movement they followed the Mississippi as far as Red river. Because of the great change wrought in their condition by contact with the white race, the true character and customs of the Quapaw can be learned only through accounts by early explorers. In 1877 they were assigned a reservation in northeastern Indian Territory, but most of them left this reservation and joined the Osage. Kansa Linguistically the Kansa are most closely related to the Osage. After the latter had settled on the Osage river in Arkansas and the Ponca and Kansa had moved across the Missouri, the Kansa proceeded to northern Kansas. Attacked by the Cheyenne, they moved to the mouth of the river which bears their name and where they remained until 1825, when they relinquished their claims to lands in Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri, reserving a tract on Kansas river, where they suffered from attacks by the Pawnee. By treaty at Methodist Mission, Kansas, in 1846, they ceded two million acres of the eastern portion of their reservation, and a new reservation was assigned them at Council Grove on Neosho river, Kansas. These lands in turn were sold from time to time and the Kansa were removed to Indian Territory, next to the Osage. Caddoan Tribes Pawnee In the gradual northeastward movement of the Caddoan tribes, the Pawnee brought up the rear, finally becoming established in the Platte valley, Nebraska. Since they were beyond the region of conflict between Spanish and French, they were able to escape the earlier influence that proved so fatal to the Caddoan tribes in the south; but their ever-increasing contact with the white race in the latter part {view image of page 28} 28 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN of the eighteenth century introduced the white man's dreaded diseases and greatly reduced them both in number and in tribal power. The trail of the advancing whites toward the southwest traversed a part of the Pawnee territory; but in spite of all provocation, due chiefly to the increasing travel and settlement that constantly pressed the frontier westward - provocation such as was seized upon eagerly by other tribes as a cause for hostility - they never declared war on the United States. On the contrary, they served faithfully and courageously as scouts during many Indian hostilities, and assumed an attitude of forbearance in the hope that their wrongs would eventually be righted. It has been a matter of frequent complaint among Indians that those who were friendly and peaceful toward the whites received far less in the way of favor than those who were in an almost continual state of hostility. By treaties entered into from 1833 to 1857, all lands north and south of the Platte river, Nebraska, were ceded by the Pawnee, except a strip on Loup river thirty miles east and west by fifteen miles north and south, where a reservation was established. In 1876 this tract in turn was relinquished and the Pawnee were removed to Indian Territory. In I892 they took lands in severalty. Caddo The ancient seat of the Caddo was the lower valley of the Red river of Louisiana, although they were amongst the first of the stock to scatter north, west, and south, their villages being distributed along' Red river and its tributaries in Louisiana and Arkansas, and also on the banks of the Sabine, Neches, Trinity, Brazos, and Colorado rivers in eastern Texas. In the struggles between French and Spaniards in the eighteenth century for possession of the territory occupied by the Caddo, these Indians suffered greatly both from war and disease, while several cognate tribes were almost exterminated. It was a policy, both of the French and the Spaniards, to foment warfare among the tribes - to play the one against the other, so to speakwith disastrous results to their pawns. Later in Caddo history, after the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, when immigration increased and the Caddo were pushed from their old haunts, they ceded all their lands in Arkansas and Louisiana in 1835, to move to their kindred in Texas. With the continued increase of white immigration and the settlement of new lands, discrimination arose against the Texas tribes. Inroads on the buffalo herds by the {view image of page 29} HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 29 newcomers depleted the chief source of Indian food. Moreover, the Texans were fighting for independence, so that no tribe could be at peace with both forces. All were held to blame for raids by the Plains tribes, followed often by indiscriminate reprisals on all Indians. In these the Caddo were the chief sufferers. After discovering a plot on the part of a company of settlers to exterminate them, the Caddo fled to Indian Territory in I859, where they took refuge among the Wichita and Tawakoni. Again, during the Civil War, because they remained loyal to the Union, the Caddo fled northward to Kansas and some even as far as Colorado. In 1872 the boundaries of their reservation in Indian Territory were defined and in I902 they took lands in severalty. Kiowa The Kiowa, until recently considered a separate linguistic stock, but now known to be related to the Tanoan family of New Mexico, at one time resided on the upper Yellowstone and Missouri rivers, but later centred about the upper Arkansas and Canadian rivers in the present Colorado and Oklahoma. From the upper Missouri region they moved down from the mountains, forming an alliance with the Crows with whom they long remained on friendly terms. Then, probably before the beginning of the eighteenth century, they drifted southward along the base of the Rocky mountains, driven by the Arapaho and Cheyenne, with whom they later, in I840, made peace. The Sioux also claim to have driven the Kiowa from the Black Hills. When they arrived in the Arkansas valley, the Kiowa met the Comanche in hostile encounter for possession of the land, but finally a lasting peace was made and the two tribes have ever since been in close affiliation. The associated tribes made constant warfare on the frontier settlements of Mexico and Texas, extending their depredations as far south as Durango. Indeed they were noted as the most predatory and bloodthirsty of all the Plains Indians, their reputation being such that they were said to have killed more white people, in proportion to their numbers, than any other tribe of modern times. In I868 the Kiowa, together with the Kiowa Apache and the Comanche, were removed to their present reservation. They participated in the last Plains Indian outbreak in I874-I875, along with the Comanche, Kiowa Apache, and Cheyenne. In I901 their lands were allotted in severalty and the remainder was opened to settlement. {view image of page 30} 30 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Athapascan Tribes Kiowa Apache Although of Athapascan stock, the Kiowa Apache have been associated with the Kiowa since they were first known, forming a part of the Kiowa tribal circle but preserving their own language. They had no tribal affiliation with the Apache of Arizona and New Mexico; indeed, they claimed to be unaware of the existence of them until recent times. In all likelihood the Kiowa Apache, with other Athapascan groups, migrated gradually southward along the eastern base of the Rocky mountains, and after separating from the main Athapascan body took refuge with the Kiowa for mutual protection. Later the Kiowa Apache ranged between the Platte river of Nebraska and the frontier of New Mexico, obtaining horses from the Spanish settlements which they traded to other tribes, especially the Mandan and Arikara. In 1837 the Kiowa Apache, Kiowa, and Tawakoni made their first treaty with the Government. Their subsequent history is that of the Kiowa. The tribe in general remained peaceful through the Plains Indian outbreak of I874-I875. Lipan Apache During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the Lipan Apache roamed over the lower Rio Grande region of New Mexico, and eastward across the plains of Texas to the Gulf coast, gaining a livelihood by depredations against other tribes and the whites in Texas and Mexico. They were enemies of the Comanche, Wichita, Ute, and Jicarillas, but always friends of the Mescaleros and Tonkawa. The Lipan Apache were allies of the Texans in 1839 against the Comanche and Wichita, but from 1845 to 856 they suffered severely at the hands of the Texans, who pursued a policy of extermination of the Indian tribes, in consequence of which they were driven into Coahuila, Mexico, with the Kickapoo and other refugee tribes. In I905 the nineteen survivors were taken to the Mescalero reservation in New Mexico. There are a few with the Tonkawa at Oakland agency, Oklahoma, and a few others with the Kiowa Apache. Tonkawa The habitat of the Tonkawa (who form a distinct linguistic stock) in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was central Texas be {view image of page 31} HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 31 tween the upper and middle Trinity rivers on the northeast and the San Gabriel and Colorado rivers on the southwest. Their drift has been gradually southward, probably because of pressure by the Osage and Comanche, but this is not certain. The ethnological relations of the Tonkawa are still obscure. Their customs, as well as their language, were different in many ways from those of the surrounding great groups; but their later organization tends to indicate a composite of remnants of other tribes. Until the nineteenth century the Tonkawa were hostile to the Spaniards and the Apache alike, but friendly to the Comanche, Wichita, and Hasinai. Later the relations were reversed. They had an ill reputation with both whites and Indians. They were warlike wanderers, living in small villages part of the time, but moving often; they also were reputed to be cannibals, and were despised as thieves and vagabonds. In 1855, together with the Caddo, Kichai, Waco, Tawakoni, and Penateka Comanche, they were settled on two small reservations on Clear fork of Brazos river, Texas, but the violent opposition of the Texans, which culminated in an attack, caused their removal two years later to the Washita river, Indian Territory. During the Civil War, because of old scores against the Tonkawa, coupled with their previous reputation as cannibals and because they were employed as Government scouts, the other tribes, chiefly the Delawares, Shawnee, and Caddo, who espoused the Confederate cause, attacked and massacred nearly half of the tribe, which had numbered about 300. After some years of wandering the survivors gathered at Fort Griffin, Texas; but in 1884 the remainder, with some Lipan Apache, were assigned to the Oakland agency near Ponca. Modoc In Oklahoma the Lutuamian linguistic family is represented by the Modoc tribe, whose language is identical with that of the Klamath save for a few slight dialectic differences, which would tend to indicate the separation of the two in comparatively recent times. The Modoc habitat included Little Klamath, Modoc, Tule, and Clear lakes, and Lost River valley, in Oregon and California. Their numerous conflicts with the whites, carried on with atrocities committed by both sides, gave them an evil reputation. In 1864 the Modoc and Klamath ceded their lands and were assigned a reservation in Oregon where they were by no means contented. They made repeated and per {view image of page 32} 32 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN sistent but unsuccessful efforts to return to the Lost River region and its vicinity. The most notable attempt to escape the confines of the reservation was made in I870 when Captain Jack, a prominent chief, led a band of Modoc to the California border. Their refusal to return resulted in the Modoc War of 1872-I873, which was signalized by much fighting and the retreat of the Modoc to the lava-beds of the California frontier, where many futile attempts were made to dislodge them. They were finally subdued and the tribe divided, a part going to the Klamath reservation in Oregon and the remainder to the Quapaw reservation in Indian Territory. Population of the Indians of Oklahoma in 1926 1 Apache Chiricahua 88 Arapaho 831 Cheyenne 1,835 Comanche 1,790 Delawares 187 Illinois Confederacy and Iowa 84 Kansa 442 Kickapoo 198 Kiowa 1,782 Kiowa Apache 203 Osage 2,826 Oto and Missouri 637 Ottawa 256 Pawnee 824 Ponca 746 Potawatomi 2,227 Quapaw (including Modoc) 334 Sauk and Fox 697 Seneca 596 Shawnee 565 Tonkawa (including Lipan Apache) 48 Wichita, Caddo, and affiliated bands 1,272 Wyandot (Hurons) 524 Five Civilized Tribes 2 Cherokee 36,432 Chickasaw 5,659 Choctaw I9,088 Creeks II,952 Seminole 2,I4I The total Indian population of the United States, including freedmen enrolled as members of the Five Civilized Tribes, members by intermarriage, and all the degrees of intermixture, but excluding the Indians of Alaska, is 349,595. 1 From the Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. 2 The census is that of 1920. The populations do not include 2582 enrolled as members of the Five Civilized Tribes by intermarriage, nor 23,405 enrolled as freedmen. {view image of page 33} The Wichita VOL. XIX-5 {view image of page 34} v tv,;-T.. It {view image of page 35} THE WICHITA General Description THE Wichita, often referred to as the "Grass-house People," are members of the Caddoan linguistic stock which in Oklahoma includes also the Caddo, Waco, Tawakoni, Hainai or Ioni, and Pawnee. In the eighteenth century a southern branch of the Wichita was known as the Tawehash, a name that seems to have been sometimes applied to the entire Wichita group. The general habitat of these linguistically related groups at the time they first became known was the broad plains area now included in western Texas, Oklahoma, and central Kansas and Nebraska. The first mention of the Wichita and their grass-houses was made in the narratives of Coronado's journey in 1541-1542 to the Province of Quivira, situated in the valley of the Arkansas river in the present Kansas. Juan de Padilla, a zealous Franciscan, remained behind to make Christians of the Wichita who, after watching his missionizing efforts, closed his labors at the end of the third year by killing him. Thus tragically ended the first missionary work attempted among the Indians of the buffalo plains. One hundred and seventy-eight years after Coronado's visit to the region (I719), the Frenchman La Harpe noted a camp of the "Ousitas" (Wichita), who were then close to where they are today, at the western bend of the Canadian river where it almost contacts with the Washita. In 1758 the Spanish mission and presidio of San Saba, on a tributary of the upper Colorado river in Texas, established the year before, was attacked by a combined force of Comanche and their allies, including the Wichita and other Caddoan tribes. A retaliatory expedition by the Spaniards under Parrilla in the following year against the main Wichita town, about the junction of Wichita and Red rivers, retreated after severe losses. Later, in 1765, Tremifio, a Spanish captive, recorded many of his experiences at the main Tawehash town on Red river. In 1772 the commander Mezieres visited 35 {view image of page 36} 36 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN them and neighboring tribes to arrange for peace. From tribal tradition it is evident that whatever may have been their wanderings in hunting or warfare, the central homeland of the Wichita was in and around the mountains of Oklahoma that bear their name. The Tawakoni and Waco, affiliated units of the Wichita, formerly occupied villages in Texas. Texas was generous in respect to its aboriginal inhabitants, being ever willing to give its Indians to any one who might want them. In fact, the Texas mandate, though not recorded in the statutes, was, "Go elsewhere or be exterminated." The state was so successful in its process of Indian elimination that whenever its citizens now contemplate a frontier celebration and feel the urge for local color, they are compelled to borrow the needed Indians from the sister state of Oklahoma. An interesting fact is that while Oklahoma now has within its border about a fourth of the Indians of the United States, the Wichita and other Caddoan groups are its only original natives. The pre-Columbian habitat of the southern Caddoan tribes was the region of the Red river of Louisiana and its tributaries in Arkansas and southern Oklahoma, and the drainage area of the Brazos, Neches, Trinity, and Sabine rivers of Texas. Since its territory bordered the Plains and Southeastern culture areas, the Caddoan culture contains a mingling of the characteristic traits of both.' The Wichita proper consisted of a confederacy of tribes closely related linguistically to the Pawnee, of whom the Skidi have always been on terms of intimacy. With the Wichita are affiliated the Waco, Tawakoni, and Kichai, often regarded as sub-tribes. The Wichita themselves claim that they consist of four bands, each with a chief and a sub-chief, namely, the Wichita, Weeko (Waco), Tawakiidi (Tawakoni), and Isiis. The Kichai remnant has been incorporated into and completely assimilated with the Wichita. From the time of La Harpe's visit until well after the close of the Civil War, the Wichita met with many vicissitudes. When asked to name their Indian enemies, they enumerated about every tribe known to them, except their own congeners. The Osage harassed them from the northeast; constant conflict with American settlers diminished their numbers; the Texans were determined to exterminate them; smallpox epidemics swept across their land; failing to ally themselves with the Confederacy at the coming of the Civil War, they were compelled to flee into Kansas. At the close of the war they were given a reservation in the valley Clark Wissler, The American Indian, pages 220, 237, New York, 1922. {view image of facing page 36} A Wichita matron [photogravure plate] {view image of page 37} THE WICHITA 37 of the Washita within what is now Caddo county, Oklahoma. In I902 their lands were allotted and the remainder of their reservation was thrown open to settlement. At that time their population was 3I0. They now claim to number about 350. The present Wichita territory in Caddo county is one of rich agricultural possibilities - a gently rolling country of fertile soil with abundant moisture, insuring ample crops. While oil and zinc have not yet been discovered within their boundaries, as in the case of the more fortunate Osage and Quapaw, nevertheless the more progressive Wichita who till their own lands have been able to raise successfully crops of cotton, wheat, and the many varieties of corn introduced by white men, in addition to their native products of maize, melons, pumpkins, and beans. The less progressive Wichita lease their property, being satisfied to subsist on the small income thus derived. In former times to these native crops were added such vegetal products as the wild sweet-potato and the pond-lily bulb. The several kinds of pumpkins were cut into strips and sometimes plaited for drying for winter use, and when needed were pounded with a stone hammer. Fruits native to the region, such as the blackberry, elderberry, groundcherry, persimmon, and grape; the walnut, chestnut, and acorn; wild game indigenous to the territory, especially deer, antelope, and buffalo - all went in their seasons to augment the Wichita larder. While they made use of the buffalo in many ways, they were by no means so dependent on that animal as were their more nomadic neighbors. Surrounded as they are by such typical Plains tribes as the Comanche, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowa, and Kiowa Apache, the Wichita offer a strong contrast in physical appearance as well as in culture. In build they are shorter and stockier; in color, darker than the surrounding Plains type. A sedentary agricultural people, the Wichita were necessarily village dwellers, hence they erected substantial and often large habitations, conical in shape and thatched with grass, commonly called "grass-houses." A few such dwellings still remain, but the art of building them is as decadent as most of their native culture. The process of erecting the grass-house was not only complicated, but was always accompanied with an intricate ceremonial procedure, the details of which are known to few. A portion of this ritual as used in the building of the ceremonial lodge is a vital part of the Deer dance described in this volume. The divine instruction for the building of the grass-house is indicative of all Wichita culture. Their legends {view image of page 38} 38 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN show that not only did all spiritual knowledge come to them through revelations, but all knowledge of material advancement came likewise from the spirits. The family grass-house was from eighteen to thirty feet in diameter. The exact location of the openings was prescribed in the spirit instructions for the building of the ceremonial lodge, and the same formula was followed strictly in building a family dwelling. The beds, four to twelve or more in number, depending on the size of the family, were raised a few feet above the ground and each consisted of four crotched posts which supported a light frame of poles upon which was lashed a covering of buffalo-hide. On occasions when the house was used for a feast or a ceremony, the framework of the beds was tilted back against the walls. With all the Indians of the southwestern region east of New Mexico the summer arbor was scarcely less important than the house itself. In the shade of such bowers the natives lived during the summer months. In constructing the arbors most of the tribes first erected a dome-shape framework, made simply and easily by planting the butt-end of a sapling in the ground, then arching it and sticking the other end in the earth, the series of saplings so used giving the structure either a dome or a rectangular shape. This framework was covered with brush, skins, or canvas. The Wichita, however, made their summer arbors in the same fashion as the grass-house itself. The frame was solidly constructed by first erecting a number of crotched poles in a rectangle, then laying timbers in the crotches. Next, long cedar poles were set vertically against the timbers, one end sunk in the ground and the tops tied together. Lashed to the cedar posts were many horizontal rows of saplings to support the thatch of grass on the roof and upper portions of the side walls. The thatched cover only formed a dome-shape roof, leaving a large open space between it and the ground. The arbors were generally much more roomy than the houses. In shape they were usually twice as long as wide; but their size, like that of the regular dwellings, depended on the number in the family. A third type of structure consisted of a low-walled, thatched hut erected on a platform, used as sleeping quarters for the maidens. This high-perched sleeping room was reached by means of a ladder, which the mother removed after her young daughters had climbed to their quarters. The space beneath the platform was used for drying sliced or braided pumpkin and other foods. The handicraft of the Wichita was not extensive. They claim that {view image of facing page 38} Walter Ross - Wichita [photogravure plate] {view image of page 39} THE WICHITA 39 in former times they made pottery utensils, and indeed there is both legendary and archeological evidence of the use of such.1 Mortars and wooden receptacles, large and small, were in common use. Grinding stones for corn and for pounding strips of pumpkin, similar to the metates of the Pueblo tribes of the Southwest, are a part of their domestic equipment. In the old days there was not much pride in dress. The women wore but a scant skirt and the men a breech-cloth. For winter, buffalorobes furnished the necessary protection. But what the Wichita lacked in dress was more than compensated by their elaborate tattooing; in fact, they derived their name Kidikidegh ("Raccoon Eyes") from a unique form of this custom. Complete circles were tattooed about the eyes, covering upper and lower lids, with a horizontal line extending from the outer corners, the effect giving the eyes the appearance of those of a raccoon. It was due to the custom of tattooing that the French called the Wichita Panis Piques. The men also kept record of their war deeds by tattooing symbols on their arms and chests, thus using their own bodies as tally-boards and obviating the need of carrying coup-sticks such as were used by the Dakota, for example. The acme of tattooing was reached by the Wichita women. Dr. George A. Dorsey 2 describes this so well that we quote him at length: Among the women, the most complete and most common is a single line which passes down the nasal ridge and is carried to the end of the upper lip, from which a line passes in each direction to the corners of the mouth where each joins a short line passing downward and terminating in another line directed toward the center of the lower lip. Before these lines meet, they turn downward to the chin. The space between these two lines is occupied by two short parallel lines and all four terminate in a line which passes entirely around the jaw from ear to ear, and which is surmounted by a row of solid triangles. Similar rows of triangles pass across the neck and across the upper part of the breast. Down each arm are two series of four parallel zigzags, while four long lines pass down the middle of the breast. Above each of the breasts are three pairs of lines, each pair crossing at a wide angle, 1 See the Genesis Legend, page 49. Pottery fragments in considerable numbers, some of them showing ornamentation with incised patterns and by the application of designs with cordwrapped paddles, have recently been found on various sites in Rice county, Kansas, within the ancient Wichita Province of Quivira. Associated with this earthenware are numerous excellently chipped projectile points, knives, drill-points, and scrapers, together with metates and manos, and pipes of catlinite and other stone. While systematic excavation has not yet been conducted, the superficial remains suggest those of grass-houses. 2 Mythology of the Wichita, page 3, Washington, 1904. {view image of page 40} 40 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN the open space at each end being occupied by V-shaped connecting lines. The nipple is also tattooed, and around it are three concentric circles.. The whole tattooed design is said to have been derived from the buffalo. The girls are told that by receiving these marks they enjoy a more perfect life. They are also told that the concentric circles about the breasts prevent them from becoming pendulous in old age. The Wichita claimed that the chief object was to distinguish the women, not only from other tribes but especially from slaves. Childbirth and the naming of children were attended with marked consideration of the spirits. Elderly women cared for the mother during delivery. The water sanctification of the child occurred at dawn of the day following its birth. Some woman well versed in the lore of the moon carried the infant to the nearest stream where she prayed to Bright Shining Woman, spirit of the moon; to the spirit of the water, the Woman Living Forever In The Water; and to Kinnikasuis, that the child might grow rapidly and have good health. Then it was bathed in the running water. Children were named at birth, and sometimes before birth, after a bird, an animal, a dream, a vision, a dance, game, or what not, or it might be a name handed down in the family. As an illustration, when a woman gave birth, one of the women present by chance opened a door and saw the snow falling, so the child was named Nafkiwuis (" Snowbird"). If a child had good health it retained the birth name, though if the mother deemed it advisable she went to some man who had enjoyed good luck all his days and invited him to a feast. After eating, which included a ceremony of prayer and blessing, he would ask the woman what she wanted of him, and she responded that she desired a name for her child. After receiving food and being asked a favor, the man could not refuse the request, so he would give the child a name. A woman once dreamed that she had entered a house in the other world and that she had been asked to sit down where the spirits were telling stories. From this dream she gave her grandson a new name, Wifakwekaas ("Listening To The Party"). A man could assume a name from some good deed performed in war or in the chase. For instance, a chief had a son, to whom at birth was given the name Whaskwaft ("All Red Like The Indian People"). After the son grew up, he received a new name from an old man who had once brought in two prisoners. This new name was Ifskawadolls ("Brought In To Be Killed"). The making of the cradle for a child was attended with much care. The father was sent to the woods to gather the needed slender {view image of facing page 40} Old grass-house - Wichita [photogravure plate] {view image of page 41} THE WICHITA 41 willow withes for the cradle frame. On finding the desired tree, he addressed it as though it were a person: "You are the willow; you grow by the water; you are like the water. I have come to take your life; you will forgive me, for you are to be used for a cradle for my child." In cutting the osiers, the usual observance of the cardinal points was followed. The father peeled the sticks to be used, and the bark and shavings were carefully hidden lest they fall into the hands of witches. To make the cradle, the father selected some woman of good health who knew the lore of the moon. The making was attended by an invocation to Kinnikasus and the Spirit of the Moon, that it might be well made and that the child might have good health and grow fast. Marriage was arranged by the relatives of the betrothed couple. Parents who regarded favorably a certain young woman as a prospective daughter-in-law sent a relative, or at any rate a middle-age person, to ask her parents' consent to marriage with their son, or vice versa. If all were favorable, the young man went to the girl's lodge the next evening. Again, a young man falling in love with a girl would make gifts to her brother. If the brother accepted them, the girl was obliged to marry. In every respect, those to be married followed the wishes of the parents. Whenever marriages were arranged between families, rather than mutually by the couple concerned, the relatives of the man gave a feast to those of the woman, with gifts of wearing apparel for the bride, at which time much gratuitous advice was offered to the prospective bridegroom, such as how to get along with his wife's family, to bring in game, scalps, horses, etc. A man was not obliged to marry outside of his own band, but if he did so he went to live with the band of his wife. In this respect the Wichita social organization is loosely maternal. There was no mother-in-law taboo, but if either of the bride's parents should say, in the presence of the son-in-law, some such phrase as "We are out of food," or any similar statement implying a request, he must fulfill their wishes without comment, regardless of what they are. However, it is considered the duty of parents-in-law to guard their tongues when a son-in-law is near. When domestic affairs were such as to reach a crisis, divorce was easily effected, though reconciliation was advised whenever possible. If the wife was unable to live happily with her husband and desired a divorce, the husband, with many gifts, went to the wife's brother, who in turn went to her parents, who called in the wife, saying: "You love your brother and he has brought many gifts. Your husband VOL. XIX —6 {view image of page 42} 42 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN wants to continue to live with you, so you must return to him." If on the woman's return the couple were still unsuccessful in their marital affairs, she went to live either with her parents or the grandparents on either side. Should they have possessed a grass-house, it became the sole property of the wife. When a man caught his wife flagrante delicto with a man, he usually divorced her, if for no other reason than that wives were easy to obtain. On the other hand, were the husband guilty, the woman went to live with her parents; then should the husband return to her, they might continue to live together, though not in the former manner of husband and wife. There was no tribal punishment of either party for adultery, but private revenge was sometimes inflicted, as in the instance of a woman with two children who seduced a married man so that he left his own wife and went to live with her. While he was away hunting, his wife and her relatives gave the adulteress a severe beating, in the midst of which, aroused by her screams, her relatives appeared. The result was a mele in which the side of the wife was defeated. When the husband returned he left his mistress because he did not like her appearance after the fight. He felt ashamed and went to his wife, expressing his penitence bygiving her his horses and other possessions. The dead were disposed of by inhumation in a slightly elevated place, the grave being of sufficient length to accommodate the remains fully extended. The body, painted and adorned with various ornaments, was kept in the house for a period of mourning extending over two to four days. With the body at the graveside, the man in charge prayed to Mother Earth: From you all things come. You have taught us to care for all things Which spring from your bosom. You have taught us that All which springs from your bosom returns to you. From you this man came. To you this man returns. The body was then placed in the grave with the head toward the east. Following the filling of the grave, it was covered with logs or with slabs of stone placed conically about four feet in height. After the burial the relatives purified themselves by bathing in a stream, four immersions each day for four days. At the end of the fourth day of such purification, obvious mourning was supposed to cease and the people of the village were expected to resume their normal mode of life. {view image of facing page 42} Interior of Wichita grass-house [photogravure plate] {view image of page 43} THE WICHITA 43 Chieftainship was not hereditary. Each band, and consequently each village, had its own chief and sub-chief, elected in a similar manner. When a general council was called, since the chiefs were of equal rank, one of the number was elected head-chief by the group assembled; his power was merely that of a parliamentary chairman. In the selection of a chief the procedure was somewhat as follows: A boy was taught honesty, obedience, and "good ways" by his parents, and it was impressed on him that if he did not heed these teachings he could never become a chief. But if he conscientiously followed the rules as expounded by his elders and gained a reputation as a leader through his ability and hardihood while on hunting and war expeditions, people would take notice of him. If he had been a leader of four war-parties, each one successful in bringing in a scalp, people would say, "He is a good young man; let us watch him." Perhaps even some chief would hear of him and say to himself, " I want that young man to take my place some day." When a chief was to be elected, perhaps at the time when some old chief wished to retire, a council of the whole village was called. To the man whom he had chosen as successor, the chief would say, "I want you to become a chief." People then urged him to accept the position, giving many homilies along the lines of conduct becoming a chief; but the young man always remained silent, listening. After the people ceased their urgings, the relatives would beseech him in their turn, saying, "The people want you to become chief that you may take care of them." But still he would remain silent, thinking to himself, " If that certain relative of mine asked me to become chief, I should accept." Soon when this particular relative urged in his turn, the young man would modestly answer, "I shall accept, though I am unworthy." After he had answered thus, the old chief would embrace him and give much advice as to his duties toward the village and the people. Some one was then appointed to offer a prayer, giving thanks to the powers with food; then a feast was held. Meanwhile, a crier was sent throughout the village to herald that the council had gathered, that the old chief was ready to retire, and had selected a man to take his place. The Wichita had fourteen known dance societies, but much information regarding them has been lost in the transition of the tribe from their former state of being to their present civilized condition, so that while some of the ceremonies are presented as completely as possible in following pages, of others little or nothing is now known. {view image of page 44} 44 - THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The first is T!a, the Deer dance, in which all societies were welcome to dance and show their "powers." Similarly in Hades, the Doctor dance, borrowed from the Pawnee, all societies might dance if they wished. As the name implies, in this dance appeared the medicine doctors and their pupils. In the war-dance anybody was free to join, but only members could sing their war-songs. The members do not act as camp police. When Kidawasttekias, the Gift dance, is held, the participants visit every house, telling in song what they desire. The families then reward them with gifts. The men had five other dance societies, the names alone of four remaining to the present generation. These were the Horn dance, Buffalo Bear, Big Dog or Many Dogs, and the Mythic Animal of the Mountains. There were three dance societies for the women. The function of the first, the Fancy Woman dance, has been lost. In the Turkey dance the women performed about a pole decorated with a scalp while a man sang for them. In the same manner Itfasukatahift, the Flat dance, is performed, but the women sing for themselves. At the end the leader sings four songs and all run to the river and bathe, the leader last. Religious Beliefs The pantheon of the Wichita compared with that of most tribes is rich in its inclusions, a richness which indicates more than the ordinary consideration of the Infinite. Such comprehension of the spirits and such definite theological conclusions as exist with these people may be looked for only among sedentary or semi-sedentary groups. Kinnikasus is the foremost of supernatural beings. The Wichita definition of KInnikasuis is "Man Never Known On Earth." To amplify, it might be said "Not Known To Man," or beyond human knowledge. That which is beyond the understanding of man is necessarily the Infinite, hence Kinnikaasus is the figurehead of the Infinite. Kinnikasus was the creator; he created man and all things on the earth. In prayer the Wichita invoke many supernatural beings, but the invocation invariably includes Kinnikasuis as the Spirit Over All. In personification and deification of the animate and inanimate, a definite division of the divine ones is made - the sky gods and the earth gods. So pronounced is the consideration of the stars and planets that a hasty conclusion might class their beliefs as astrolatry, {view image of facing page 44} Wichita summer arbor [photogravure plate] {view image of page 45} THE WICHITA 45 yet it is most unlikely that the religion of any people ever could have been correctly so regarded. Each myth character bears a name, which analyzed describes the function of the personage; for example, Kussagahigutidisi (" Bright Shining Woman"), the moon, and Ofkehane'fhoidiye:e ("Woman Forever In The Water"), the spirit of the water. As the untranslated name can convey no information to the reader, and as he will not be likely to attempt to pronounce one of these agglutinations, further reference to the characters will be by functional name only. As previously stated, Man Never Known On Earth is the foremost figure of the pantheon. The Morning Star, Having Power To Carry Light, is the spirit of the first man created. He was the prophet teacher of the people and is included in most prayers. The next character is of utmost importance in Wichita mythology. It is the spirit of the moon, Bright Shining Woman. The moon was the first woman created, and the wife of Morning Star, thus was the mother of the universe. This goddess controls all things feminine or procreative. It matters not whether it is human birth, the propagation of animals, or the planting of crops - all come within the province of the Moon Goddess. On approaching motherhood a woman constantly implores her beneficence, and the new-born child is held in outstretched hands to the moon while the mother prays that it may grow strong and have long life. The sun is Man Reflecting Light. His advent followed Morning Star and Moon; in fact, his creation was the first important act of Morning Star. The Wichita insist that the sun is an important spirit, yet their concepts do not bear out that claim. Rarely is the spirit of the sun included in their invocations. Indirect information suggests that there is an unexpressed, indefinable association between Man Never Known On Earth and Spirit Of The Sun, almost to the extent that the two are one and the same. The obvious anachronism is not greater than is often found in mythology and theology. The spirit of the water, Woman Forever In The Water, is closely associated with the Moon Spirit, yet their functions differ: one creates life, the other makes possible its growth, its continuation. As an illustration, a woman desiring a child would not pray to the Water Spirit, but would address her supplication to the Spirit Of The Moon; then when the child was born the mother implored the beneficence of the Water Spirit, the Moon Spirit, and included the supreme spirit, Man Not Known On Earth. A special function of the Water Spirit is to guard the virtue of {view image of page 46} 46 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN women. During their husbands' absence on the warpath or the hunt, wives went each day to the river to bathe, and to pray to the Water Spirit, begging that she protect them from disaster. They would include the Morning Star and the Moon Spirit in their prayers. Even in the changed conditions today, this theory and practice remain. The earth is Earth Mother, the mother of all life. From her man was created and upon his death he returns to her bosom. From her body sprang all things which nourished and maintained man. Wind is life, the breath of the Earth Mother, and is associated with the soul. Wind as here referred to is not associated with the four cardinal points. The South Star is special guardian of the male; its beneficence gives the man vigorous sons and guards him in warfare. The North Star, The Light Which Stands Still, is to be feared; it brings death, yet it also gives life. Perhaps it gives life through withholding death. The medicine-men look to this spirit to assist them in their healing rites. In all probability the healers in imploring this spirit are in fact begging him to stay his icy hand. In the west is "The Light That Flies," that is, meteors. This spirit of the west has also power to aid in healing sickness. An unidentified faint star at the zenith, personified as "Flint Stone Lying Down Above," is included as a spirit in many invocations. As indicated in the culture legends, animals often become beneficent spirits. Such spirits should not be confused with the Sky spirits or gods, but rather should be viewed as personal-property spirits, in that the recipient for a consideration could transfer power or knowledge so received. As with the majority of American Indians, the concept of afterlife is vague. Immortality, through belief in or desire for it, is accepted. The belief that the afterworld or spirit land is somewhere in the sky seemingly antedates any contact with missionary teaching. The celestial location of their spirit land is the obvious conclusion of a people whose religious beliefs centralize so completely around the stars and planets. The state of existence in the afterworld is a natural creation born of human desire, a life of happiness free from all earthly discomfort. Seemingly the only insurmountable bar to entrance into this heaven is suicide. The spirits of those who commit self-murder may hover near and be conscious of the delights of heaven, but may not enter. The culture legends of the Wichita afford the best insight into their perception of the Infinite. To question even the best-informed men as to their religious beliefs would result in little information, {view image of facing page 46} Ceremonial house - Wichita [photogravure plate] {view image of page 47} THE WICHITA 47 particularly as the Indian, like the Caucasian, is apt to confuse religion with religious manifestation, the former being the seed, the latter the flower. Perhaps to emphasize, say religion is instinctive, a manifestation coming within the realm of reasoning. Each culture legend conveys a teaching - "manifestation." We see back of that, however, the instinctive belief-perception of the Infinite, and it is in the indicated perception that we find the greatest value of the legends. They convey not alone inherent concept of the Infinite, but many teachings for right living. In fact, in a measure the moral lessons taught overshadow consciousness of the Infinite. Each legend presumes to convey the teaching of some spirit which appeared to the individual and imparted this knowledge. Coming from divine sources, the knowledge was regarded as supernatural power. "Power" is the equivalent of the Wichita term. None but the worthy, men of exemplary life, were supposed to receive instructions - revelations - from the spirits. This is shown in all the legendary stories in which the spirits say, "I have watched you and I like your ways." These legends show that with them all knowledge, spiritual and temporal alike, comes from the spirit sources, the gods. Their expression is Sky gods and Earth gods, but as a result of Christian influence it has come to be the Heavenly gods and Earthly gods. As with all American Indians, the basic beliefs of the Wichita are animistic, that is, every thing, animate or inanimate, possesses a spirit, a soul. Animals could take on spirit form and bestow supernatural power upon men; stars could assume human form and likewise bestow supernatural power. An analysis of the legends shows that: (I) The spirits (call them gods if you prefer, the Wichita do) taught that disregard of spiritual instruction brought evil upon the offender. This teaching is suggested in the Girl in the Moon legend (page IoI), emphasized in the Morning Star legend (page 87). (2) Thoughts, good or evil, brought their own reward: good thoughts bringing good, evil thoughts bringing evil and disaster to the thinker. Evil thought was equivalent to an evil act, as shown in the legends of the Water Spirit (page 93), the Moon Spirit (page IOI), and the Morning Star Spirit (page 87). (3) Spirits at all times knew the thoughts and acts of humans, as shown in the legend of the Water Spirit. (4) Humans are guarded from wrong-doing by the thoughts of the spirits; they are under the guidance of spirits. Here is the {view image of page 48} 48 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN thought that conscience is of the spirits. This teaching is shown in the legend of Bear Broken Leg (page 90). (5) Upright living brought reward from the spirits, as shown in the Surround-the-Fire legend (page 72) and the legend of Bear Broken Leg. (6) The exercise of spirit power should be used devoutly, without personal pride and display. This is strongly suggested in the legend of Buffalo Ghost (page 85) and is taught in all culture legends. (7) Spirit-given powers can be recalled by the donor; but while lost to the transgressor they are not lost to the universe. This teaching is shown in both the Morning Star legend (page 87) and the Buffalo Ghost legend. (8) All constructive thought comes from the spirits. (9) The mind should dwell upon spiritual things. The individual should at all times carry prayer thoughts - silent prayer. This is a teaching of the Morning Star legend. (Io) Through faith comes accomplishment. Spiritual instruction bearing on religious and moral life comes more from the so-called Sky gods and Earth gods, the spirits of animals and objects, than from the supreme Power Over All. The teaching of Kinnikasuis seemingly dealt more with the material problems of life, as shown in the legend of the Deer Dance and the Building of the Grass-house (page 64). It should be borne in mind that when the suppliant invokes any of the lesser spirits, he invariably includes Spirit Over All, Kinnikasus. Several of the legends suggest that breath is life, vaguely, soul; also that breath and wind are as one. As breath is all that leaves the body upon death, it must be the soul. Genesis Legend In the beginning all was darkness. There was no day. The world was young and not yet finished. There was but one man on earth. He had been created by Kinnikasus, and was lonely. He thought, "Why am I alone?" Kinnikasuis took pity on him and created for him a wife from one of his ribs.1 The spirits then taught them how to make all things and how to live. A little later the woman observed that her body commenced to swell, but she did not know why it should be so, nor did the man. In those times all events transpired quickly, and soon she gave birth to a child. The father was pleased to have the child and to see it 1 The effect of Christian teaching is obvious. {view image of facing page 48} Wichita mortar [photogravure plate] {view image of page 49} THE WICHITA 49 grow so fast. The couple continued to have children, who in time had offspring. The intermarriage of all this progeny increased the population. The man was satisfied with all that he had, but he did not like the continual darkness. He was told in his heart that it was easy to change the dense gloom, that he must go to the south where he would see some deer. The deer which was striped with black and white must be killed - then the darkness would change to light, and there would be alternating light and darkness. He was told that the light would be for the purpose of seeing and the darkness for rest and sleep. After the light came, the people were surprised to see things growing. There was a woman who had a garden, to whom all said, "What is that?" She answered: "This is food for the people. This is black, yellow, red, and white corn." The woman went to her garden, where she picked seven ears of the corn, which she gave to some one. This person asked, "What is this?" She answered, "Go and eat this corn, which is the same as nursing from your mother's breast." The corn was not cooked at that time. When the person bit into it, white milk ran out and dripped on his hand. He asked what the milk was; the woman instructed him to eat, for that was nourishment. Corn has come down to the people since that time. The man was told that the animals were to be his food, but to kill them he must make a bow and arrows. From the dogwood he made a bow; from the dogwood his arrows, and this is the way he made them: He peeled the bark from the sticks, which he allowed to dry in the sun. Then he straightened them by hand, tied them in a sheaf, and hung them beneath the smoke-hole of his lodge for the smoke to season. After the fourth day of seasoning he once more straightened them, then cut them to the required length. The ends were notched, and selected feathers were bound on with sinew which had been softened in water. He prepared flint points which he inserted in notches in the ends of the arrows and bound them on tightly with sinew. The man was eager to test his new weapons, so he started in search of game. At last he came to two deer and succeeded in killing one of them. This he skinned and butchered with a flint knife. The people wondered what to do with the meat - how they should eat it. It was revealed to a woman to slice the meat in thin slices and string it up to dry. Then it must be cut up and boiled in an earthenware pot. In those days the people hunted game afoot. Whenever a scout reported game, the chief called the people together and they all went out. They divided into groups, some going north, others east, south, and west, until the animals were surrounded. Then they gradually closed in, causing the game to mill around, then shot down what they needed. Medicine was put on the arrow-points to direct them to game. In warfare poison was used to insure death to those hit. VOL. XIX-7 {view image of page 50} 50 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The Deluge It was told from father to son, from generation to generation, that some day something was going to happen to the people; that there would come a time, no one knew how far off, when there would be continuous rain and all the world would be covered with water. The people knew in their hearts that this flood was coming and their minds were prepared for it. But they were worried because it might happen tomorrow, or this summer or in the following year; they were anxious because they did not know when it would occur. They ever cautioned the children not to wander off, because they might be caught in the flood if they were too far from home. Then came a time when it commenced to rain. The people were not sure whether or not this was the time of the deluge, but they were afraid, and all remained indoors. So great was the downpour that at the end of three days the people felt that this must be the promised flood, so they began to talk of what to do and where to go. The women cried and wailed in fright. An old man spoke, saying: "What is the matter? What are you thinking of; why are you uneasy?" 1 He called together the old men. "I have something to tell you men. I feel sorry for the people who are crying." To the young men he ordered, "Go to the forest; cut dead cottonwoods and bring them to me, for they are light." The young men brought back long stout logs, which the old man ordered cut into even lengths. "Now go back and cut three more," he directed. With the first logs he made a foundation for a raft by laying them side by side. The three brought in last he notched at intervals and laid across his raft foundation, one at each end and one in the middle. He lashed these to the logs with withes. A young man asked, "Why do you notch the logs?" "To secure them firmly by making them fit closely together. These logs are dry; they will never sink," he answered. All the time the rain fell. The young men brought armfuls of osiers which the old man used to bind the timbers together. He used also the soapweed which he made into rope. The raft was so large that it took many men to interweave the willows and the soapweed rope. The young men were sent to fetch willow poles. One of these was set upright on each corner, notched, and lashed firmly in place. Two more were set up in similar manner on each side of the raft near the middle. Others were laid horizontally, one on top of the other, the ends lashed to the corner and middle poles, to form walls for the raft. 1 The informant said that the time of the story was so long ago that the man's name has been lost, but he assumed that he was a chief. {view image of facing page 50} Peeling pumpkins - Wichita [photogravure plate] {view image of page 51} THE WICHITA 51 The work proceeded rapidly because it still rained. The old man directed that branches be brought, such as are used for making arbors; these were spread on the bottom of the raft. He went about the village, saying to the women, "You women commence to prepare food that the children will have something to eat, because something is happening." All over the village could be heard the pounding of corn. Other people brought enough leaves and brush to cover the bottom of the raft. People began to be greatly frightened, standing about and talking in groups. One of them cried: "Look over there! Something is happening!" They saw a dark wall of water rising. The old man directed the women to bring the seed of the corn, which he placed in the joints of cane and planted them firmly in the earth. The water came up higher; they asked one another, "What is going to happen?" The old man called the people to the raft, but they were terrified and cried, "This thing will sink!" When the water rose still higher the people went aboard the raft. Its walls had been built so high that there was no danger of its occupants falling overboard. As it rose in the water many people were frightened because they did not know what was to happen. There was a motion to the raft; it rocked and was whirled about by the swirling currents. Now they noticed that the flood was up to the necks of the " Four things standing in the water" - monsters.1 They were gradually sinking out of sight as the water rose. The people became hungry; first the children were provided for, then the adults. The older ones talked, trying to encourage the others. One very old man said: "Do not be frightened; be contented. Remember that long ago a certain person told us that it would rain twelve days. It is getting near the end of that time now. Soon the rain will cease." The water rose higher and closer to the heads of the four huge beasts. One of the four declared, " I have got to give up; I am going to fall to the south." Soon another said, "I must give up; I am going to fall to the west." The third announced, "I am going to fall toward where the cold wind comes from." The fourth said, "Some time when our bones dry out and people find them, they will keep pieces of bone for their medicine.2 Before this time the people did not know the four directions. From the last words of the monsters the people learned them. After twelve days and nights the rain ceased and the waters re1 This informant made no mention of the four monsters until the hour of embarkment, and at this inclusion termed them "Four things standing in the water." For the full story of the monsters, see page 53. 2 Many medicine-men of the tribe dug up bones of prehistoric animals and used them in their healing practices. Whenever such bones were found in the Wichita country, they were attributed to the four monsters. {view image of page 52} 52 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN ceded. The people felt glad, for they knew that some one had cared for them. They saw that the joints of cane with the corn seed were still standing. If these had been lost, the people would not have had the corn which they now have. Soon the raft grounded, but no one dared to get off because of the deep mud. Though the wind blew continuously, twelve more days and twelve nights passed before it dried the earth firmly enough to walk on. There was no village left when the people finally landed. The old man said: "Do not be sad because you have lost your homes. One good thing has happened; you are still living." He took up the canes with the corn from the ground. He gave the corn seed to the older women, the good workers. Then they searched for the sites of their former homes; they could barely see where their houses had been. The Wichita had two distinct deluge legends. One faction of the tribe firmly maintains that it has the true one, while the other as strongly advocates its own. The principal point of difference is that in one legend a raft is built on which a portion of the people are saved; in the other, the people are all drowned and the earth repopulated through a miraculous birth. The latter account of the deluge seemingly is the more common and best known in the tribe. Dr. George A. Dorsey 1 gives two versions of this form of the story. The legend of the raft was related by Henry Lamb, a very old man and the best-informed story-teller among the Wichita. This informant claimed that the story came to him directly through the men of his family, to his knowledge, back to his great-grandfather. This evidence would seem to indicate that the story is of pre-Caucasian origin and that the incident of the raft is not Biblical. On first thought one would naturally attempt to account for the two legends through the incorporation of an alien group into the tribe, but no indication of such an inclusion is traceable.2 Informants of this generation are not particularly clear as to the details of either of the legends. Informants knew nothing of the saving of the animals; in fact, they insisted that none of the animals were rescued. In one of the stories collected by Dr. Dorsey it is stated that some animals were saved. How this was accomplished is not touched upon; in fact, from a careful reading of the story it would seem as if the informant had injected this incident and left the animals playing about in the air. This conclusion is substantiated by the fact that none of the stories suggests that any of the land animals survived the deluge. Mythology of the Wichita, pages 290, 294, Washington, I904. 2 The remnant of the Kichai, a Caddoan tribe ravaged by war and disease, is now incorporated with the Wichita, but informants were positive that the legend is Wichita. {view image of facing page 52} Peeled squash - Wichita [photogravure plate] {view image of page 53} THE WICHITA 53 Another version of the deluge myth, related by another informant, is as follows: In the old days there were many Wichita villages. One, where lived the chief-over-all, was larger than the others. This chief had a wife, but no children. His heart longed for sons, but his wife refused to be a mother. Many years passed with no children in the lodge of the chief, then the wife gave birth to four uncouth creatures, which rapidly grew into monsters. The chief was troubled, and called a council of his men to ask what should be done with these strange beings. Many urged that they be killed, but their mother begged that they be spared. When very young these creatures did no harm, but as they grew older they became vicious, killing children and wrecking the village. The chief and his council then decided to move the monsters outside the village. Their bodies grew rapidly, but their legs did not grow. All of the men of the tribe joined in moving them from the village. They were placed on high ground, all four in a group, with their rumps together and their heads facing toward the four directions. By this time their bodies had become so large that their legs would not carry them. Their necks extended to great length. They continued to grow very huge and tall and wicked. They reached out and snatched people or animals who journeyed forth, so that the villagers came under the complete control of the monsters. The people starved, for if they went out for food, the monsters would get them. The headman did not like this, so he went to the turtle, saying, "I need help, even if everyone is destroyed. I want you to do something to these monsters." The huge turtle went underground until he was beneath the feet of the monsters. Then the rain came; but the birds flew over before the rain commenced, as a sign that a flood was approaching, which was the arrangement the chief had made with the turtle. After the birds had been seen, the sky grew black with great clouds, and the rain poured. As the water rose, the monsters stuck up long necks, holding their mouths to the sky and moving their feet as if to stretch them long. The people had been told that when the birds flew over, something would happen, so they became frightened, trying to escape as the water swallowed them up. The turtle moved under the feet of the huge beasts, making the ground soft, and the water came so high that nothing but their heads was above water. Then the monster in the south said, "I am falling south; I can not stand on my legs any longer." The one in the west cried, "I am giving out and falling to the west." The monster in the north said, "My turn has come; I am falling." The monster in the east declared, "My turn has come; I am falling east." The rain continued until there was a great flood which destroyed all the people. There was nothing left but land floating in water. {view image of page 54} 54 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN In the northeast, under the water, the beaver had a home where perhaps other people were. The wind also lived there. In those times the people were very wise. The thought came into the mind of the Wind to set forth and see how everything was; that perhaps it was drier now, but he delayed going out. The spirit had put that thought into his head. Three other times the thought came, each time being put aside, but the fourth time Wind went up and over the earth. He could travel fast and cover much land, and each day he went out, going a little farther each time until finally he had covered the whole earth. He was the one who was drying up the water. After a while he found that conditions were getting better, because after the deluge the land and the water were mixed, floating around together, but now high spots of the land were becoming dry. When Wind was travelling about one day, he saw a white streak in the west, coming down from the sky -a dream, a vision. He turned and went in another direction; but the thought entered his mind to go back and see what the sign was, so he went to it. When he reached there he saw a woman lying on her back with her head to the northwest. Wind was wise, but this was a puzzle to him. He wondered why and how the woman had come there; but he continued with his work, not stopping. Again the thought told him to go and look at the woman, but he kept on instead. Then the thought urged that this must be some sign for him, but he disregarded it. When the fourth thought was sent, Wind noticed a change in the woman, for her body was swelling. When he saw that, he knew that it was a sign, for he believed that there would be a birth. He decided to watch her, to see her now and then while continuing to work. After coming again, Wind saw that the woman was very much swollen; her breasts were large and the nipples were turning black, so he knew that soon a child would be born. Some time later he saw that the woman had given birth to a little girl, who was on her breast. Again when he returned he found that the child had grown much larger, for in those days things grew fast. This child grew through the power of some one who was great. The Wind kept on going around, but he was interested in the woman and child. Soon the girl was large enough to sit on her mother's lap. The woman began to sink into the ground. Wind continued his work, but as he was coming back again he saw that the child was sitting on the ground. She became frightened of him and crawled to the mother. When Wind embraced the infant and picked her up, he heard a voice from above, saying, "You are scaring my child." He put the child down. Another time Wind saw the girl a short distance from her mother, who had sunk farther into the ground. Once more he heard the voice, just as before. When Wind came around again he noticed that the girl had grown much larger and that the woman had sunk until only her breasts remained above ground. Milk was flowing down her sides to provide the child with nourishment. {view image of facing page 54} Braided squash - Wichita [photogravure plate] {view image of page 55} THE WICHITA 55 On Wind's next return the woman was almost out of sight, while the girl was still larger. Once more Wind came back, after doing his work, and this time, through the spirit, the girl was not afraid of him. The voice commanded him to take her to the home of the beavers and care for her. When he arrived there, he told the beavers that he would leave the girl with them because he had to be out doing his work and could not come home often. She stayed there, and time passed quickly. In a short while the girl had become full-grown. In that home she noticed a man who always used the bed on the north side. This man, of yellowish complexion, was very handsome. When Wind came back from another journey he found that the girl had married the man. They were living together, and Wind was satisfied. She became pregnant by her husband, whose name was Nifiakssiikaha (" Sunbeam"). When the baby was ready to come into the world, the mother heard it say, "Where shall I be born?" "There is a place for you to be born," the mother answered. When she gave birth, it was a boy. In a short while he could walk and talk, because things grew fast in those times. The first thing he said was that he wanted arrows; but the father said that there were none, because nothing grew with which to make them. When the boy was larger he wanted to go out on the land, but how he knew about land was a mystery. The people refused to let him leave, but he went against their wishes. The people there, who were wise, and also his parents, knew there was something extraordinary about the boy, so after he went they decided that it was all right for him to have gone. In the evening the boy came back. Every day he went out and returned in the evening. Each time he asked his father for arrows, but each time the father said there was nothing with which to make them. Once he came back carrying some immature dogwood sticks. When the people saw these, they knew that the boy had power, but they did not know that each day he was preparing things. He made arrows from matured dogwood which he had brought in after the second trip. By this time he was a young man. He made a bow of moose-horn. No one knew where he found the horns. When he returned evenings, he brought objects such as grass and sage to show the people that they might see that things were growing. Now he was a full-grown man. He told his parents that this was the right time to come up on land. Then he went out, only to come back later, saying, "Now is the time." They emerged to the land, to a home which he had made. He said to them: " I am a full-grown man. I want you to help me and do as I tell you. What you see here, grass, trees, and other growing things, I have completed. I have not quite finished, so I shall ask you not to live as married people until I am through doing these things." They did not move from that home. The young man got the seed {view image of page 56} 56 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN of the corn, which the people planted, but they did not know whence it came. Corn became their chief food; it was the first food. He worked every day preparing and making many different things. While the young man was away the parents disobeyed his instructions. He knew as well as themselves what they were doing. When he arrived home, he stopped a little distance away, saying that they had disobeyed him and done wrong. "I was not through with my work," he said. " If you had not done wrong, a person would be able to return to earth in four days after death. From now on when any one dies, he will have to go to another place, the place of the dead. You must go your own way now. You will have more children; the first will be a girl and the second a boy, in that order. When you have a great many children, they will marry. My work, so far as it is done, is complete. I am going where those who will die in the future are going. I am going up above to become Hasaiusida ['Morning Star']." The first two children married and had children. Their children married, and so on down. The more the people increased, the more the corn increased. Before this time, just before Morning Star had departed, he had looked after the people. After he left, the spirit took charge of them. He would tell them in their hearts what to do. Expressing a wish meant fulfilment. They had no food other than corn. The people knew little of how to live. The other food came through the spirit in answer to a wish. The people were like children in mind. The spirit put the thought in a man that he should wish for something. He wished for some dogwood from a tree. It fell down to him. The spirit gave what he wished to give to the people through thought. He put it into the mind of a man to wish for the stem of the soapweed; with this the man made fire by using it on soft wood and blowing the spark into flame. The thought came to the people to cook. It was as if they were waking up or growing up in mind. The spirit put the thought into them that the animals, made by Morning Star, were to be killed and eaten. When the people were thus able to take care of themselves and advanced in knowledge, the spirit withdrew his thoughts after telling the people how to pray to him. Morning Star had said that when the time draws near for something to happen again, like the flood, a sign of that will be the too closely intermarrying of people. Witchcraft When the Caucasian attempts to analyze the mental processes of the Indian in his belief in what we term witchcraft and he calls evil spirits, he often is in a state of perplexity, for he is dealing with a subject which is difficult for him to grasp. It is a common practice {view image of page 57} THE WICHITA 57 to speak of the religion of the Indians as superstition; but in dealing with their witchcraft it can rightly be said that we are touching upon the most vital parts of their superstition. It may be correctly stated that witchcraft permeates the beliefs of every Indian tribe, notwithstanding the fact that almost all interpreters and informants will deny its existence among their people. It is a subject which the Indian instinctively feels should be kept from the white man. The present study of the Wichita may be cited as an illustration. These Indians are subjects of witchcraft to an unusual extent. The two principal informants were not unwilling to impart vital information respecting secret rites, yet when questioned directly or indirectly as to witchcraft, they insisted that their people knew nothing whatsoever of the practice of sorcery. Information procured later proved that both men were members of the " Evil Spirit Cult." Those who do not belong to this cult are of the opinion that more than a third of the tribe are members of the witchcraft group. However, no one outside of the order can tell who is or who is not a witch or a wizard. For this reason the non-sorcerers must be extremely careful not to mention witches or witchcraft. Death is likely to be the penalty for violation of this unwritten tribal law. The best Wichita informant on the subject of sorcery consented to reveal something of its practice, but not all, stating that, " If I told you all, I know my whole family would be dead in a month." That such a condition should exist among Indians living under the laws of the land and in close contact with the white race may seem unbelievable. But there are many ways in which seemingly accidental death can occur, and regardless of laws and association, the Indian does not air his inner troubles to an alien race. On rare occasions a break in the chain of secrecy occurs and some Indian is tried in the courts for murder; yet when the crucial test of evidence comes before the court, friend or foe will rarely depart from Indian tradition and give testimony which would reveal the hand responsible for a "silent death." An Indian, however willing, would find it difficult to give illumining information as to a subject such as this in answer to abstract questions. It is only through stories dealing with the subject that worth-while information can be educed. The following fragmentary tales of the Wichita give an insight into the practice of evil magic, their beliefs in it as well as some of its many contradictions. The included incidents and other information show that in the old days, to become a member of the witch cult, one had to offer the life of some relative or close friend. The giving of the life VOL. XIX-8 {view image of page 58} 58 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN signified his cooperation in the destruction of that individual. Thus the new member was a brother in guilt. The stories also show that the principal forms taken by witches were the owl, the snake, and the dog. Further, that a person when dying from witchcraft was likely to have revealed to him the sorcerer responsible for his condition. In mass or mob, the friends of the dead often openly destroyed the one who was pronounced the cause. Those who were openly killed as witches were not granted burial, but their bodies were carried from the camp where coyotes could strip the bones. A common way of wishing "slow death" upon any one was to procure a lock of his hair or some other object from the victim and place it in a knurl hole in a tree. As this small hole grew closed the victim would wither and die. A quicker way of bringing "silent death" was to put a lock of hair into the mouth of a toad, then kill the toad. As the animal decayed, so would the victim. Direct poisoning was often resorted to; yet with all the actual deeds of the witches, in all probability most of those who thought they were dying of witchcraft were suffering from natural causes. The Strong Man Who Overcame the Witches Once there was a large camp of Wichita near the site of Anadarko. In the village dwelt a middle-age man who had been in many battles and raids, who had a reputation for bravery. Every expedition he had been with had been accompanied by some noteworthy deed, like the taking of scalps or the capture of many horses. But now the war days were over. The man was of fine appearance; he lived quietly and in a good way, doing many favors for people and being well liked; in every way he was a worthy man. This man had a friend who was like a brother to him. They hunted together and spent long hours in talking of the old days. One time he felt so ill that he had to take to his bed. He worried because this best friend did not come to see him in his sickness. His friend knew of his distress and kept thinking that there was something mysterious about it. One evening at dusk the friend was walking and thinking about the sick man. As he reached a point some distance east of the village he came upon a small group of people, men and women, who were standing about as though they were all held by some thought in common. At once he was certain that it was his friend they had in mind. They seemed glad of his coming, welcoming him when he approached. They told him that they had been discussing whether he could be relied on, because he was never serious but always making jokes. He answered them that he could be trusted in every way. {view image of page 59} THE WICHITA 59 This group had been sent out by the evil society, the sorcerers. Whenever one joins, he must give a close relative to be killed - a father, mother, sister, brother. These witches thought they could get this man to join them by giving up his friend as an offering. They had already caused his illness. He went with them to the gathering of the witches, whose meeting-place was on a hilltop among trees. They were seated in a large circle. Most of them had their faces covered with blankets, but some not. These did not seem to care who knew that they were members of the society. At that time, and even today, if a man is brave, he is hard to kill. Or if he is a hard worker it is difficult to kill him. When the sorcerers decide to do away with such a man, the deed must be undertaken by the most powerful of their number. In the circle they left an opening to the east. In the centre sat an old man who was so strong in witchcraft that he had never failed. He sat with his mouth wide open. In a vision appeared the sick man driving a herd of horses. The horses the wizard swallowed, but the sick man came to him and tried to stab him. Then the wizard disappeared. All the people yelled for the sorcerer to try harder. He reappeared and the vision returned. This time all the deeds of the sick man appeared, and the wizard swallowed them. If the wizard could swallow the man, he would die. The young friend saw all; he saw a medicine - a sliced human liver -passed around the circle for each one to eat. When it came to him he pretended to eat, but stealthily dropped his portion on the ground.1 The third time he tried, and again swallowed the horses, but now the man succeeded in stabbing the wizard. The friend jumped up and ran to the village, pursued by the witches, who nearly caught him. When he reached the village he went straight to his friend's house. He embraced the sick man, saying, "You are surely brave; you have killed him." The sick man was puzzled, for he did not know what his friend meant when he kept repeating, "You have killed him." All he could say was, "Do not say that." Over in the east of the village a wailing was heard. The wizard was dead. The man recovered and the witches were afraid of him because he had killed the leader of their society. The Snake Sorcerer -- Trial by Combat One night, when his family were visiting some friends, a man sat alone by the south side of his fire in the lodge. He noticed a small snake going round and round a little puddle of water in front of him. He took up a stick to beat it and finally punched it in the head, pushing the end of the stick entirely through. It came into his mind that this 1 This liver, claimed to be from a human, was supposed to make people wild and to have visions. It is likely that it was treated in some way, thereby producing a frenzied condition. {view image of page 60} 6o THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN was not a real snake, that it was witchcraft. He thought to take it to a friend who could tell him how to dispose of it, but instead he put the thought out of his mind and threw the snake to one side. At that moment he heard a wailing at the other end of the village as if some one were dying. A friend came to him, asking: "Do you hear that man crying? You nearly killed him." The man's head was all bloody and he had pointed out who was trying to kill him. The wounded one, the sorcerer, came over, but the man said, "Come south with me; we can not fight here." They went to the south, followed by the people, until they came to the bank of a creek where they began to fight. Suddenly the wizard disappeared. The man had to find him; his life was forfeit if he did not. As he stood there, something flew down from the sky, a human form. It plowed the water with its foot and kicked the head of the wizard. The spirit above had helped the man. The sorcerer fought again, but once more disappeared in the water, where he was discovered by the form sent by the spirit. Four times this happened, and the last time the water vanished, showing the wizard hiding in the shallow mud. The wizard's followers tried many tricks on the man, but he bested them all. He won and was not killed. The Wizard Who Became Crazy In the village lived a man who was feared by every one because at the least thing he would become angry and kill some one. There arrived a time when the chief became very ill. The wizard was trying hard to kill him; trying hard because if a wizard fails he either dies or goes crazy. Finally the chief died, but before he expired he pointed out the man, saying, "He killed me." In some way the chief had possessed a power which "tangled up" the power of the wizard so that-he went crazy. The first thing he did after becoming crazed was to attempt to stab his son. When the people discovered his condition they wanted to kill him. The wizard climbed to the top of an earth-lodge, where the people surrounded him. He imitated a bear, raising his hands alternately to the sun. His breath was colored blue. He showed what he could do. He said, "You can not hurt me unless you shoot me in the palm of my hand." The people shot at him, hitting him in many places, but to no avail. Finally one man rubbed his bullet and gun with an herb, so that he could not miss, and the missile hit the wizard in his palm. As he toppled off the lodge, he howled like a bear. When he reached the ground he was dead, so the people dragged him outside the village where the coyotes would eat him. When witches were killed, they were never buried. The whole village had participated in this witch-killing, so all were responsible. The wizard's friends might take revenge, but could not do so openly. {view image of facing page 60} The buffalo plains [photogravure plate] {view image of page 61} THE WICHITA The Youthful Sorcerer In a village north of the Red river, people had gathered to feast and to tell stories. While they were talking they heard some one approaching, who turned out to be a youth. The people nearest the door shouted at him in welcome, a welcome as if he were a man of importance. A prominent man inside said, "I thought a great man was coming in, since he was welcomed so gladly." Thus he spoke of the youth in a derogatory manner. All sorcerers know one another. The young man knew the man who spoke, and answered: "I am just as you are. You think you are some one because of what you have, but I want to say that I have as much as you." After the feast was over and all had gone home, the youth found that he was shot through both legs. His knees pained so that he was unable to walk. He became very thin, as if he were drying up. He told his parents to call the man, for when a wizard has cast his spell upon some one, he is paid well to remove it. However, the man refused to come, because he knew the youth had a gun hidden under his bedding with which he meant to kill him. When the young man's parents were going to visit another village, he had them leave him water and food, for he knew that he was too much of a care to take along. The Caddo Sorcerer A certain Caddo, with his two wives, used to attend the Doctor dance of the Wichita, a dance borrowed from the Pawnee to which all societies are invited. Each time this Caddo attended the dance it was noticed that some Wichita who had been present died. When it was thought that he had gone too far with his witchcraft, a certain other wizard said: "When that man and his wives come again, leave matters to me. I shall challenge him." They were glad to turn affairs over to him, and when the next dance was given he was all ready. He had the people sing his song, a song of the owl. While they were singing, he jumped from his place and commenced' to dance, holding hidden in his hands a ball of dogwood-bark peelings, which he ate as he performed. This formed a protective coating around his heart and kept the other sorcerer from killing him. The dancing wizard wore a long red feather in his hair. He danced round and round the fire. Each time as he passed the Caddo sorcerer he bowed his head close to him. The feather was fire, and in this way he scorched the heart of the enemy - burned it without giving the Caddo a chance to use his power. No one else saw what he was doing, for the Doctor dance was going on at the same time. On his way home, the Caddo died. {view image of page 62} 62 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The Owl Wizard A woman of a family which lived east of the dance-grounds became very ill, and grew worse and worse all the time. The medicine doctors found that the illness was in her abdomen and that it was moving around inside like a snake. There was an owl which used to alight on the projecting poles of the grass-house. The woman said to her parents: "That owl which comes every night is the cause of my trouble. He is doing this." When a person is dying, he or she always knows the wizard who is causing the death. It just comes to him. When the owl came again, a man of the family rubbed his gun and a bullet with an herb which makes it impossible to miss anything one shoots at. He hit the owl in the leg, so that it fell to the ground, where he killed it. The following day it was found that a man who lived across the creek was so crippled in the leg that he never stood upright again. Father De Smet, who spent so many years among the Indians and who was an exceptionally keen observer, records a remarkable story of the "silent death" among the Potawatomi- clearly a case of poisoning.1 The Potawatomi who gives frequent feasts is, according to the expression of their songs, one of the heroes of the village. At the beginning of winter, when the hunt has been successful, every lodge presents a scene of rejoicing. Night and day the sound of the flute is heard, together with the deafening clamor of the teweeken or drum, accompanying the monotonous songs of the savages. There is a sacred custom among them, that he who gives a feast may take no share in it himself; he would be dishonored and deemed sacrilegious. The hunter cuts up the animal that he has killed into as many pieces as he wishes to send invitation-sticks to his friends. Any one who cannot come to the feast sends back the stick with some tobacco or some other small present to smooth over his refusal. Generally the whole village is invited, for each of the inhabitants lives in a continual dread of being poisoned by some jealous neighbor. A savage keenly resents a slight or snub; he is vindictive in the extreme, and vengeance being a virtue, according to his ideas, sooner or later he will find occasion to vent all his anger upon any one who has dared to scorn him. The tragic story which I am about to relate is a striking proof of this. I have it from the nephew of Kitchechaonissi himself. One of the finest villages of the Potawatomies, before their emigration to Council Bluffs, was on the point where the Kankakee and Des Plaines rivers unite to form the Illinois. Kitchechaonissi or Great South Wind, a famous warrior, was their chief. His bravery made him feared; but at the same time, by his fatherly kindness, he had won the esteem and love of all his people. He was so fortunate as to have six sons, brave as himself and excellent hunters. He often gave feasts and entertainments to all his village. Sometimes, however, he dared to brave one or another of his neighbors, neglecting, whether in contempt or for any other cause, to send them invitation sticks. The Indians carry their knowledge of poisons and the art of administering them very far; they make use of them with admirable dexterity upon whomsoever displeases them. The five eldest sons of Kitchechaonissi died one soon after another in the course of the same year, victims of the secret vengeance of some envious or vindictive savage. The old man's grief was long and 1 H. M. Chittenden and A. T. Richardson, Life, Letters and Travels of Father PierreJean De Smet, S.J., 1801-1873, Vol. III, pages 1094-1098, New York, 1905. {view image of page 63} THE WICHITA 63 bitter; years passed without his giving a single feast, and he obstinately refused all invitations. His remaining son was his only consolation, his sole hope and the prop of his old age. Endowed with all good qualities in mind and body, brave in war, skillful in the chase, he was especially noted for a filial devotion and submission, until then unequaled among the Indians. Kitchechaonissi loved him as much as a father and chief can love a distinguished son, the favorite of the village, the hero of the nation. His only pleasure was to deck him with the richest and finest adornments known to the nations. The son, by his assiduous care, had brought back the old brave to his former serenity, and apparently to all his happiness. One day he returned from the hunt with a large bear that he had killed, and according to his custom he laid it at the feet of Kitchechaonissi. The old man bade him cut up the beast and invite all the elders of the village to the Feast of the Bear. Through oversight, the young hunter forgot four old men of the great medicine band; but he resolved to return to the desert immediately after the feast, in order to invite them the first to a second banquet. The mirth and rejoicings of the people were great on this occasion, for it was the first time since the death of his five sons that this beloved chief had taken part in a great solemnity. Everything went off most harmoniously. Kitchechaonissi was at the height of pleasure, listening to the praises of his son, and the songs that celebrated his great bravery and lofty virtues. Alas! grief followed closely this paternal triumph; the next day the young hero found himself unwell; the most famous jugglers were called in to his aid; but all their methods, songs, dances, the power of their breath, were practiced to no avail; the sickness quickly made fearful progress, and on the eighth day, all the village, mourning and weeping, accompanied Waapekiejeck, the Dawn, which was the young warrior's name, to the tomb of his unhappy brothers. Kitchechaonissi painted himself black and disappeared from the village, after the burial; his people sought him everywhere, but in vain. He had withdrawn to the most desert place, among the cliffs, to weep. Often, in the bitterness of his heart, he prayed the Master of Life to permit him to go and join his dear children in the land of souls. One day while seated at the edge of a torrent plunged in reveries, he thought he heard a voice saying, "Rise, Kitchechaonissi, rise quickly; cross the river, climb the steep hills, and you shall see your son whom you so mourn." He rose at once; the sun had just finished his course and disappeared behind the distant bluffs. The old man looked about him on all sides; but seeing no one, he raised his eyes and hands toward heaven, exclaiming, "How now! Shall I see my son? My fingers closed his eyes; my hands dug his grave; my lips kissed his pale and livid brow, before lowering him beside his unhappy brothers!" But an irresistible power seemed to drag him on; he obeyed it. He threw himself into the torrent and gained the opposite shore; it was a desert place, difficult of access. How great was his surprise when he heard the dull sound of a drum, coming from a ravine on the farther side of the great hill. Like the hunter who has found the trail of the animal he pursues, the old man crossed the high mound with a speed astonishing for his age. The sound of the drum becomes louder and louder as he proceeds, and his uneasiness and curiosity are extreme. He stops an instant to take breath, and to look about him with caution. He soon discovers, in a deep ravine, a bark lodge, whence the noise issues. Under cover of the darkness he hastens with a light step toward the mysterious spot. He trembles in all his limbs; his blood is ice in his veins; scarcely can he breathe. A thousand phantoms rise before his imagination, excited and disturbed by so many troubles. The promise that he had heard upon the rock, "You shall see your son," at last reanimates his courage. He takes a few steps forward, looks in at a chink in the lodge, and is seized with astonishment, indignation and horror; he recognizes the four old men who did not take part in the Feast of the Bear, busied in horrid incantations with their medicine bag spread out before them. He looks more closely and sees five skulls upon posts. He goes around the cabin, looks through another crack, and discovers by the firelight a fifth Indian standing motionless at the farther end of the lodge. - Is it his son? He examines him attentively. He has the same garments, the same ornaments, with which he was buried. It was thus that he had painted his face at his last feast. - But why this livid hue, these closed eyes, this corpselike appearance? How has he come to this fearful desert? and in a society a thousand times more fearful yet? For a long time Kitchechaonissi had suspected these four old men of being the cause of his sorrows. Thoughts of vengeance, hope, doubt, were toiling in his breast. He knew not what to do; he watched all their motions and listened attentively. The one who had the drum began beating it again; the next shook his gourd rattle, the third blew the flute, while the fourth addressed the most insulting language to the young hero, {view image of page 64} 64 TIHE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN boasting at the same time of the great power of their medicines, which neither he nor his brothers had been able to resist. Like a tiger, or a lioness robbed of her young ones, Kitchechaonissi felt all at once his vigor return, his blood boiled in his veins. Armed with his terrible tomahawk, he rushed into the lodge and discharged all his fury upon the terrified murderers of his children; he laid them all dead at his feet, and they dared not try to resist him. Then he went to embrace his son, and found that he had in his arms only his stuffed skin. -This occurrence was soon known to all the village; the young man's grave was opened; his remains were not there, nor those of his brothers. Circumstances proved beyond a doubt that the old men were the poisoners, and that they had received, according to Indian customs, the just penalty of their crimes. Ceremonies The Deer Dance and the Building of the Grass-house In ancient time a young man of the tribe travelled to the south from the land where lived the Wichita. The spirits had put the thought in his heart that if he journeyed far and with courage he would receive some great power. After he had roamed long, he saw something far ahead of him. At first he could not tell what it was, but as he drew near he saw that in form it was like a man. As he came yet closer, the stranger spoke: I am the Red Bean Man.1 I know that the spirits have sent you to find some power which will help the people. I know that you were coming to me. I can give you power and knowledge which will help your people. Through that which I give you, your people will have strength and food. Listen carefully to what I tell you, for it is something great and you must make no mistakes. Then the spirit, for such it was, told this man how to build the grass-house; how to begin the ceremony and to put the thought of the songs and prayers in his heart. "Now, my friend, return to your village," he said. "Remember these things which I have told you. All this knowledge is from Kinnikasuis, the Spirit Over All. These are his words which I bring to you." For a time after returning to his people this young man did not tell of what he had learned, but spent his days in thought. Then when he felt that it was time to impart his knowledge, he called all his tribe together. As the men from all parts hurried to the council ground, some said, "Now we shall know what the spirits told this 1 In the continuation of the story the informant can not be presumed to be telling of the building of the first grass-house or the holding of the first Deer dance, but rather is he describing the building of the house in its fully-developed form, and the dance after years of existence. The Wichita are particularly fixed in the feeling that all knowledge comes from the spirits. The legends accounting for the ceremonies and of securing all knowledge illustrate their theory of spiritual instruction. {view image of facing page 64} The dance - Wichita [photogravure plate] {view image of page 65} THE WICHITA 65 young man when he was away to the south." "Yes," answered others, "he was gone long and it is certain he has brought us something great." When all were gathered, the young man stood up and prayed to Kinnikasiis that his words might be true words; that the things they did might bring good to the tribe. Then he spoke to his people: My heart told me I should go south and look for knowledge which would help our people. I travelled many days until I met a spirit who told me how to make a great ceremony of song and prayer; that through this rite we should be free of sickness; our people would multiply, and we should have plenty of food. Soon I shall give this ceremony, but first we must build a house for it. In the future the homes for all the people will be as this house which the spirit told me how to build; for they are good, and in them the tribe will have good health. First, the women will make the ground ready; they will cut away the sod on the chosen space and make smooth the surface with the pure earth. In shape it will be round like the sun. The men will go to the forest and cut many short cedar posts with crotches at the top. Of these, four of the best will be planted in the ground, in the shape of a square, beginning at the east. All of these posts must be made fine and smooth, or the spirits will say our work is not good. When the four posts of the house are secured in position, then you will set up others about them that the form of the house may be round. In the crotches you will lay other fine cedar timbers, against which will rest all outer timbers. Next you will divide the workers into four parties, the leader of each taking his men to one point of the land: the first to the south, the next to the west, then one to the north and one to the east. Each party will cut and prepare a fine long cedar. These four from the four winds are the strength of the house. They are like the chiefs who hold up the tribe. Before these men and their leaders go out to look for the fine cedars, they will pray to Kinnikasus that their work may be good; that the cedars which they find may give the house great strength, and that through the strength of the house the people may prosper. When the tree is found, again the men will pray to the spirits that their work will be good; that the house be strong. If you are cutting a tree at the south, you will pray to Kinnikasuis and to the spirits of the south. Do the same in the west, the north, and the east. First, in felling the tree, go with pure thought in your minds; strike it a gentle blow first from the east, then from the south, west, and north. When the tree is about to topple, make sure that it falls to the south, for it is from the south that the spirits speak to us. As instructed, the men cut the four long cedars and with axes hewed them until they were slender timbers, their width twice their thickness. The men of the south brought their cedars first, and all VOL. XIX-9 {view image of page 66} 66 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN the people rejoiced with them. One by one the other parties brought in their timbers, and the people shouted their thanks. The four cedars were set firmly into the ground and each of the first four poles was planted a short distance out; then the tops were bent to the centre, forming the main frame of the dome-shape structure. The leader climbed a notched log ladder until he was at the height of the timbers, where, looking to the sky, he prayed: Kinnlkasus, this is your house. It is good; I am thanking you for it. Guide us and help us in all things done in it. This house is your work; Let me tie these poles well That the people may have health and happiness. Look upon us, that this work be blessed. At the close of his prayer he tied the four poles so that their points were toward the four directions. Next he directed all the men of the tribe to go in all ways to get many long poles to complete the frame of the structure. He then called on the women to do their part. You will be divided into four parties, with a leader for each. One will go and gather the long swamp-grass for the inner covering; one will bring the prairie bunch-grass for the outer thatch; one will cut the osiers to hold the thatch in place; one will collect the elm-bark to tie all together. At the east we shall have a door, that the rising sun can look in. At the foot of this door we shall build of earth the sign of the sun. At the west we shall make a door that the sun on leaving us can see that all is well. At the foot of the door on the west we shall build of earth the crescent sign of the moon. Near the top at the south we shall make a small circular hole so placed that the sun's rays through it will strike the fireplace at mid-day. Through this the Spirit Over All can look down on us and see that all is well. That the house may have life, we shall make the fire altar. At the centre of the house the leader then struck the earth four times, once for each direction, then hollowed out the fire-hole and built an earthen rim around it. With the fire-sticks the flame was started. When all this was done, he commanded the older women to take their buckets and go to the river for water. "Dip the water upstream," he further commanded. The women led by a man returned in single-file and entered at the east. This water was cast upon the ground and the soft earth made smooth. Then he sent all the young men to gather fresh sage, which was spread upon the floor as a mat. The people rejoiced and gave thanks that they had learned to make such a fine house. The leader said: "The house is now done; it is built as the spirits {view image of facing page 66} Dancers - Wichita [photogravure plate] {view image of page 67} THE WICHITA 67 taught. Tomorrow we shall begin the ceremony as directed by my spirit teacher." He appointed two firekeepers that they might care for the fire throughout the ceremony. They were to collect and place by the fireplace sufficient wood to last for the four days; also they were to notify the chiefs and medicine-men that all was ready for the ceremony, and that they were to come with their medicine-bundles. The leader sat next to the west of the fire. As each man entered, he stopped at the doorway awaiting instructions from the leader, who said, "Choose where you will sit, for you know the position of your society." Each possessor of a medicine-bundle had several followers, neophytes, to learn and assist, who grouped themselves about their teacher. Each bundle-man had a bow in his right hand and a gourd in his left. After all were in, the leader announced that the ceremony would commence in the evening. When the time came to perform the ceremony, the man at the right of the leader filled a pipe, while the man on the left took up a coal which he gave to the leader to light his pipe. He puffed to the sky, saying: "0, Kinnikasiis! You are looking upon what we are doing. Guide and take care of us." After the invocation he turned and put the stem of the pipe in the mouth of his right-hand man, who puffed four times. The left-hand man puffed in his turn, then brushed off the fireplace ridge at the southwest. Next he gradually lowered the pipe, bowl pointing to the south, four times. After he cleaned the bowl and laid it down, he threw the ashes in the fire. This concluded the first night of the ceremony. On the second night the leader purified himself by touching the ground and rubbing his head, body, arms, and legs. Songs were begun and lasted all night. After daylight, the older women cooked food to be brought in. At this time they asked permission of the leader to watch the ceremony on the following night, but he did not answer, only saying to the others: "You must decide if these women may watch. They are cooking food not only for one person, but for many." The others rarely refused permission. The leader had advised his doorkeeper to admit the women who wished to witness the showing of the medicine-bundles and to learn what their keepers had been taught to do. The doorkeepers showed the women where they were to be seated. These two men had charge of the activities inside. The leader consented to whatsoever they desired to have done, because they were working for him. {view image of page 68} 68 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The leader announced that the women had volunteered to cook their best food for the purpose of seeing them act with their medicinebundles; that they were now at liberty to proceed with what they had; that they might unwrap their bundles to show what they knew; that they might proceed in any direction from the fire, and that singing would accompany the entire performance. When he finished his instructions, a man at the south, with four sage sticks in his hand, said, "We shall eat some parched corn." He ran around the fire four times, returned to his seat, held the sage sticks over the fire until the leaves were embers, closed his free hand over the burning fagot, and then opened his hand to show that the sparks had turned to red beans. North of the leader a man who had a red bean in his hand walked around the fire, looking at the people or at the bean, searching for a hiding-place as he did so. He wiped his hand, and the bean was gone. One of his assistants arose, ran around the fire, then slowed down to a walk. He went where his teacher had gone, looking about him for possible hiding-places for the bean. Finally he walked up to a smooth beam and smacked it with the palm of his hand, when the bean appeared. He placed it on the fireplace ridge that all might see it. Between the medicine acts the participants all joined in dancing, led by a man dressed to represent the deer and whose movements simulated those of that animal. Singing, which at times grew wild and furious, continued throughout the ceremony. A man in the north arose and said: " You all know why the women are here. We want to satisfy them." He was told to proceed and show what he could do. This man had an eagle's head and skin in his hand, and he imitated the bird as he went around the fire four times. He would stop and spin around, advance and flap his arms, finally coming back to his seat, where a live eagle appeared. He circled around the bird, whistling as an eagle whistles, until it started to fold back its wings. Then he picked it up, but only the head and skin were there. The man on the right of the leader spoke, saying, " I am poor and can not do much, but we want to satisfy the women." All the people knew that when a man talked in that way he was going to show what he could do. They all cried, "Go ahead and show what you can do!" He ran around the fire four times with a large snake-skin in his hand. When he returned to his seat, he placed the skin before him. At once it became alive and writhing, head held high as if to strike. Again he went around the fire, and on his return he sat down and held his hands over the snake until it became only a skin as before. {view image of facing page 68} A Wichita dancer [photogravure plate] {view image of page 69} THE WICHITA 69 In the northeast a man rose who carried a duck's head and skin. After he went around the fire he approached his seat where there was a bucket of water. As he circled about it he peered within several times. Now he made as if to shove his bird's head and skin into it, and there appeared a live duck which swam about. Then it disappeared, leaving only the head and skin in the man's hand. The firekeeper at the north side of the door rose, saying: "I am ready to do what I know. I am appointed to do whatsoever the leader wants done. I am tired after doing his work. I am sleepy after making the fire. I am trying to dowhat he wants done." This man ran around the fire, stopping at each cardinal point. He had a red bean in his hand. Finally he swung his arm about his head and threw the bean, which disappeared in mid-air. His fellow firekeeper on the other side of the door, who held a black feather fan in both hands, rose and hopped about the fire. As he came back to his seat, he motioned as if to throw the fan in the air, whereupon flew up a blackbird which began to look for the lost red bean. As the bird sought for it, the firekeeper watched the bird. When it whistled, he knew the bean was found. He walked to the fire, thrust his hand into the heart of it, pulled out the red bean, and placed it on the fireplace ridge. The first firekeeper took it, patted his side, and it disappeared into his body. These two men had been taught by the same person. A woman in the south arose and said: " I am only a woman, while you are men. What little I know has been handed down to me, but I shall do as I have been taught." She ran round and round the fire, each time circling closer to it. Suddenly she disappeared. A man rose from his seat, whistling between his teeth. He ran hard around the fire many times. Suddenly the woman was seen running behind him. The two slowed down and went to their places. When the members witness these miracles, they feel great enthusiasm; they feel a spirit rising within them. One man went into a trance, so that the others had to hold him. Red, white, and colored feathers streamed out of his mouth. His pupils stood close before him and swallowed the feathers as he blew them out. Thus they presumed to acquire their leader's supernatural power. Another man, who had a wildcat-skin, arose to perform his part. He ran around the fire four times, then climbed to the top of the lodge, where he hung head downward, suspended in some way by his body, his feet and hands dangling in air. One of his pupils, by using his medicine, quieted him, so that he gradually eased himself down. {view image of page 70} 70 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Because he could not be fully quieted, the man dashed for the door, which was jammed with spectators, but vanished before getting there. The people searched the lodge, but could not find him. Then one of his assistants ran around the fire four times, when he too vanished, going to his leader's home, where at first he saw nothing. After searching, he saw the man suspended through the smoke-hole. The pupil could not get him down, so he ran back to the ceremonial lodge where he secured a bow-string of wildcat intestine which he rubbed four times with his right hand. After he ran back to his leader's home, he made four motions of throwing it up to where the man was suspended. Then he threw it four times, hitting both hands and feet in turn. Now the man was able to free himself and come down easily. Another man, in a cataleptic state, climbed to the top of the lodge and hung himself head downward. All the people tried to get him down, but none succeeded. Finally one of his helpers, by waving a feather fan, was able to bring him down gently. Throughout the third day and night there were feasting and song. On the fourth and last night, presents of food and valuable things were given to obtain entrance. Those who were unable to make such gifts were allowed to watch from the doorway. At the beginning a man arose and ran around the fire four times with sage in his right hand. He held the sage in the fire until sparks dropped from it. When he passed his hand over the glowing sage, the sparks turned into red beans, which he laid on the fireplace ridge. Then he took up a bean and the sage, and as he walked around the fire the bean vanished. The participants in the south of the lodge searched for the beans which those in the north had hidden in their hair, about their bodies, or somewhere in the lodge. The beans revealed their hiding-places by twinkling with points of light. After the beans were found, the people in the north hunted for those the south people had hidden. All entered the ceremony at this time; and no one was allowed to leave until its conclusion, because a bean might enter a person, and if he should leave bearing one within him, it would be ominous. The leader announced that the end was approaching. He said: If my instructions have been followed closely, food will become plentiful and the people will increase. I am poor in knowledge, but Ihave given here what I have learned. If I have been careful and the spirits are pleased with my work, they will help me. The Red Bean man told me: "Here on earth I have watched you and liked your ways. I have tried to have the spirits help me that I might teach you {view image of facing page 70} Skidi and Wichita dancers [photogravure plate] {view image of page 71} THE WICHITA 71 and give you my supernatural power." I went on a journey until I saw some one whom I did not recognize. I feared to get too close, I went slowly as I approached the person, stopping and starting again four times. Finally I decided that, regardless of everything, I should get nearer. I thought back in my mind, but the being was no one I had ever seen. Then this one, who was a ghost, spoke, saying: " I am the one who has helped you in your work. The things you have done and gone through I have planned out for you. I caused you to come to me. Look over here closely and see where I am, and where my neighbor, who is the snake, lives, he who paints himself in white clay and likes the Deer dance only. I live there in the south; there I shall be forever. When you make smoke, blow it in my direction. I have given you the Deer dance and the songs which will benefit you throughout life, warding off sickness. The ceremony I have given you belongs to Kinnikasuis, who gave it to me. Whenever you need help, follow my instructions and you will receive assistance." This ceremony is referred to by the Wichita as the Deer dance, or the Dance of the Medicine-men. It does not, however, include in its performance all of the medicine-bundles of the tribe, but seemingly only those associated with the Deer and the Red Bean. The Bear medicine-bundle, for example, one of the most important in the tribe, is not included; nor does the teaching of the Buffalo spirit form a part. It is obvious that the original concept of this ceremony was not, as might be presumed from its name, "Medicine-man dance," one which dealt primarily with healing, but rather with the promotion of propagation and welfare. The simple legerdemain which forms the principal feature of the ceremony is characteristic of many semisedentary tribes of the Southwest. The "magic" plant-growing of the Navaho, for example, is of the same type of sleight-of-hand. The informant, the foremost Wichita medicine-man of his generation, related the story as though the performances described were actual miracles, and in a side discussion raised the question why people at the present time could not perform such feats. No effort was made to determine the mechanical aids to sleightof-hand used in producing the illusions. Having gone thoroughly into the magic of tribes most efficient in ceremonial legerdemain, the writer could probably have told his informants more as to how the miracles were performed than they themselves knew. In the Deer ceremony there was a suggestion of mass hypnotism, the spectators believing that they saw what they were told to see or were seeing. {view image of page 72} 72 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN It must be borne in mind also that the rooms in which the ceremonies were held were in semi-darkness, the only illumination being the small central fire. Darkness is always the first aid in magic. Seemingly spirits and ghosts are loth to appear in bright light; in fact, it is unthinkable that they should. Surround-the-fire Ceremony Once there was a spirit who took pity on a man on the earth. He met this man, saying: "I am going to impart to you what I know, because I am pleased with you and your way of living. I want to impart to you my knowledge. If you will follow my instructions, I shall be pleased with your work. Early some morning there will be a fog. That morning I want you to start out in a southerly direction until you come to a thicket of dogwood, where you must take your knife and cut a stick, cutting with one stroke on the east, one on the south, north, and west, in turn, and then pushing it over to the south. Then cut it to arrow length and bring it back to the lodge." The man was glad in his heart that this knowledge was given to him. One morning when he awoke there was a fog, and the thought came to him that this must be the time for him to start out. He bathed in the creek and went southward, where he followed directions. He met the spirit, who said: "Come with me this way - northwestward. I know your heart, and it is good. I want to show you this way of mine as a gift to you. I have certain instructions which you must follow carefully, because they are important. I have been through the things you are going through. Here is the first thing you must have -a black pipe. A thought will come to you that certain songs must be sung. When this thought comes, select some good man of the village to keep up the fire. Sit in the southwestern part of the lodge with your pipe and tobacco, and with a man on your right and your left. Have the man on your left light your pipe from a dogwood stick which the firekeeper will have in the fire. Let him return the stick to the fire after lighting the pipe. Now select two old men to go in any direction except eastward, where they must cut four dogwood sticks just as you cut yours. Then let others be cut, which may be gathered in any manner. After they have finished, they may come back to the lodge. These are the instructions you must follow." After these things were done, the leader sat inside the house. The old men who had cut the dogwood sticks went once around the lodge {view image of page 73} THE WICHITA 73 and entered with them, placing them before the leader, after picking out the first four and laying them to one side. He had it announced that the ceremony was about to begin. The men entered the lodge. The leader selected four men, to whom he gave the first four dogwood sticks, placing them in the north, east, south, and west. These men were to be the song leaders. The man on the leader's left filled and lighted the pipe as the spirit had directed, and gave it to the leader, who inhaled and puffed upward to the spirit, saying that he was about to commence what had been given to him and asking that the spirit look down and guide him. Ordering the eastern doorway cleared, he went over and blew smoke through it, and made a prayer to Morning Star: "When you were on earth you helped all in need. Now help me in what I am about to do." He next puffed smoke to the south, to Niftkatiiktowe ("The Light In The South"), and made a prayer. He smoked to the fire and blew smoke over the dogwood sticks which were lying with their points toward him. Next with each hand he rubbed the stem of the pipe twice from bowl to mouthpiece. Then he purified himself by rubbing his head, body, arms, and legs. A man in the south cleared a place on the fireplace ridge, where he deposited ashes from the pipe four times and threw the remainder in the fire. Each member had a buffalo-hide before him to beat upon with the sticks which the leader had passed around. The four song leaders already had their sticks. The leader started four songs, followed in turn by each of the song leaders who sang four songs. After each had sung, he smoked. Each was allowed to sing more than four songs if he wished, but he must not repeat himself. After the round of songs, the leader smoked as before. Smoking and singing were carried on four times. On the last round of singing, the leader's song was to the dogwood. His quitting song told the wood that the ceremony was coming to an end, and his voice fell softly, signifying that his voice was becoming tired and that he was near the close..The leader then passed his stick to his neighbor, who in turn passed it and also his own to his neighbor, and so on until all the sticks were gathered and returned to the leader, who laid them carefully before him. The firekeeper took the dogwood stick from the fire and placed it with the others. The leader directed the firekeeper to have the women bring in food, to be placed by the fireplace. He took four pieces of the food VOL. XIX-IO {view image of page 74} 74 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN in his right hand and raised them to the spirit with a prayer. Another offering was made to Morning Star, to the south, and to the light. He then purified himself by rubbing arms, legs, and head, and became seated. The leader now instructed the firekeeper to bring four wooden bowls and four buffalo-horn spoons; to fill the bowls with food and to place them before the four song leaders; to distribute the remainder of the food to all present in the lodge, and to those who crowded the north and south doorways. He asked the firekeeper to see that all had food before he himself ate, and that any that remained should be taken home for members of the families. Each broke off a small piece of food and purified his body before eating. The leader informed the firekeeper that day was breaking, and instructed him to place the sticks in the west of the lodge and lay them east-west. He invoked the heavenly gods and the earthly gods that they should grant his prayer; he instructed the people as to what they should do, how they should live; and finished by bidding them to leave. The spirit had said: "This ceremony is a very great thing. If you follow my instructions closely, the people will increase and your children will grow healthy." This ceremony, which has no dancing, is held in autumn. All Wichita ceremonies are broadly similar in ritualistic form. Slight differences in the movement will be noted, and the songs of course differ with each ceremony. There is a striking similarity between Wichita ritualistic form and the Peyote ceremony of today; indeed so much is this the case that one may assume the ritual of the widely distributed Peyote ceremony to have been borrowed from this tribe. Rain Ceremony One summer, very long ago, six men went southward to hunt. They travelled far, stopping and hunting in the most favorable places, but while they were in a country where much game should have been, their luck was poor. Their supply of provisions became low; water was almost exhausted because there had been no rain; the whole region was dry, and there was no game. The hunters knew that there must be water ahead of them, so they kept on, although they were beginning to feel very weak. In those days an herb was used to chew in order to alleviate thirst when water was lacking. One of the men in the party had some of {view image of facing page 74} Modern dance costume - Pawnee [photogravure plate] {view image of page 75} THE WICHITA 75 the herb, but after it had been consumed the hunters became so weak that in this condition they imagined they saw some ponds. They were so exhausted now that they had to lie down; but one man, the strongest, kept on, going in a southwesterly direction. He continued until he saw a stream-bed with a lone tree beside it. Arriving there, he found that the stream had dried and that the tree was bare to the roots. As he looked at it, he saw a buffalo whose head was far down among the roots. He could do nothing to kill the animal, so he threw a stone, hitting it on the rump and causing it to jump and run away. He looked into the hole where the head of the buffalo had been and saw a tiny pool of water, but he had no means of getting at it. Looking down into the depths of the hole he saw a water lizard, to which he spoke: "You have the power to make it rain. There is little water here. Take pity on me, for I am dying of thirst." The hunter reached far down into the spring, trying to scoop up water, but he was afraid that the water-monster might bite his hand. He said to it: "You have the power. You see my condition. I should like to feel the big drops of rain on my body now. If you will give me some of your power, I promise that I shall kill and bring game here for you." Retracing his steps, the hunter reached his companions, to whom he revealed the news of the water; but they were too weak to rise. He called to the water-monster, all the while sitting with his comrades: "You should help me! If I do not die of thirst, I shall bring you game every now and then!" In the sky above a great black cloud appeared. Soon rain fell; it remained until the hunters were immersed. The men revived so that they could drink while lying down, but the hunter who had found the water had to keep the others from taking too much. One died, but the others soon regained their strength. Becoming very hungry, they looked around for the weapons which they had cast aside. Those of the dead man were divided among the rest. They killed some game. The man who was strongest remembered what he had promised the water-monster, so he took to the spring the best of the first buffalo he killed. "Here I am. Here is what I promised you," he offered. Then he brought the rest of the buffalo, which he dropped down piece by piece, saying: "You have saved my life, and all our lives but one. You have done a great thing for me." He told the others to go ahead and camp by a caion; that he would meet them there that night and in the morning they would go home together. Toward dark he heard a long call. He knew in 4 {view image of page 76} 76 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN his mind whose voice it was and whence it came, so he started toward the sound. When he reached the stream, he saw some one standing there. He noticed that the meat he had placed there was all gone. This person said: Everything that you told me was truthful. You asked my help and I gave it to you. You asked for rain. It is not hard for me to bring rain, because I know all about making it. Now, I am going to give you that power, and when you undertake to do as I have done, I shall know it. If you follow my instructions carefully, it will rain. I shall show you how to start and finish, but you must not go beyond that. You must do as I want you to do. You are to accomplish this in the grass-house, which must have a door in the south and one in the north. Take this black pipe. When you commence, you must have some one light it for you and make smoke for you first. You will have to select a man to cut four dogwood sticks, who will cut them on each side from each direction and make them fall to the north. You must peel the bark in the centre of these sticks and notch this bare part at intervals. With each stick must be a wooden bowl which you are to invert and set at intervals in a row, with a buffalo-hide over all. A man must be on each side of each bowl to hold down the ends of the sticks with his feet. Four buffalo shinbones must be rubbed over the notched sticks to make music for your songs. Take this small, blue, wooden bowl. If the people ask you to make rain, have this beside you filled with water. Go to a stream, reach into it, catch a small fish, and bring it back and put it in the bowl. This power is a great power; you have all that goes with it. When you overtake your party, do not stop, but go on home. Stay there four days and sleep four times. Then bring back one bead to me here. At the end of the four days the hunter returned with the bead. The person was there, and he said: " I am glad, for you meant what you promised. You have followed my instructions, and I am pleased. Now you and I will become brothers, and when you go back I shall watch over you and guide you. You have the power in your hands now. When you want it to rain, use these things and it will rain. When it comes, I want all the village to bathe." He gave the man a small black object of clay, and said: "When you begin the ceremony, dampen this and make a small vertical mark under each eye. I am giving you my power; but I have nothing to do with your life, for the Spirit Above attends to that. We must all die some day, and we are all guided by the same Spirit Above. There you stand looking into my face. If I should die before you, I want you to remember me and how I gave you these things. If you die {view image of facing page 76} Woman's costume - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 77} THE WICHITA 77 first, I shall think about you. It will be easy for you to find game you will not have to hunt far to find plenty. Now we must part." The hunter returned home and continued to live in his customary manner, saying nothing of his newly gained power. Then there came a time when all the fields were dying for lack of rain. The corn, their "mother food," withered; the beans and the squashes shriveled. All through the fields could be heard the wailing of the women as though crying for the dead, for without food there would be death in every family. Some of the older women assembled so that they might think of some way to bring rain. One of the women said: "A certain young man who went out on a long hunting trip to the south is very quiet and acts as though he might have found some power. Let us talk with him." So the women left the dying crops and went to the home of the young man. As they entered, he looked them over and saw that they were the best women of the village come for some purpose. One said: "Our corn and our fields are burning up. We have come to ask if you have any power to use in our need." The other three women repeated what the first had said. The young man answered: "Your words are all received. I am glad that you have asked me, for I shall help you." "What shall we do? What work shall we do in the grass-house to get ready? We want this now, for the corn is burning up." "Select a grass-house and clean it well, for we shall hold the ceremony there. Then come back here, because I have something else to tell you." When that was done, he ordered: "Raise and fasten back all the beds in the house to make room for the ceremony. Sweep the floor from the eastward, piling the sweepings by the north door. Then you must wrap these up, carry them northward, and deposit them very carefully. Select two young girls who shall bring water from the creek in wooden bowls to sprinkle over the floor." After these instructions had been obeyed he carried in his robes, sticks, bones, bowls, and everything that went with his bundle. He chose a young man to make the smoke for him. When asked where he was going to sit, he decided on the south side, so a robe was placed there for him. The bowls were lined up before him, with a stick beside each bowl and a buffalo shin-bone beside each stick. A bowl of water was placed beside him for sprinkling the floor and the objects composing his bundle. His smoke-maker went around the village crying that at night the rain ceremony would begin. {view image of page 78} 78 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The leader sat at the southern side with his smoke-maker at his right. He asked men to sit behind the bowls and to put the sticks over them, holding down the ends with their feet. Others sat opposite these men, holding down the other ends. Thus were all four sticks held, each by two men. He smoked and offered a prayer to the gods of sky and earth. He commenced the songs, accompanied by the music of the notched sticks. The songs lasted all night, so that by breakfast time only a few people were left. Then the women brought food, placing it in dishes outside the door. Those inside came out to eat, but went in again when finished, to resume the singing, which lasted all that day. During the second night the grass-house was filled with spectators. Gourd rattles were used to accompany the music. The leader knew that rain was coming when no one else knew it, because he could tell by the sound of the bowls and sticks, although it was still very far away. His song was: "The rain is coming. The bowls and sticks sound louder. I hear the roar of the thunder under those things." The third day was devoted to singing, and at night the leader talked in the soft tone of the song: "This meeting will last four days and nights. This is now the third night. I am getting ready to call the spirit of the rain." This night no one could enter or leave the house, because each door was guarded by two men armed with fagots of sand burrs. If whipped with these, an itching and burning of the skin resulted. If people wanted to leave for any reason, they had to ask permission of the firekeeper to go out, but to come back at once; and they must leave their robes or other valuables as security for their return. Guards passed throughout the village warning the people to keep within their homes, for those who walked about would be whipped with sand burrs. After the second day food was left at the northwest side of the fireplace, where it must be eaten. When one group had finished, another took its place, so that the songs were continuous. On the morning of the fourth day, the leader went to the creek to bathe. While in the water, he saw a man who was partly hidden, watching him. This man he knew to belong to the witch society. He swam around in a circle four times, then stood on his feet, facing the north. He dived under the water. The hidden man saw the water make an eddy and the spray fly into the air and fall back. The leader reared his head, only to go under the water again. This he did four times. {view image of facing page 78} Cheyenne child [photogravure plate] {view image of page 79} THE WICHITA 79 When he emerged, he started back on his path, not changing his stride, not stopping; if he stopped, the rain would cease coming. He looked neither to the right nor to the left, but kept his gaze on the ground. No one was allowed to cross his path. He entered the grass-house and resumed his former place. That evening he urged the singers and everybody to keep up the singing, because the time for the close was near at hand. He said: "Tonight at midnight the rain will come to our village. When it arrives, we shall have a rain-bath. When it strikes the ground, hot air will rise, but that is not good. We must wait till all is cool; then I shall give the word for a rain-bath." No one was allowed to sleep inside the grass-lodge; even the women who had asked for the ceremony must stay awake and sing. The water-girls must remain there, as must all who were appointed to assist. The regulations for the fourth night were very strict, for no one was allowed to enter or to leave for any purpose whatsoever. Nor was any one allowed to go behind the leader or his bundle. As midnight approached the leader went outside to see how far off the rain was. The people could hear thunder. The musicians scraped their sticks faster; the songs grew wild, fast, and furious to encourage the rain to come nearer. The first song told the leaders to try harder, that their voices were getting weaker. The leader reentered and announced that he was pleased with what the song leaders sang to him: "Try harder; sing faster, for it will not be long until we are through. The rain is here now!" The singing continued even as he was talking, because it stopped for nothing. Some of the younger men began to whisper among themselves: "It is raining outside! Hear it on the grass-house!" The rain had arrived, but they continued to sing. After it had rained for some time and the hot ground had cooled, the leader announced that it was time to pass out the north door. All departed, removing their clothing as they went, and forming a line a few steps from the door, facing northward. He had them all bathe and return to the house to resume their former places. The leader had each one sip from the blue bowl as it was passed around, until it came back to the smoke-maker, whom he directed to pour some water on his hand, wet his hair, and take a small drink. Then he announced that it was daylight. "We have finished. The earth was dry and hot; our fields were dying. Now it is cool; the corn will grow; we shall have food. You singers may depart, but leave the sticks and the bones as you found them; the smoke {view image of page 80} 80 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN maker will take charge of them." The smoke-maker took the sticks and the bones and laid them in the creek, directed north-south. That day the leader swept the room, piling the refuse at the north door and carrying it all to the north. He then told the family that owned the grass-house that they must not enter it for four days. Gifts of corn, plaited pumpkin, and other foods were given the rainmaker by the women. "We are giving this to you and your family," they said. He thanked them and they returned home. An obvious question will be, What would happen if the rainmaker failed to produce rain? In Indian thought and ceremony, excuse for failure is easy to find. A leader might say that it was due to the violation of one of the rules of the ceremony; or more likely he might claim that sorcerers with the connivance of evil spirits had caused the failure. Buffalo-bundle Ceremony One time there lived in a village a handsome young man who, from what he had heard and seen of other men who had been endowed with supernatural power, desired to be so gifted himself. One had to be good in heart and live right to receive such power, because the sky gods and the earth gods knew whether people were good or bad. This young man was good. One day he went hunting, going farther away from the village than he had ever been before, until he came to a small, treeless creek. As he neared it he saw a buffalo coming toward the water from the west. He made his weapons ready to kill the animal and moved up until he was within easy bowshot, but then stopped, waiting for it to come up the creek bank. As the young man watched, a girl climbed the slope where the buffalo had gone down. She approached him, saying, "I have come for you." He thought that now he might be given some supernatural power because the girl was strange to him; he had never seen her before. He answered her, "All right." When she turned away, he followed, and so they went until evening, when she asked if he was tired, hungry, and thirsty. When he replied that he was tired, she fed him and gave him drink. They rested there that night, but she informed him that he could not sleep with her; that they must lie apart, one to the south and the other to the north. Early the next morning the girl arose and went a distance to the northwest. When the young man awoke, he looked at the spot where {view image of facing page 80} Cheyenne baby-carrier [photogravure plate] {view image of page 81} THE WICHITA 8I she had been lying, only to find that she was gone. He looked all around, but was unable to see her. Finally, hearing a noise toward the northwest, he looked in that direction and saw a buffalo grazing, but he paid no attention to it. He felt now in his heart that he was going to receive supernatural power. In a little while the girl returned; but when he glanced toward the northwest, the buffalo was gone. They started on their journey, walking rapidly. After they had gone some distance, the girl asked if he was tired. When he answered affirmatively, she rubbed an ointment on his joints that he might not tire, and gave him to drink a liquid - a colored liquid from her own body. This bore a power.1 At noon the girl gave him buffalo meat, and water from a horn, but the walk became faster. Later the young man began to feel strong; the more he walked, the more he felt like walking. Each day he received the ointment and the drink from her; each day she fed him. On the fourth day they entered her village from the southward and passed through it to her home in the northern part. When they entered the grass-house, she sat on the southern side with her three sisters, while he was bade by the father, who was sitting at the northern side, to go between the girls and the fire, and recline on a buffalo-robe at the western side. The father said to him: "These are my four daughters who have always said amongst themselves that they were going after you to bring you here. Many times they said that, until I paid no further attention to it. Now one of them has brought you here." The young man stayed with them for four days. As he was preparing to leave, they had a small buffalo killed and laid the meat aside on a blanket. This the father took in his hands and raised to the sky four times, whereupon the meat became smaller and lighter, easy to carry. Then the father said to the young man: "These girls like your ways. That is why they have brought you here. I am a poor man and I know little, but what I do know I shall give to you." The father brought in a bundle and opened it. He explained what all the things were for, and he taught the young man the songs to accompany it. He taught the meanings of the songs. The next day he started home, carrying the meat, with the bundle on top, on his shoulders. Even though he was without the ointment and the drink, he accomplished the journey to his tribe in four days. 1 In several Wichita narratives the use of a stimulating drink is mentioned. It is suggested by the informants that the drink was an extract from peyote. VOL. XIX —II {view image of page 82} 82 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The people knew this young man; they knew that he was quiet, unobtrusive, and that he lived in a good way. Then the food supply in the village became scarce. There were no buffalo; the stores of corn and meat were so low that the children cried from hunger. Then the young and old men came together in council, for the people were starving and they had to discuss means of obtaining food. They talked long, trying to think of some one who could help them. The older men would mention some young man, thinking that he had power to help, and the younger men would mention some old man, thinking he had some power. Finally one young man rose, and said: "We have heard from nearly all present, but we have decided on no one. I know of a good man who I believe would help us." Some older people were chosen to go to see this young man, but one of them objected: "I think he will not consent, for we have nothing to give him and he will not accept our word. We shall fail." The rest agreed, for none had anything to offer; but another suggested, " I think some of the older women ought to ask this favor of him." All assented to this plan, and some of the older women gathered what corn they had and made it into cakes and mush. The mush they carried in four bowls with four cakes which they brought to the young man in his lodge. He saw them enter and welcomed them, saying, "What do you want, and what are your wishes concerning me?" When they offered the food, he knew that they wanted something from him. The leader of the women answered: "We are bringing this food for your father and mother, sister and brother, to eat. We bring this because the people are in need. They are starving, so that even the little children are crying for food. We want to ask you if you know of, or have, any power to help us. We do not know if you have any supernatural power, but we have guessed that you may know something. That is why we have come for your help." He replied to them: "You have caught me. My parents and family have eaten the food which you have given.1 I love my family. If I know of any power, I shall help you. You have respected me and you have come here in a polite way. I shall aid you, and if I do correctly what little I know, you will receive what you need. Now, I want you to get me a grass-house near my home. Make the arrangements for a house tomorrow." The women asked a nearby family for the use of their home, 1 Food then as now when offered could not be refused, because food gives life. {view image of facing page 82} Cheyenne footwear [photogravure plate] {view image of page 83} THE WICHITA 83 explaining why they wanted it, naming the man who was to take charge of the ceremonies. The head of this family said that what they were going to use it for was a very great thing, so he would turn over his house that the young man might do as he pleased with it. Next, the young man, the leader, appointed two men to bring in dogwood sticks. They were sent in a northwesterly direction because the buffalo were from the north - the buffalo people from whom he received his power. Each stick was to be cut on the east, south, west, and north side, and felled toward the northwest. One of the young men was to cut the sticks, while the other was to hold them in such a way that the ends pointed northwest-southeast. In the northwestern part of the grass-house these sticks the young man placed with his bundle, which contained three inverted bowls covered with buffalo-hide, three notched sticks, and three buffalo shin-bones. When these were in place and the lodge cleaned, he had it announced throughout the village that he was ready to begin, but that only middle-age and older men would be allowed to enter. When they came in, he sat by his bundle and appointed two men to sit on each side of each bowl that they might hold down the ends of the notched sticks which had been passed over the bowls. These sticks were to be scraped with the buffalo shin-bones - scraped softly that the music might be the louder. He said: " I am going to commence my ceremony to draw the buffalo to the village. There is a buffalo-song in which the animal himself says that he is very fond of the grass which grows in creek bottoms. If I follow my instructions carefully, a herd will be here on the third night; but if they fail to come, then they will arrive on the fourth night." The old people were very glad to hear this, and said that when the buffalo arrived they would be ready. The leader started with the song of the buffalo food, followed by the ceremonial songs. He announced that while it continued he would fast, as instructed by the person who gave him the power, but that the people with him might have food brought in to them. Often during the night and throughout the songs he arose and went a few steps to a bowl. He took a buffalo-tail, dipped it in the bowl, and flicked drops to the northwest, the direction whence he had received his power. When the drops fell, the people could hear a noise in the distance, as if the bawling of buffalo - the medicine in the bowl was the medicine that the buffalo breathes out, the magic, the life, the spirit, the power of the buffalo. When that reached the buffalo, they said to one another, "We are called to come." Then {view image of page 84} 84 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN they prepared to come to the village; even the young animals would be eager to go. On the third night the leader appointed a man to go to a ridge northwestward from the camp to watch in that direction for signs of the buffalo; to look around at break of day. This man followed instructions, only to report back to the lodge that he had seen nothing. The leader then said: "You have all known me. You have known my way of living in the past. I have always been a poor man. I have one more day and one more night." On the fourth night the old men urged him to try harder and to follow correctly the way in which he had been instructed. The singers kept up their songs continuously. When the leader heard the sayings of the old men, he answered: " I am very glad to be here and to be urged. I am following what I was told to do as best I can. This is the last night, and if the one who gave me supernatural power helps me, things will turn out as you people wish. This is my last night; I.can not make the ceremony last longer." The old people encouraged him more, so that he felt stronger. He directed: " It is now almost daylight. Let some one be appointed to go out on the ridge northwest of the village. Let him look around slowly and carefully, for then he will see something come in sight." This watcher could not see very well, because it was still quite dark; but as the darkness faded and the light became stronger, he saw a herd of buffalo coming toward the village. This he reported, saying: "I have seen something good. I looked about slowly, and when it became clearer I saw a big herd of buffalo." An old man spoke to the leader: " I thank you. You have saved the village. You have saved the people, young and old, and from now on, from this very time, we are going to look toward you. You have become great among the people. They will know that you have supernatural power and you will be recognized." They asked the leader: "How shall we proceed with the buffalo? What do you wish us to do?" "You must get as close to them as you can. Let the four best marksmen remain here while the rest go around to the northwest and spread out until the herd is surrounded. Let them be driven toward these four men that they may kill one apiece. Then let the buffalo be driven around so that they are confused and many may be killed." After the first four were killed and butchered, the'leader ordered: "Bring me the last short rib on the right side of the first buffalo and {view image of facing page 84} Old Crow - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 85} THE WICHITA 85 the last short rib on the left side of the second animal. Bring me the kidney of the third, and the heart fat of the fourth. Let the people carry the rest of the meat,to their homes. I want two old women to cook the ribs and kidney over a slow fire for me to eat. I want them to be laid on a certain kind of brush which they shall cut and lay on the ground before me. The fat I shall use to purify myself, putting away what I do not use." He rolled the fat into a ball and rubbed it in the palms of his hands. Then he inhaled from his right hand and his left hand. Next he touched his right forefinger to his right ear and his left forefinger to his left ear. He touched the top of his head, his forehead, neck, chest, arms, body, and both legs, and then put aside the fat, for he had finished purifying himself. They offered him a knife with which to cut the ribs and the kidney, but he refused it only to use his fingers and teeth. He took four bites from each one, saying that was plenty. The old men at the meeting asked what was to be done with the rest, and he said: "I wanted you to ask that. You are to eat this food." After the old men had eaten, he said to them: "There were some women who came to me with food for my family, asking my help. I could not refuse, and I did my best, so that now there is plenty. This is the end of my ceremony. Any time I can be of assistance, any time the village is starving, send for me, because you have found out what I can do. Let the first and the second woman who asked for help come here, for I want them to take these wooden bowls, notched sticks, and shin-bones somewhere to the northwest and put them away carefully. I want them to take four pieces of fat, each as large as my finger, and put them in the fire on the east, south, west and north sides. The fire will get its share and the smoke will go up to Kinnikasuis." Every one ate, and they all went to the leader's home, where one man pointed to him, saying: "I am going to give you a new name. We shall call you Buffalo Breath." Mythology The Buffalo Ghost In early times, when there were no horses nor guns, and men had to walk and use the bow and arrow, there was a man who was very fond of hunting. Whenever he killed a deer, he tied its feet together and slung it over his shoulder. There came a time when luck was against him, so that on his hunting trips he was obliged to return to the village empty-handed and tired; even though he went out every day, he brought {view image of page 86} 86 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN back no game. One evening he told his family that he wanted some dried cornmeal prepared for him to use on his trip the next day, because he probably would have to stay out overnight if his ill-fortune continued. He said: " I shall start some time tomorrow afternoon. If I get no game, I shall remain overnight." The hunter travelled a long distance, until nightfall, when he looked around for a good camping-place on the prairie rather than in the woods. Finally he found a suitable place, but he sat up for a while listening for the noise of game, but soon fell asleep with his head directed toward the northwest and his feet to the southeast. In his sleep he was restless. After a short time he awoke, still drowsy, feeling uneasy. He stood up and looked around, but it was too dark to see anything. As his eyes became more accustomed to the darkness, he made out a person standing a few feet away, to the northwest. He bowed his head so as not to look any more, for as soon as he noticed this being, he began to think, "I should like to know who this person is, whether an enemy or a friend." The person, the Buffalo Ghost, said: "What you are thinking about is good. I know what you are thinking. I am the one who has been with you in the past. I gave you your good luck so that you would have plenty of game. Later you had bad luck. I was the cause of that, too, for I wanted you to come here. I thought it best to do things that way in order to meet you. I directed you; that is why you thought of this place. I wanted you to stay overnight close to my home. I drew you here; you must stay tonight, for I brought you over to tell you something." The young man felt glad at this news, for when he had first seen the Buffalo Ghost he was afraid. He said, " I am glad that you are about to tell me something." " I am happy to hear that, because it is what I wanted you to say," responded the Buffalo Ghost. " I have been watching you, because I like your ways. We are going to be as one, you and I, for all time. If you will have faith, I shall be very glad. I am eager to tell you now, for daybreak is nigh. Come to where I am standing." The two went a short distance to where there were some buffalo-bones. The Ghost instructed: "Go on the other side of that pile. Act as if you were a buffalo trying to find a suitable place to lie down. Then when you have found a place, roll around as a buffalo does when he is going to lie down." The young man did as directed, and when he got up, the Ghost said: "You went through my act correctly. You have done it as I wanted you to do. For some time you have had bad luck in hunting; now you will have good luck, for it is easy and I shall show you how. If you have a good memory and remember what I tell you, your hunting will be successful. Stand over here and face these bones. My ways were good and strong; whenever I undertook to do anything, I never failed. Look at me; turn around, and when you face the south I shall tell you to look at me again." The young man turned as directed until he faced southward, then looked for the Buffalo Ghost. He saw a big buffalo bull and became somewhat afraid. "Now turn again until you come around to me, and then look," ordered the bull. The man saw the buffalo lie down and roll over and over. Suddenly the animal changed to his former shape as a ghost. "That was what I used to do when I was living. Come closer." The Ghost put the palms of his hands on the young man's eyes and rubbed them; then he rubbed his ears in like manner. "From now on you will have very far sight and you will be able to hear sounds from long distances. Look to the northwest and then look where you will." The young man could see birds and animals a great way off, dark as it was. "Now I am going to show you something which I shall give you." He touched his throat and pulled out something as long as his foot. " I shall give you this. Whenever you want to draw something to you it will come. This is what I used in bringing you here. I am giving this to you for your own use. Another thing I am going to give you." He took what appeared to be a black ball from his side. "This, too, I shall give you; it is found only once in a great while in a buffalo. It smells very good. I want you to use it to drink from, for it is always filled with water. I shall give you more, if you have a good memory to recall how to use these things. Here is a dark red ball for your use. When the sun is just up, take this ball and rub it in the palm; suck the right palm and blow your breath toward the sun. Your breath will be dark red. Do that four times; it will be all right. There will come a time when the color will change - blue, white, and all other colors together. When this happens you will know that our thought will be one, yours and mine. I shall give you one more thing. Here is a spleen. {view image of facing page 86} Wife of Old Crow - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 87} THE WICHITA 87 Cut this in two and rub the ends of each part over your feet. These will make your moccasins wear a long time." "I am very glad that you have given me these things," said the young hunter. "I have here some meal for you." The Buffalo Ghost made a surprised noise. "I am very glad that you have the meal, because I am always hungry for it." When the young man gave it to him, the Ghost laid it on the pile of bones, saying: " I am putting that away to eat tonight. I have given you all I have; now it is time for you to go. No matter which way you start out you will kill game. I shall know when you are using my power; I shall know if you use it falsely or if you omit any part of it. I want you to use it correctly. It is not hard for me to take away if you do not do as I say." "I remember all four things you have given me," responded the man. " I shall use them just as you have told me," he promised. "Remember me and think of me now and then. I shall think of you and watch you. Do not think that I am far off and away from you just because it is daylight or that you can put anything false into these powers, for I shall know. I live here. Now you may go, but I want you to return in four days. When you come back, bring me food, the food that I am hungry for- the four kinds of grass that I have told you we like." " I shall bring the food," promised the young man. They parted, and soon the hunter killed some game and carried it home. When he arrived, the news spread that he had had good luck. When game was scarce, a woman from each house would come to the door of the lucky hunter, all standing in line. So they came to the home of this young man now, for they knew that he was good and kind-hearted. He said to his mother, "Cut the meat in small pieces to distribute to these women." Shortly the meat was all gone. Then those who had received none entered to ask if anything was left, but there was nothing except a little soup to take away. The corn they ate with the meat was parched in hot ashes. After it was washed it was ready to be eaten. The people suspected from his good luck that the hunter knew something; that he had some power because he always had plenty to eat. He could feed his guests and the story-tellers who came over at night. In four days he went back with the buffalo grass to where he had stopped before. After he remained there a short time, the Buffalo Ghost appeared. The man placed the food at his feet. The Ghost said: "I am very glad that you have brought the food. Take it and leave it where you left the meal - on the heap of bones. I am pleased, because you have followed my instructions. I want you to follow them in the way that I have shown you." The young man answered: "What shall I do? Whatever you want me to do, I shall do. I am single, but I need some one to keep me company, and wish to become married. If you wish me to remain single, I shall do so, but if it is right to marry, I should like to marry." "What you have said is good. It is good to marry and have children, for you will be happy with children." "That is what I wanted to know, because there is a young woman whom I asked to marry me and who is willing. You told me to come back on the fourth day, and this is the question I had to ask of you." "I live here where you see these bones. You have followed my instructions and I am pleased," said the Buffalo Ghost. "You have fed the people; you will always have visitors. I am pleased with what you have done. I have liked you and I have taken pity on you, giving you my supernatural power and ways so that you will always have game. Hereafter your name will be Ifsskawadihistiyasfidihit ['Throwing A Breath And Drawing Some One']." The Morning Star In these times the people roamed about on hunting trips and war expeditions. There was one young man who lived apart from the tribe, hunting by himself, though his family often argued with him, saying that it was better to have a friend to go about with than to be continually alone. After all had left the village, he would set out by himself. One time he travelled eastward aimlessly. His parents had asked before he left: "Why do you not carry weapons with you, so that you can bring back game to us? We must eat." {view image of page 88} 88 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN So the young man took a bow and some blunt arrows, and shot at game whenever he saw any. As he was going eastward, night overtook him, but he kept on. Toward dawn he saw a light and something becoming visible over the horizon. When he came to where the morning star rises, he stopped, thinking to himself: "Why am I here? I do not know anything about what is going on." Then he saw something coming toward him and he began to feel afraid. His first thought was to run away, but he found that he was unable to move. Looking closer, he saw some one and heard the sound of groans at every step the unknown being took. He thought to himself: "This person is after some one; perhaps he will kill me. How unlucky it is that my father and mother do not know what is going to happen to me. Whoever or whatever he is, he is going to kill me." He noticed that the person's legging fringes were made of human hair. He thought, "Whatever happens to me, I shall stay right here where I am standing." The groans and yells grew louder as the young man was approached; then he saw that the person was beautiful, and his heart grew glad again. That one spoke: "This is what I used to do when I was a young man. You were mistaken in what you were thinking a little while ago. I had pity on you; that is why you came here." The man felt happy; all his fear left him at these words. As he looked at the person he saw a black pipe in his hands. " I know why you always went about by yourself. I used to be like that," he said. "Now that we have met, and if you think the right things at the right time, you will be as I am. You see me as I stand here; you notice the way I have my things on. What do you wish for most?" Now they were facing each other. He continued: "I know just the way you are thinking. Perhaps you think I do not know what you have in mind, but I do. Sometimes you are afraid of me; sometimes you like me. Now make a good thought: 'This man I am talking with now will have pity on me.' If you think good of me now, I can help you. Whatever you wish, I am going to give to you. You see me as I stand in my clothes. The way you see is good. Now give another thought about me: 'This man has something good that he is going to show me.' As I stand before you now and as you see me, what do you desire most? Cast your arrows aside; as you do this, think what you want and I shall give it to you." "It is hard for me to decide what I want," answered the young man. "I like everything you have on." "I do not mean everything that I have on. Just pick out one thing that I can give you." "There are two things above all else that I want - that pipe in your right hand and that white eagle-feather in your left hand." "You have chosen just the right things. These are what I once used myself. As we stand hare now, I am going to tell you the best things to have in mind. Be thinking of good things, nothing but the good. Have no thoughts as you had before, and think of me as I told you. Now as you have good thoughts and want what I have, reach out your hand and take this pipe." He took the pipe very gently, and carefully smoothed it in his hands, after which he rubbed his head and body. With the left hand he took the feather gently, and carefully rubbed himself in the same way. "You have done something very good when you asked for these things. They are what I once used myself. When I saw you going about, I knew you had good thoughts. Now that we have met, you have what you wanted. Since you have them, you must not use them disrespectfully. Perhaps you know me now?" " I see you standing here, but I do not know who you are." "Now you are going to find out who I am. You see all these stars. I know everything about them. I am Young Man When The Dawn Comes Up. I come up after the dawn. I am Hasaidorikitfsasidiwawa ['When The Dawn Comes Up The Star Follows']. You may call me by this name or the shorter one Hisaiusida ['Following The Dawn']. Time is getting short now; we must part. That is the way I must travel. You people may not see me during the day; but I journey on, and when I get back here it is dawn again." " I am very glad that you have had pity on me. All that you have told me, and all that you wish me to do, I shall do." "You have said just what I wished you to say; but one more thing I must ask of you. Night after night when the dawn comes, I want you to speak of me in some beseeching way so that I can take pity on you. When you send the good thoughts, I shall look down upon you. {view image of facing page 88} Black Wolf - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 89} THE WICHITA 89 After you get home, ask your father to tell the people that, when the dawn comes, to say good words and have good thoughts about Following The Dawn. The first thing your father will ask is, 'What is this something that you have learned?' I do not want you to tell him what you have been taught, nor what has happened. Keep it secret. I have something else to tell you. The first thing you will kill will be a deer. I am in need of the sinew. I am telling you this: You will not live forever; when the right time comes, you will die. As I am saying this, my words are coming to an end. Remember what I am in need of. Those arrows I told you to throw aside, to leave here. You have something else, and you have it with you now. Look at me closely while I stand here and then we shall part. Now do you know me?" "I see you just as you stand here. I know every part of you." "When I start out, this is the path I shall take. I want you to watch where I go; watch every step." The young man heard the same groans and yells as the Star walked away. Then he went to his own home. He had an air of worry about him when he reached there, so his father asked him what was the matter, for old men observe such things. The son replied: "Father, I am tired; I have been everywhere; that is why I am in this worried condition. But I am going to say this: You have always mentioned Following The Dawn. I want you to tell the people to think good thoughts and to say good things about him." The father thought to himself, "There must be something in what my boy has said." Aloud he said: "I shall tell the people what to do when Morning Star comes up, just as you have said. I shall go to the older men, for they think more than the younger. These I shall tell what to do." The young man went hunting, and the first thing he shot was the deer, from which he took the sinew, but the meat he carried home. His parents were happy, and said: "We have always told you to go out and kill game. Now we have plenty of food. We are glad." That night the young hunter set out and travelled toward the dawn. As the light came, he saw that Morning Star was following it, so he thought, " I am going to where we were standing before." When he arrived there, the other was before him. "You told me to do this. Here is the sinew." "I am very glad, for I was in need of it," said Morning Star. "You have done what I told you to do. There is one more thing which I am going to ask of you. I want you to bring me the yellow paint which I use. Now watch me again as I go." When the young man reached home he obtained from a bank some yellow paint, which he worked and prepared for use. That night he took it to the meeting-place. "You told me to bring this to you, so here it is." "I thank you very much; that is what I wanted. I was in need of it and now I have it. When you see me come up again, I shall be bright. Now let us part, but watch me as I go on my path." In the village the old men talked about this young man. After he had given the new name for the star, they thought that there must be something he did not want to tell. One man wanted to become friendly with him, to find out what had taken pity on him. They became friends, and once while swimming together the man asked him what was that black something he wore about his neck. That also had been given him by Morning Star. This man asked many questions, but failed in getting answers. One night the man wished to sleep in the young man's house, and while there asked many questions, especially about the stars, but he never received an answer. The young man had his arrows by his side - arrows of different colors, black, yellow, blue, and green. Becoming tired of all this questioning, he said, "Let us go to sleep." The man, while their owner was sleeping, took the arrows and bow, and went out to hang them on the side of the house, thinking, "When the dawn comes, I shall take these arrows and go somewhere." The young man in the meantime had awakened and found the friend gone, but he supposed he had merely gone home. But in the morning he found that his arrows had disappeared, so he went straight to the Star, who instructed him: "He whom you were with is not the right kind of man to be your friend. I know he is trying to make you tell something, but I am glad that you are keeping everything to yourself. I took the arrows, and I do not want you to keep them where they can be seen while you are sleeping. Put them out of sight." The Star returned the arrows to him, and continued: "Do not let him try to find out anyVOL. XIX-12 {view image of page 90} 9o THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN thing more. We must part now." This time Morning Star did not tell the young man to watch his departure. After he reached home, he put the arrows away safely. His false friend came around and said, "Last night I tried to wake you to go out with me, but I did not succeed." "It is hard for me to go around with you any more; I would rather stop. I do not want you to feel badly about it, but whenever we meet by chance I want you to talk to me without having any hard feelings." "I am sorry about the words you have said. I wanted us to be good friends wherever we went." " I can not change my words, and I do not like you to come so often to my home," answered the young man. "I have no quarrel with you, and I do not want you to feel that way." The young man walked away, and in time went to bed. He had some one else whom he wanted to have as a friend, a good, kind-hearted young man. The old men began to see for themselves that the young hunter always had an abundance of food in his home, so they came over nights to tell stories. They often said to him, "We want you to be as you are, kind-hearted and with plenty; never having bad words with any one and perhaps taking pity on some one you see." He thought to himself: " I am not going to consider the words of these old people. There is no use in paying attention to them, for I have power from some one else over here; some one to look up to who had pity on me." By these thoughts, at that very moment, he did wrong to himself in thinking them. When he walked out that night, suddenly the ornament flew from his neck; he saw it shine and disappear. Then he realized that he had thought or done something wrong after listening to the old men. As he stood there a thought rose within him: "I shall go to where I first met Following The Dawn." He next thought about his arrows, but when he looked for them they were gone. Now he realized more than ever that he had done something wrong, so he hurried to the meeting-place, where he saw the Star standing. The Star said: "You did wrong in looking down on the old men with their good words. You should have listened and felt glad at such counsel. You have deceived me - I thought you were a good young man. I shall tell you this: Nothing is lost; here are all the things I had given you, but I shall not return them. Look at me well. This is what I brought you here for - to show you and tell you that these things are not lost. I took pity on you, and this has happened. That which you had on your neck is going to stay up there above, and its meaning is this: when you see a star shoot across the sky from one place to another, it will be the ornament which was around your neck. I wanted only to show you the meanings of these things. You may go to your home now, for I can not give them back to you." Bear Broken Leg In the village of Kakskukatuk in the Wichita mountains where the people subsisted mainly by hunting turkey and deer, a young man lived. Often when on the trail, he thought: " I wonder about the stories I hear from the old people at night. They tell of some young man who was given supernatural power by a spirit. How can that be?" He often travelled through the hills, offering a prayer to the spirits when on a mountaintop. He would say: "There may be a spirit here. If there is, I want you to help me." Sometimes he journeyed all day in the mountains, and even at night, with this thought always in mind; always praying to a spirit for power. Eventually that was all he thought about. Once he went to the western end of the mountains, to the farthest ridges, where he stayed, wishing and praying far into the night before he started back to his village. The name of this mountain was given because of the number of birds which flocked there, Ifshinalidi (" Bird Staying On The Mountain"). When he came home, he said to his sister, " In the morning I want you to prepare me some cornmeal, because when I leave again I shall stay away overnight." He went next day westward along the ridges. Just before he reached the last hill, feeling very weary, he sat down to eat. The sun had set. Taking some cornmeal in his hands and letting it sift through his fingers to the ground, he murmured in a prayerful tone: "There may be some spirit here. Eat this." {view image of facing page 90} Wife of Howling Wolf - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 91} THE WICHITA 9I He climbed the last slope, but a thought came to him to go back over his trail. The thought told him, "I do not know where I am going, but I shall go as my mind leads me." He kept walking until he came to another mountain, which could be seen, even in the darkness, to be very high. He stopped at its base and stood there for some time, thinking: "I should go to the top; but no, I would better stay here. Still, maybe it would be better to climb it. No, I shall stay here at the bottom." As he stood thus undecided, he was facing the west, so that the mountain was south of him. In a short time a call came from the southwest. It grew louder and closer. He said to himself: "This is what I have always wished and prayed for. Whoever you are, I am willing that you do whatsoever you wish." As the call came quite near, he became frightened, but thought: "I have been wanting some spirit to give me supernatural power. I shall not be frightened." So the fear left him. He made up his mind, thinking, "Whatever you are who is calling, I am willing for you to do anything with me that you wish. If you would like to kill me, I am willing to be killed right here." When the form was a short distance off, the young man could discern a dim outline which seemed to bear two glowing lights. He wondered what they could be. He thought, "Whatever that can be, I wish it would hurry to me and tell me what it wants." These lights were eyes. Whatever it might be, this shape with the bright eyes, it stood close to him. Again the thought came, "Whatever this is, I am willing to die here." When the form stopped, after covering half the remaining distance, the young man bowed his head, because he wished this thing to do as it pleased. He did not wish to see it. The being said: "The way you are thinking is a bad way. Cast it aside and look at me. I am the one who caused you to come here. I caused you to wander over the mountaintops. I had you go from mountain to mountain because I am pleased with one way you have. I like you because you are honest in every detail of your life; for that reason I wanted to meet you. I am glad to see you before me. Come closer. You must listen carefully, for I am about to tell you something. Another thing I like about you, which you have not done, is that you have never killed a bear, our people, while in these mountains. You are standing at the bottom; since it is now coming daybreak, go to the top and sleep. When you awaken, stay there, because you and I must wait for the darkness to come. The top is round and flat, like a saddle. Go to the western side; sleep and stay there. I am going west myself to sleep.5" The name of this mountain is Saddle mountain. When the young man arrived at the top, he was unable to sleep because his mind was on the person, anxious for what was going to be told him. Throughout the day he had but one thought: " I have now come to the place where some one is going to teach me or to give me a supernatural power." Toward evening he became very expectant. As night dragged on, he heard a call coming closer, and he wondered, "Do I have to go down to the bottom again, or shall I stay where I am?" A thought came into his mind to go down and stop at the place where he had been the night before. After he came to the bottom, the cry sounded very near. The Bear person stopped where he had been the night before. It said: "Go from where you are. Stand so that when the sun rises it will come up in a straight line from you to me. My breath is a miracle. I am going to give you supernatural power. When I was as you are now, there was nothing hard for me in life; everything was easy. I have told you that I like you because you are honest; that I wanted to meet you and give you of my power. Now that we have met, I shall teach you. Come closer, very close, and listen carefully to what I want you to do. If you become sick, or have a pain in any part, I want you to follow the method I once employed. Hold your right hand out to me, that I may lay on it what I used - the middle claw of a bear. If there is anybody sick in your village, use this. "Before long, the village will find out what you can do. On entering a home, let no one else be present. If you see that the pain is in the stomach, take the claw and mark the abdomen from top to bottom, cutting it open with the claw. Then when you look inside, you will see the cause of the trouble. Take this thing out and say, 'This, which I hold in my two hands, is why you suffered.' He will become well again. " I am giving this to you as a gift. Now, listen carefully. I am a spirit, but I shall not be in this place forever. You will know when I am here no more; then you will worry, for it will not be long before you will follow me. In case you yourself are severely ill and are down with it, have some man come to you and ask of him if he can draw the picture of a bear. If he can, {view image of page 92} 92 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN have him draw it somewhere, anywhere in the house. Then carefully examine it, and you will find the cause of the sickness. Take this out and you will be well. "This is the gift I wanted to make to you. Now, look at me. You can see that I am lame, for I have been shot in the leg. I shall name you after me. You will be called Widauskasaks ['Bear Broken Leg']. Your people are looking for you now, so you had better be going. Follow my instructions carefully. Straight westward from Saddle mountain is another mountain where I make my home. Any time you wish to visit me, I shall be there. I shall watch and guide you throughout your life." On returning to his village the young man lived quietly; but the older people suspected that he might have some supernatural power. Before long, some one became ill, and one of the family said: "You all know Bear Broken Leg. I think he has some power to help us, so we ought to ask him." They all agreed, and selected some one to go to the house of the young man to invite him to come. They appointed a boy whom Bear Broken Leg welcomed, asking what he wished. The boy answered: " I want to see you. We have some one sick and I was sent to you." "Go home. Have the bed of the sick man placed at the western side of the house, with his head toward the north. I shall come." On entering, he went straight to the sick-bed and sat at the foot. His mouth was painted with yellow clay. He said to the family: "You have come to me to make this man well. I am here. If I follow my instructions carefully, he will recover." He had the robe of the sufferer removed. Then he quickly saw the cause of the sickness. He said: " I am now going to attend to him. I want all of you to go outside." No one was allowed there, especially women, for they are easily frightened, and when a cut is made, their alarm might cause harm to the patient. He squatted astride the sick man and with the claw cut open the abdomen from the breast downward. Looking all about inside the man, he found the source of the trouble and placed it on the ground. With his hands he gently pressed the severed flesh together until there remained only a wound, like a mere scratch with a bear-claw. Then he called in the members of the family, and said, "There on the ground is the cause of his sickness. When I go I shall take it with me." After his departure, the family gathered food, which they took to him in appreciation of what he had done. He was very glad to receive this food. Thus the village learned that he was a great medicine-man, and from that time on he doctored and cured many people. His success was such that they considered him a great doctor. Many times there were periods of no illness, but when many were sick, he was kept busy, visiting one after another, day and night. If there was anything not curable immediately, he always resorted to the use of the bear-claw. Once after returning from a patient to his home, some one entered behind him. His family asked this one, "What will you have?" " I have come for the healer. I have a child who has been ill for some time." The medicine-man answered, " I have two people to see before I can treat your child, but then I shall go to your home." At last he arrived at the home where the child lay naked on the bed. The medicine-man ordered: " I shall doctor this young one, but all must go outside while I am busy. But first place him straight on his back." The medicine-man was painted, as always, with vellow clay across his mouth. He opened the abdomen, found and removed the cause of the trouble, and closed the wound. When the family entered, he said to them: "There is your child. I have taken out the cause of his sickness. There is nothing more that I can do." Everybody liked him for his good work in the village, and gave him so much food for his services that he always had plenty to eat. A young man came to him, saying: "One of our family is very sick and the illness has been long. We want you to cure him. If you can do so, you may marry my youngest sister." "That is well. Take with you my medicine-bundle and my belongings." He followed later and arranged everything, going through his performance with the bearclaw according to his custom. He said to the family: "This is why he was sick. I shall take it with me." After this cure, he married the youngest sister. {view image of facing page 92} Red Bird - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 93} THE WICHITA 93 The head-chief had been watching him, and thought to himself: "That Bear Broken Leg is a good man. I am getting old and I need some one to take my place." An old man visited the chief, who, after much talk, turned the conversation to the medicineman. The head-chief said: "He is able and good. I am thinking about him taking my place. You go now and select three old men to come over here. We will discuss Bear Broken Leg." The head-chief laid his plan before the old men, speaking of the good qualities of the medicine-man and his ability to perform a chief's duties. One of them replied: "You are the chief; whatever you say, we shall do. If you want him to become a chief, he will be a chief. We can go after him now." A young man was sent for Bear Broken Leg and said to him, "I have come after you to bring you to the home of the head-chief." After he came, one old man said, "The chief has something to tell you." "Proceed. Ask me whatever you wish." The chief replied: " I have been thinking of you for some time. I have watched you carefully. You have done good to the people of my village. I am very glad. Because of this I ask you to take my place as chief." Another old man said: "He has told you what he wished to tell you. We desire to hear from you now." "My thoughts are that I am very poor; I have nothing. I am too poor to be a leader of the people. You must not think that I do not want the leadership; it is because I am too poor. My work with the people now, as a medicine-man, is the best for them. Do not think hard of me; continue as a chief." One day Bear Broken Leg was in bed. When mealtime came, he refused to rise, even when his family begged him; but finally he arose and sat down with his head bowed. He acted thus strangely and quiet because he knew in his heart that his friend, the Bear spirit, was gone. He became so troubled that he could not eat. He told his family, who were much concerned, that all was well with him and that they were not to v.:orry. He remembered the words of his teacher, that after the Bear spirit would leave, he would shortly follow. He knew that his time had come; that he would meet the Bear spirit again somewhere else far away. He had the people assemble about his bed, from which he spoke: "I am not ill. Tomorrow at noon I shall die. I have healed and cured people, doing all within my power to do. If any one wishes to do likewise, let him make a prayer to all the gods; let him blow a smoke toward me. If he follows instructions from whomsoever he gets them, he will have success. I am going to meet my brother, Bear Broken Leg, from whom I received my supernatural power." The informant, himself a medicine-man, did not relate the story as that of a hypothetical case, but rather as a well-defined legend of the greatest healer ever known to the Wichita. In relating the story, he clearly stated that the healer did cut open the abdomen, and with words and sign language told how he pawed over the intestines in his search for the cause of the disease, then described how he used his hands in forcing the severed flesh together. On cross-examination the informant grew indignant when the question of the actual opening of the body was raised, but admitted that no other medicine-man had ever possessed such power. The fact that the healer excluded every one from the house during his treatment made it easy for him to claim his feat of surgery, and he no doubt made enough of a scratch with the bear-claw to convince the patient of an actual incision. The majority of Indian medicine-men, or healers, have depended primarily on mental healing and have assumed that the cause of the sickness was some malign object in the body. To cure this, they usually extracted the disease or evil by sucking with the mouth. Bear Broken Leg, however, must be given credit for a bolder imagination than his fellow craftsmen. It is difficult to induce a medicine-man to tell of or to discuss healing practices, for which reason this story of the legendary healer, so graphically told, is of more than ordinary interest. The Water Spirit In a village lived a handsome young man who always had bad luck in everything he undertook to do. One morning a fog spread over the village; the grass-houses glistened with large dewlike drops. In those times every one went to the creek to bathe in the early morning. When {view image of page 94} 94 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN the young man arrived there, he saw a beautiful woman standing on the water near the middle of the stream. She spoke to him, saying, "Come over here to me." His first thought was that if he put a foot in the water, it would sink. She said: "Do not think as you are thinking. Start out toward me, taking a step with the right foot first, and come to me." He did as she directed, and walked over the water, his feet making only a slight impression, as if he were walking on soft earth. When he came near, the woman told him to stand where he was. She was without clothing, but her long hair hung all about her body. She stretched her arms wide; on her right palm was a black pipe. "Anything that you desire, ask for. I have many supernatural powers," she said. He reached over and touched her genitals, saying, "I want these." She was so pretty that her beauty was indescribable, but she had thought that he would choose the pipe. "You have made a mistake. I am a woman standing here with a pipe belonging to a man. I thought that you would ask for it, because I wanted to help you. I am not going to excuse you for your desire, but shall continue to help you. Consider no longer my beauty, but look at this pipe." " I have done wrong; it is my fault," he admitted. "You have told me no longer to consider your beauty, so I shall do as you wish and look at the pipe." "What you have said is right. I shall give you supernatural power. I have watched you and I have seen that when you go out hunting you come home empty-handed and tired. You have had bad luck in all matters. I want to help you. You must listen very carefully to what I have to say. This pipe I have here is yours. Before you hunt, fill it and throw the smoke, the first puff, to the water, for that is mine. Say, 'Woman, I am going to look for food.' Then when you have finished smoking, empty the ashes on the southwest ridge of the fireplace, and put down the pipe with the stem pointing in that direction. When you go for food, do not go alone. You must not carry any game on your back; have some other man go with you to carry it. You will not have to go far to find game. Do that four times; afterward you may go out alone. I shall know whenever you are on a hunting trip, and I shall watch you." " I want to know what I shall not do." "You must not be afraid of doing anything wrong, for I shall tell you of it by casting a thought to you. I should like to get something I need from you. I want cedar boughs from the south. Go to a cedar tree, approaching it from the east. From any branch on the east, break off the centre tip. Do the same on the other sides, because the cedar is the tree that lives for all time. If you will bring these as I have instructed, I shall be very glad, and the spirits under the water will be happy too. Your people have a village on the land; we have a village under the water. You have different ceremonies and songs; so have we. You use a drum for your songs; so do we. When you bring these things, I shall then tell you what I want you to know. I have helped you because you have been a failure. Now you will get whatever you need for food without trouble. After you come again, I want to instruct you about what the women are to do. Go now, and when you bring the cedar, I shall tell you what I shall give you next." Later the man went southward. A young boy called to ask his permission to go along, but he replied, "No, I am going only a little way." He went southward to a creek, which he followed. He saw many cedars, but he did not like their appearance. Finally he saw a fine tree and broke off the tips, as directed, which he bore to the water. When he reached the edge of the stream, he sat with his head bowed. Then raising his head, he saw the woman rising from the water, but she was only half-way out. He noticed that her fine long hair floated on the surface. He bowed his head again, and when he looked up the second time she was standing on the water. She commanded: "Arise! Take the cedar and walk out to me as you did before." He replied that he had brought what she wanted. "That is good. Our villagers under the water will be happy when I bring these things, for they wanted cedar. I shall call them together and they will be glad, because they need the cedar greatly. When any one in your village comes to bathe in the creek, he must offer a prayer to us living spirits and we shall help him in what he needs. When a child is born, let it be brought to the water, where I shall bathe it myself. Have it announced in the village that the Spirit of the Water has ordered this, but do not tell of the other things I have told you." {view image of facing page 94} Man On The Cloud - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 95} THE WICHITA 95 Thus he learned that there were spirits in the water - that water is life. The name of this spirit is Ofkehaneftholdiye ("Woman Forever In The Water"). The Wolf Society There was once a young man who dwelt in a village whose men hunted for game and whose women tilled the gardens. This young man was in the habit of coming and going whenever he pleased, without saying anything to any one. But after a time he became so undecided which way to go when he went out that he became restless, thinking day and night what to do. At last his mind was made up to go northwestward early the next morning; and after breakfast he started out, taking with him his bow and seven arrows. He did not know where he was going, but something seemed to lead him in this direction. When he came to a high ridge, he climbed to the top, sat down, and looked about in all directions for game. His thoughts ran thus: "I have heard that there is a Man Above [AkItAkiaskuldisuki]. I wish he would send some game here for me to kill. May he take pity on me." Some distance ahead something crossed his trail, but when he looked a second time it was gone. A long time later he saw something moving toward the east, turning back to the west and again east, continuing this movement. Then he saw that it was some kind of animal. Later it turned straight toward him. He thought, "Whatever that may be, I shall stay here; I shall not run from it." The animal came to a creek and disappeared down its bank. The young man watched for it to reappear, but it remained out of sight. He left the hill, going to where he last saw the animal. As he turned out for some bushes, the thought came: "I have heard that this animal has great supernatural power. A little while ago I prayed to the One Above, who has caused it to come to me." As the animal came closer, he recognized it as a huge wolf with black flanks. He felt frightened, thinking, "If it comes to me, I shall stand my ground; but if it kills me, I shall be ready." He sat down again while the animal approached, apparently very angry, as its hair stood on end. " I am going to fight with that wolf," was the thought that ran through his mind; but as he reached for his weapons his thought was changed. As the wolf came closer, it walked very slowly, lifting and lowering its paws very carefully. The young man said to the wolf: " I think you are going to take pity on me. Whatever you want me to do, or order me to do, I am willing to carry out." Then he dropped his head in order not to see what would happen, for he fully expected the wolf to leap upon him. After a little time he looked up and beheld a person standing in place of the wolf. It came into his mind, "I am about to receive a supernatural power." Aloud he said: "I am looking at you. What have you to tell me? I want you to tell me now." "Anything you ask for, you shall receive," said the person. " I am ready to listen to your request. I was the one who drew you here with my power, because I wanted to tell you something. One bad thought came to you since we have met; but I do not blame you, for my hair stood on end and I was very angry. You thought to shoot me, but changed your mind. The thought to kill me was the bad thought. You saw how I looked when I was angry. We Wolves hunt and chase the buffalo. While the others circle about the animal, I leap for the throat and hang on. That is how we kill our game. I wished to tell you what I have just told you. I want to ask what society or dance you belong to." The young man answered: " I am glad that I have met you, because it is very hard to meet an animal as I have met you. I do not belong to any society, nor do I take part in dances, which you probably know. I am poor. I do not know how to thank you for what you are going to tell me. I want you to teach me, because what you can tell me will make me very happy." "Listen closely," instructed Wolf. " I shall give you the wolf songs. They are all we have in the Wolf society. I want to give them to you, so that you can be the leader. I am glad to talk to you. Whenever you hold the Wolf society or conduct the meeting, first take fat from the back of a wolf and throw a piece into the fire. Sew deer-hide on dogwood sticks with sinew. On each stick fix rows of deer dewclaws, so that they will rattle. Make other rattles from buffalo- or deer-hide. When you are ready, distribute these so that the members will have them while they dance and sing. If you have a good memory for what I am telling you, I shall be pleased. Now go hunting, and when you come to a dead wolf whose hide and hair are still {view image of page 96} 96 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN in good condition, cut four strips from his back to tie about your knees and elbows. This will be for you only. This is what I wanted to see you for: to give you the gift of my supernatural power. "I have been thinking how I did not take part in dances and singing, and how you have given me these songs," said the young man. "We have met, and everything is all right. So far as you have told me, I do not think I shall lose a word. When I conduct a meeting, will women be allowed there?" "Yes, the women have to be there. Let the best singers of the women come in. It will be all right if any other women want to look on." "That is what I wished to know, and you have told me. I shall have them in as you have directed. How long are we to stay here? What am I todo now? I shall always follow your instructions as carefully as I can. I am ready for whatever you want to tell me." "There are many herds of buffalo west of here. I want you to go home now. After a few days, come on a hunting trip to the west, and bring a young man with you. You will come across a big herd. Kill one and leave the insides for the wolves to get. I shall be around here, for this is the Wolves' neighborhood. You and your companion may come in two days. When you begin your meeting, have four leaders who will have cane whistles to keep time to the singing as they dance." Later when the young man and his companion, as Wolf had directed, came to the herd, they separated, one going to the north and the other to the south. The one at the north started the herd toward his companion, who shot one, which staggered a few feet before it fell. The young man, in order to leave behind the good meat and the insides for Wolf and not to arouse the suspicion of his companion as to the reason for leaving these portions, said: "That meat does not look very good. Let us not take any of it." "Why, that meat is all right," answered his companion. So they argued, but in the end the young man had his way. The next day, after they returned to the village, the young man went out to see what had become of the meat, finding that only a few bones were left. Later he killed three buffalo, which he left for Wolf as in the case of the first one. When he returned to their carcasses, he found that the bones had been picked clean. Returning to the place where he had killed the first buffalo, he saw a person sitting down, whom he recognized as the Wolf man. Wolf said: "Come around to me from the east. Now you have done what I wanted. I am no longer hungry, for I have fed and I have plenty to eat. Four days after you go home, I want you to dance." "In four days what shall I do? How shall I dance?" "Tomorrow will be the first day. Get young men to help you make the drums and the rattles. You will have three days for those to dry. Have the leaders rub their hands with fat and then rub their hands with the paint-stone. This must be rubbed over the head and the body. Let the other dancers use the paint-stone only, without the fat, but rubbing their entire bodies. I have told you most of what I wished to tell you. Whenever you want to give me something to eat, you know what to do. I am an animal and you are a human. I can not tell you how long you will live, for we are both flesh. If you die first, I shall be as I was when I first met you; I shall be hungry. You may go. In four days you are to dance." The young man took four men on a buffalo-hunt. They killed a young animal, which they skinned but left the meat. Two other men were selected to cut a young willow in the south, to be bent into a hoop for the head of the drum. When the wood was thinned and smoothed, sticks were placed in the ground and the willow stretched around them to season in circular form. The skin for the head was soaked in water until the hoop had become seasoned. Then it was taken out, scraped, and fitted to the rim, leaving enough so that it could be fastened behind. After that the two kinds of rattles were made. The villagers found out that they were doing something, so they asked one another: "What are those young men doing? What are they making? Is that quiet young man who never danced before going to dance now?" During the next two days the people talked, trying to guess what was about to happen, but with little success. Three men from different homes were called to his grass-house. To these he said: "I am going to ask you something. If you will listen and help me, I shall be very glad. This is what I want. I want you to dance the Big Wolf dance. I need you to help me conduct it. It will take four of us." {view image of facing page 96} Magpie - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 97} THE WICHITA 97 They answered that they would do whatsoever he asked. The evening of the fourth day he said to them: "All is ready; we are going to dance. One of you go to every house and tell the people that tonight at my house will be the Big Wolf dance." That evening the four sat down. The people began to come in and were told to sit anywhere. The leader said: "You have all known me. I have never before taken part in dancing or singing. This will be my first time. Later I shall dance often. Here is some fat which I shall feed to the fire." The paint-stone was passed around the circle for all the dancers to use, when it came back to him. He and three other leaders now used fat with the paint-stone. He painted his elbow- and knee-bands of wolf-hide, saying: "These bands are useful in cold weather. The feet of the wolves do not become cold when they walk in snow." The drumming and the singing commenced. Everybody was permitted to dance. The three women singers were behind the song leaders. The dancing lasted far into the night - until the leader announced that four more songs would be sung before the ceremony ended. When these four songs were finished, all went home. The old people had been watching for some supernatural power to be shown, but they learned nothing. There was a youth in the village for whom the young man had a great friendship. They often went hunting, and were seen about the village together, though the young man revealed none of his power. At one time, when the two came in from a trip, the youth asked his friend to stay overnight with him. The father welcomed the friend, for he thought the young man knew something out of the ordinary and might impart the knowledge to his son. He thought that perhaps this supernatural power might come merely through his son going about with the young man. One time when the two were hunting, the young man stopped by a tree. Addressing the youth, he said: "My friend, are you honest? Are you good?" The youth answered: "I have been taught to be honest. My reputation is good." " I am glad to hear that, for those are good words. Now I want to show you what I can do." " I am watching you now. What is there for me to see?" asked the boy. "You go to that tree behind you and lean against it, facing the west, while I go to the creek. Watch for me when I disappear over the bank." The boy watched, and shortly saw a deer running fast toward him. Then he saw a wolf chase it. The wolf leaped on the deer and dragged it down, though it snorted and tried to escape. The boy became frightened, thinking, " I am going to stop running around with this young man; he is no human as I am." He ran home to his father and cried to him, "That young man who stayed here is an animal!" The father scolded him: "I thought so. We all thought he had some supernatural power. Now you have seen it and run away. That was a mistake. Go back now." But his son refused to obey. In the meantime the young man was thinking: "That youth did not treat me right. If he comes back, I shall not receive him. I had taken pity on him, but he deceived me. I wanted to give him of my power, that his family might have plenty to eat." When he returned home he wondered if the boy had told what he had seen. He sent for his three other dance leaders, to whom he said: " I am going to tell you something. We had a Big Wolf dance. You all know the young man whom I went around with. I took him hunting to show him what I could do. I wanted to show him my power, so that his family would have plenty to eat, but he became frightened and ran away. He did not treat me right. Now the dance which we had is ended. We shall dance no more, because he has wronged me. I wanted to give him the power to go around on the coldest day of winter." The youth's father entered the lodge, and said: "You have been going around with my son. I beg that you will take him back as a friend. That is why I came here, and I ask you to give me an answer." "He has made a great mistake. He had a bad thought, and wronged me. I am sorry to say it, but I can not take him back, because he would do the same thing again. I have told these three men that we are going no further with the dance." The young man went out to where he had first met Wolf. When he came near, he saw him VOL. XIX-13 {view image of page 98} 98 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN sitting down. Wolf spoke: "You have made a mistake. The thoughts of the boy were the thoughts of a child. He is timid yet. You should have chosen some young man. Then you told the leaders that the dance was ended. A boy can not be trusted. You yourself behaved as a young person, acting thoughtlessly. If you had thought, this would not have happened. Do not do that again. Do not show any one your supernatural power; keep it. In all medicinemaking you must never show your power. You will have good luck, but do not show your power. I was in haste, and I drew you here to tell you these things. I was going to give you a great deal more, but you have done wrong. We must separate now." The Man Who Married a Fish A man and a woman lived together in a village. The man liked to swim in the river all day long. Every day after breakfast he went to the stream and returned late in the evening. One day, however, he remained home with his wife, but later went to the river according to his custom. On the way he felt uneasy, as if something strange were going to happen to him. He wondered if any one might be at the river. He swam for a while, but when the time came for him to return, he would start for home, then forget to go on, and come back for more swimming. This continued until late at night. Finally he left the water and went home, but he still had that uneasy sensation. When with his wife, he was unable to sleep on account of his restlessness. Something seemed to draw him to the river. When dawn began to appear, he put on clothing. His wife asked him where he was going. "I'm going out to look around to see what I can see," he answered. When he looked out, there was a drizzling rain, but he went out in it just the same. As he neared the stream, a dense fog rose over the water. Just as he came to the bank, he saw a beautiful woman, and immediately felt great love for her. His first thought was to pay no attention to her, but to proceed with his morning bath. When he came up to her, he intended to pass on the right; then he thought to go to the left, and hesitated. As he was abreast of her, she asked where he was going. He turned and said, "I came to look for you." "Do you know me? Why did you say you were looking for me?" "I do not know you, but I was looking for you." " I do not know if you are looking for me. Perhaps you are just fooling me. If you really mean it, come closer to where I am standing," she directed. "I really mean it, and I am coming to where you are standing." Daylight was approaching, but the fog continued. He went to her. She asked: "You came to look for me? What do you really want?" "It has always been my intention to find you, and I want to marry you," he answered. "Are you really in earnest in what you desire? What are you going to do about your wife?" " If you are willing to marry me, I shall let my wife go." "Perhaps you are telling the truth, or perhaps you are deceiving me; but I believe you are in earnest." He put his arms about her, saying, "Let us be married." "You are in earnest. Now it is time for me to do as you wish." The Fish woman led him toward the water, and when they reached the bank, they plunged in and were as fish. She said: " I hear some one coming. There are two things for you to say; you may have your choice. You may remain with me in the water as a fish, or you may keep your own form, coming back to the water now and then. This person is near. I know that you have decided to remain as you are. Go home now and come back to me at dusk." He bathed and went home, while she swam away. His wife asked him where he had been all the time. " I was just walking around. I have not been anywhere." All through the day he felt that he was being drawn toward the river. He resisted, though it was hard for him to await the appointed time. When he went down at dusk, he found the Fish woman as he had in the morning. This time he was not hesitant, but walked up to her. She said nothing, but he spoke, "What did you want to ask me?" {view image of page 99} THE WICHITA THE WICHITA 99 "I had you come here so that I could ask you something. Do you wish to marry me? What would you like to do?" " I have nothing to say. I came over here with the intention of being with you." " I am glad now, after having asked you, to receive that answer. From now on, I do not want any of your people to catch and eat fish. I am telling you this - that there must be an end of eating fish. If you ever fish, your end will come. I shall give you this power. Any time you come to the river, you will be able to catch any fish, even by handfuls; but when you are through with them, you must put them back. Now do you still wish to marry me?" "That is what I am here for. Now you are my wife." "You must be telling the truth, because you seem to be in earnest and I believe you. When we are married we might have a child." " I am very glad that you spoke of a child. I have always wanted one, and my wife at home never had any." " I, too, am very glad that you want one, for I am certain we shall have one playing around in a short while. When you come to the river and see many minnows and pick them up in your hands, you will perhaps recognize your son, for I have given you the power of catching fish in your hands. But do not spoil this power by showing people what you can do. We Fish know how to dodge to one side or the other, or to dash ahead, but you will know which way we are going to turn so that we shall swim right in your hands. There is something else I must tell you: We women in the water are peculiar; we do not want our men to be with other women." " I shall not do that. I shall have nothing to do with the women in the water." "Since you have said that, I want you to be sure and not do it. I am glad you will not. When you go home, ask your wife what that man said whom she was talking to." "Are you sure you saw my wife talking to another man?" "Yes, she was on the west bank while the man was on the east bank of the river." He went home to his wife, whom he found in bed. "My wife, I want to ask you something. What was that man talking about whom yca were with?" "Where was I standing with a man?" she asked, angrily. "I do not want you to become angry nor to talk loud, because you may awaken others. I inquired because I thought he might be asking about something." "I have not seen any man, nor talked to one. If I had, I should tell you so," she denied. "Because you answer me in that way I shall watch to see if you do talk to any one." The next day he visited another house near by, where he talked with a young man. "I want you to help me fool my wife. I want you to go hunting with me. Come to my house and ask me to go with you, so that I can get away." The young man agreed, and came over. He said: " I have come to ask your company on a hunting trip. Perhaps we shall kill some game, and maybe we shall be gone all night." They went a distance to some trees and stopped there until afternoon, when all was quiet in the camp. Then they carefully returned, the young man going to his own home while the husband cautiously hid himself. The man who had been with the wife had heard about the hunting trip; so knowing the husband was away, he went to see the wife. He called her, and they went out together. The husband easily recognized her from his hiding-place. The husband thought: "I have no hard feelings against her. She always told the truth before. I am going to let her marry this man." He went down to the river, where he met his new wife. She asked, "Do you believe me now?" "Yes, I shall give her to that young man, because I have you as a wife." " I must tell you something. I am with child now." " I am very glad, for I told you that I like children. I have none. Whenever I see children, I always wish I had some of my own." The man stayed close to the river from that time on. She asked: "What are your intentions now? Do you want to go back to the village or stay here?" " I shall do this: I shall go home, to my own home, not that of my wife." {view image of page 100} I 00 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN "I am glad you said that, because after four days and nights you must come back here. Your child will be born then." After the fourth night, he went down to the river. He saw his wife smiling happily as he approached. "Why do you look so happy?" "Your child is born -a boy. He is swimming in there with the other little fishes. We do not live as you people do, staying in one place. We go up and down the stream, always moving about." Day after day, people from the village saw him sitting on the bank until they began to say to one another, "He is still sitting there." One night his wife swam up and informed him: "You know what I told you of other women. I am going downstream and shall be there for some time." She went far downstream, but the man continued to sit on the bank or to walk back and forth. At night he slept with his feet toward the river. One night, after all was still, he heard some one approaching. He rose on one arm and saw a woman nearing him. He asked, "Whom are you looking for?" " I wanted to know where your wife had gone." "She went downstream for a visit." "When will she be back? Did she say?" "She did riot tell me when she would be back." "Would you like to have anything to do with me? I am here." "One thing I was told, and that was to have dealings with no other woman." " I am not afraid of your wife." "I am a little afraid, because of what she said, even though you are beautiful." " I have told you that I am not afraid of your wife. I know her. I want an answer to my offering myself to you." "I shall leave it to you to be responsible for the warning my wife gave. I shall do just as you say. "What do you say to this: Let us run away upstream?" "No. You have told me that you are not afraid of my wife, and you will be responsible for what happens." After a while the woman swam away. He tried to move, but found he was unable to stir. His wife arrived, feeling sorrowful, for she knew that something had happened. She threw him in the water, saying: " I told you not to have dealings with other women. You broke your word to me. Because of that I am going to turn you into a fish." He became a fish, even as she was. No one in the village knew where he had gone, but a friend worried over his disappearance and thought of him often. Once as the friend was coming downstream, he met a Fish person. He walked up to the person, saying, "You have come back here." "Yes, I have come. You have gone all about looking for me and feeling lonesome because I am not at home any more. We used to go around together when I was as you are. I brought you here to tell you this. It is hard that I can not be with you on land any more. I am with the fish in the water, and I live here now. When we were friends together, did you like me as a friend? If so, I want to know it." "Day after day as I went about, I thought of you, wondering where you had gone. Now that we have met again, I am happy. Is there anything that you can tell me?" " I am glad that you want me to tell you something. You must not take us out of the river and eat us." "When we were on the land together, I always did as you told me. Now that you have asked me this, I shall agree to it." " I am alive, but in the water. You are alive and on the land. I shall always know where you are and how you are. I want you to tell my grandparents, uncle, parents, brothers, and sisters that I am alive and in the water, and not dead. I brought you here to tell you this." "When I go home, I shall go directly to your house and tell them that I saw you. Then I shall tell my own family." So he was a fish because of his wife, but no longer married to her. She let him go because he had broken his promise. {view image of page 101} THE WICHITA IOI The Girl in the Moon There was once a village where lived together brother and sister. These two loved each other dearly. He often would say to her, affectionately, "My sister, whatever you might ask, I never could refuse you." There came a time when the sister met another woman just outside the village, who said: "I have longed to meet you, because I know that your brother will never refuse you anything. I want you to ask him to marry me, so that I can be your sister-in-law." The sister answered: "My brother never refuses me anything. Stay here while I go to ask him." When she arrived home, she saw her brother lying down. "You have often said, my brother, that you will never refuse what I ask." "That is true, my sister. I always say that. What do you wish of me?" "There is a young woman who asked me if you would marry her. When you say 'yes' to my wish, I shall bring her here." "I do not want you to feel hurt, but I am too young to marry. I do not wish to marry yet. Please do not feel badly because I must refuse you, for I love you just the same." The sister felt deeply hurt in her heart, because for the first time he had refused to do what she asked of him. She said: "My brother, do not ever tell me that I would refuse to do what you asked. I still love you." She went back to the woman who was waiting, and said, "My brother has refused me, and I am feeling hurt." "Did he really refuse to do what you asked? Perhaps he is not ready yet to become married to me." After several days the sister went to the home of this woman, where she was received warmly and asked what she wanted. She said to the woman, "I want you to come outside with me, for I have something I wish to ask you." Stopping a little way from the house, the sister began: " I have felt hurt ever since brother refused to do what I asked of him. You are the only person who will know what I am about to do. I am going somewhere, because I feel hurt. Tonight I am going to a place called KuissagahigutidTs1 ['Bright Shining Woman'].1 When you look up at the moon, you will see me and know that I have arrived. I shall have my little dog with me, and I shall also have a basket. After I have gone, you may tell the people where I am, but for the present keep it a secret. I am going home now, and at night I shall go away. When you see me standing up there, I shall have something to tell you again. When you look at the moon, you will see me standing at one side, the basket on the other, and the little dog behind me." That night she left, and the people looked all over the village for her. At last they went to the woman, but the only reply she gave to their questioning was that sister had never come over there. One night, when the moon was full and bright, the woman saw things just as sister had told her. Sister spoke from the moon: "This is what I am going to tell you: The moon is a woman. When women become with child they must think good thoughts about me. Then I shall take pity on them, so that they will have an easy time at childbirth. You see me up here. I am not lost. I shall watch over the people and see how they are getting on. Perhaps at some time I shall take pity on some one. My brother is worried because he refused what I asked him and because I left; but that is all past now. He should not think that way. This is our way. I am always here with the moon, no matter how small it is. I shall be with Bright Shining Woman forever. We are not far away, but very close, and there is another world just beyond us, like the earth. My final words are these: I have the same name as Bright Shining Woman, because we are always bright. Now my brother wants to marry you. Refuse him; it is too late now, because he denied my request. We shall always be looking after our people." 2 1 See page 45 -2 With many tribes there is at least a vague association of the moon with all matters relating to maternity. See pages 40, 45. {view image of page 102} I02 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The Woman Who Married a Star In the old days in the villages many of the young women used sleeping-houses built on platforms, with ladders to climb up. After they had gone to bed, some one of the family would remove the ladders, so that no one could enter. On a bright moonlight night, as one woman, from her bed, was gazing through a hole in the roof at a star, she thought: "I wonder what that Star-man looks like. I wish that he, away up there, could become my husband." She tossed restlessly, thinking that she wanted him for a husband, but at last she went to sleep. While she slept, the Star came down and bore her above with him. When she awoke and saw the man at her side, he was very old and wrinkled. "You thought of me while you were sleeping. You thought that I was a young man, but I shall tell you this: the bright stars are all old men, while the dim ones are young." She was disappointed, and thought how hard it would be to return home. She was troubled how to get down. She saw that on the star all was as it had been on earth - trees, rocks, and grass were all the same. She thought all the time of getting home. She wandered around gathering soapweed until she had a great pile. All day she tied the leaves together and all night she gathered more. Day after day she did this, until at last she wondered if she had enough soapweed-fibre to reach the earth. While she was getting ready for her flight, the old man knew what she was doing. Finally he said, "It's very hard for me to take you down there." At last she had a huge bundle of soapweed rope tied together and piled up by a big tree. She thought to get one more bundle, and in the morning to try to come down to earth. When she awoke and went to the tree, she wondered if the rope were long enough. She tied it to the tree and went down until she came to the end. It was far too short, and she swayed round and round, blown by the wind. She hung there day and night, saying over and over to herself, "I wish something would take pity on me." She became very thin. Whenever she saw birds, she talked to them and asked them to pity her and bring her back to earth. At last she heard a great noise from the north - a thunder of wings. The great bird spoke to her, " I am sorry for you and I want to take pity on you, but I do not smell very good." "That makes no difference to me. Whatever you do will be all right." "When I start, I shall go around in a circle and come to you from the north. When I get under you, catch my neck. I shall take care of the rope." She heard the sound as it moved about her, and she caught the neck of the bird when it flew beneath her. It cut the rope with its beak, and they gradually winged down to earth. As they neared the ground, the great bird was very tired, because the height was so great and the burden so heavy. When they struck the ground, she fell over exhausted, while the bird lay with its mouth open, gasping from fatigue. After a while the bird spoke to her: " I saw you swinging back and forth in the wind. I was sorry for you, and I wanted to take pity on you, even though I know I do not smell very good. When you come to the river, I want you to bathe yourself; but you said that it was all right, and I brought you down here. Now you are safe; over there is your home. I am going to say this: Tell your brother to go out hunting, and when he kills anything, have him leave behind the neck and head, for those are our food. The fat of the eyes is all I want. This is my part of the country, and I shall watch out for what I have asked you. You must wait here until dark; then you may go home." The bird was the Buzzard. At dusk she arrived at her village, where her parents welcomed her. They fed her, for she was very thin, and they asked where she had been. The news spread rapidly that she had returned to her parents, and all the village flocked to see her. Then they left for their own homes, all except the old men, who stayed and began to tell stories. One said, "We want to ask you where you have been, and whence you came." " I shall tell you," answered the girl. "There came a time when I went to bed and my mother took away the ladder. As I lay there, looking through a hole in the roof, I saw a bright star which I wished to marry. When I awoke I was up there, and I saw an old, wrinkled man beside me, who was the bright star I had seen. He had taken me above. There all things are the same as they are down here on earth. I saw it with my own eyes. I escaped with a rope of soapweed, and Buzzard saved my life. My brothers must never kill Buzzards. That is all I have to say. Buzzard alone saved me." {view image of page 103} THE WICHITA Io3 The Chief's Son and the Chief's Daughter There was once a village of tipis. The son of the chief often looked over to a nearby village where he saw the chief's daughter. She, too, often looked across at him and wondered if some time they could marry. One time the young man saw the girl hurriedly enter and then come out of her lodge. Next he noticed her waving something to attract his attention. He thought, "You are going down to the river." He started in a roundabout way to the stream, where he found her sitting on the bank. When he approached, she bowed her head, knowing that he was coming; but when she looked up, she smiled at him. She spoke first: "Which way did you come? Did any one see you?" "Why do you ask? Are you afraid? Perhaps you are afraid, but I am not. My purpose was to come here to see you." "When you had that intention, I had the same thought. I wondered if the time would come when you and I could be married. For a long time I have been wishing that we could meet this way. There are many young men in my village who have been trying to marry me, but I have refused them all. My thoughts were of you." "You are right. That is the condition I have been in. I have been asked to take other women to wife, but have refused them all. Let us arrange to be married." She answered, "When we have arranged things, which way shall we go?" "Would your father and mother care if we went anywhere?" "Let us hurry and decide, for we have been here a long time now." He answered: " I can not decide. I want you to make the decision. I am a young man and it is not my place to suggest. I shall do whatever you say." "All right; if I have to choose, I shall do it. We shall marry right here; then I shall carry this water home and come back." "You do that. I shall wait here until you return. If you do not come back, I shall think that we are not married and I shall go home." Soon she returned and asked where they were going. He replied, "We shall go the way that I came - around the valley and to my home." As they entered the lodge, the youth's father and mother looked at her and realized who she was - the daughter of the other chief. The father scolded his daughters, commanding that they prepare places for his son and the bride, and that they bring food. So they made their home in this village. The people soon learned the news and talked amongst themselves. "They are those two who were afraid to marry." After a while the young woman gave birth to a boy who was so handsome that others often borrowed him, keeping him for the day in their own home, even as they do now. One day a person failed to return the baby. The parents worried, and searched through all the houses. People told them that the woman who lived on the outskirts of the village had the child. The chief had four sons, whom he sent to get the baby. "If she refuses to give him up, kill her!" he ordered. As the sons neared the house, the woman came out and told them not to come closer, but they kept on. One said, "Remember what the chief ordered us to do." A second asked her, "Why do you wish us to stop and go back?" Another spoke: "Do not say anything. If you do, you will be dead." But the woman tried to speak in spite of the warning, so they killed her and took the baby home. The chief was very happy over the safe return of his grandson, but when he learned what the sons had done, he ordered them to fetch the chief from the other village. When he arrived, room was made for him, and he sat down. The old chief began: "I sent for you, because here are my son and your daughter who are married and have a child. I want to say this - that nothing is wrong. You have your village and I have mine; but I must move, because of our grandson. A woman took him and we had to kill her to get him back. I feel badly over this, and want to move my village." The other chief replied: "There is my village. It will remain there and you may go where you choose. I am glad that you are to move and that you are all in good health. I can not tell my daughter to come home now. She will live with your people." {view image of page 104} Io4 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN "There are times when I am asked something I cannot refuse. When this woman asked to take my grandchild, I let her do so. Then we had to kill her to get back the boy. I feel badly. Return to your village and live peacefully." The Man Who Was Transformed into a Snake Young men in olden times were always on the warpath or the hunt, setting out in all directions, going and coming in groups. One young man always stayed away from the village, for he did not like to be ever journeying back and forth. It happened once that when his party returned to where they had left him, he was missing. In the meantime he had travelled southward until he had come to a big cave. Four of his comrades set out to look for him, and as they went along, one heard a noise. "Come here! I heard something!" he called to the others. "Let us go toward the big cave. That is where the noise came from." "There he is, lying in the cave." As they approached, they heard a noise as of scales rattling, so they stopped a little distance off. The young man called out, " I can not do anything now, for you see the condition I am in." He was a snake from his chest down, but the rest of his body was human. " It will be hard for me to go home, because of my changed form; I can never go back now." One said: " I want you to remember that we have a home over there. Perhaps you may turn into something, and if so I want you to take pity on us. We were looking for you and we have found you in this new shape. We are glad. When we go home, we shall tell the people how you are and in what condition. We are glad to have seen you. Now we are going home." On the way back they talked, saying that the best thing to do would be to go straight to their village. They were welcomed at the home of their comrade, and when asked what they wanted, replied: "We have seen your son, whom we were looking for. When we saw him, he was turned into something different from the chest down, but his head and shoulders were human." " I am happy that you told me, even though he is only part human. I shall go there, and I want you to take me." "We shall go home a while, and when we come back we shall take you." When they returned, the mother and sister of the young man wanted to go along to see him for the last time before he had completely changed. The whole party started. "That cave there is the place; we are nearing it," said one, and they heard the noise of scales. Then they saw him on his hands and knees. The scales on his back stood on end; these had made the noise. He appeared very angry, so they all kept their distance. The mother began to cry, and the father commanded: "Stop that crying! We can not help it because he is changed into something else." Sister said: " I am going right up to him. I do not care what happens to me; I am going to him." They held her back, comforting her. "You are making a big mistake," they said. "He has already turned into something else, and we can not take him home." The father called: "I am telling you this: You have turned into something else, but I can not help saying that you are still my son. I want you to have the same thoughts as you had before you were changed. Now your thoughts are mean. I do not want you to harm any one. I should like you to have the same kind of thoughts as before you were changed, because, since you must stay here, there will be times that I shall want to come to see you." They noticed the scales beginning to fall back into place and finally to settle down flat. The father continued: " I am here to tell you, my son, that I can do nothing for you, because you are something else. We are going home. We love you, and liked to have you home, but we can now do nothing. We are leaving." When they reached the village, the people came to them, asking if they had seen the son. The father answered: "We have seen our son. It is hard for us, because he has turned into something else. I should like to be with him always, but I can not help matters now. I feel sorry for him. Whatever happens to him is all right. I am not going back any more. My son went out, but I did not know where he went. Now I know. In order not to think of it any more, I want my family to move and to make another home." {view image of page 105} The Southern Cheyenne VOL. XIX-I4 {view image of page 106} {view image of page 107} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE Introduction THE material in this section was prepared to supplement, so far as possible, that which appears in Volume VI of the work. The data for that volume were collected from the Northern Cheyenne in Montana, while the accompanying account is the result of studies conducted among the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma. No attempt has been made herein to include the history of the Cheyenne tribe, for to do so would be but to repeat facts and figures already given. The story of the strife between the Cheyenne and the whites is a tragic one of disaster alike to both sides, and anything but creditable to our own race; in fact it records one of the darkest pages in the history of our dealings with the Indians. It is customary to refer to these people as Northern Cheyenne and Southern Cheyenne, but ethnologically they are the same. Indeed the tribal separation came about so recently that no marked difference in their culture has resulted. Societies existing in one group were maintained in the other. The one exception in connection with societies and ceremonies is the institution of the sacred arrows. This tribal palladium, the bundle of the arrows, is in possession of the Southern Cheyenne; consequently, if a member of the northern group desires to give the Arrow rite, he must journey to the land of his southern brothers and enlist their cooperation in holding the ceremony. The Cheyenne, Blackfeet, and Arapaho compose that substantial part of the great Algonquian stock which at some prehistoric time commenced a westward migratory movement that ultimately took them to the Great Plains. Whether this group started as a unit which later became segregated, each part composed of many bands or subdivisions, or whether the migration was made separately by many units and covering a long period of time, is a question on which the genesis legends of the three tribes throw scant light. Myths, 107 {view image of page 108} Io8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN legends, folktales, and basic ceremonial precept indicate that at least the Cheyenne and the Blackfeet were separate groups ere their westward movement was begun. According to their own traditions, verified by Mandan and Hidatsa accounts, the Cheyenne reached the plains and Black Hills country some generations ahead of the Sioux. It has been determined 1 that their earlier known habitat was northwestern Minnesota, the Minnesota river seemingly being the southern limit of their hunting territory. From this general region the migration was a westward trend to the Black Hills country, hence the movement was far south of that followed by the Blackfeet, who moved westward through the forest country of Canada. Cheyenne tradition makes the first mention of a homeland as a "Land of Lakes and Marshes," pointing in all probability to the lake country of Minnesota. Next they dwelt in a "Land of Red Bunch-grass"; later in a "Land of Burnt Stumps"; and the next important advance in their migration was the crossing of the Missouri river. If their own traditions may be relied on, the Cheyenne were still growers of crops at least up to the time they reached the Black Hills of South Dakota. The explorers Lewis and Clark stated that they were not engaged in raising crops in the Black Hills, yet native legends tell of cultivated fields there. It is evident that the Black Hills country was the central homeland of the Cheyenne for some time; and it is possible that they changed from a semi-agricultural people and became wholly hunters after they reached that region in their migration. There game was plentiful, but crop-growing conditions were not of the best. Cheyenne and Siutai traditions of today are so blended that it is difficult to differentiate them, but it is evident that the Sutai group formed the advance guard in the westward movement and were at the sacred Cedar mountain in the Black Hills in advance of the Cheyenne proper. The two groups were intermittently friends and enemies until the final alliance at Cedar mountain. In I804 the Lewis and Clark party saw the Cheyenne in the Black Hills region. Their own traditions tell of the visit of that party of explorers and speak of it as their first meeting with white people. It was, of course, the first considerable body of white men to visit that region, for which reason the event is traditionally recorded as an important one. It is evident, however, that the Cheyenne must have 1 Handbook of American Indians, part I, page 251, Washington, 1907. {view image of facing page 108} Drying meat - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 109} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE Io9 seen small parties of trappers long before that time. Here in the Cedar Mountain country, as related in the story of the Sacred Arrows and legend of the Prophet, they received their divine instructions how to worship and to live.1 The Cheyenne of the present generation have only the vaguest tradition of a homeland before the tribe reached the Black Hills, where, at Nuwawus, the sacred mountain, all divine instruction was received. The fact that this prolonged stop was to them a period of comparative tranquillity afforded opportunity for culture development, hence naturally they have grown to regard that era as the time when they received all knowledge. Mandan, Arikara, and Hidatsa traditions tell of intermittent conflict between the Cheyenne and the Mandan, as well as with the Hidatsa; but on the whole they maintained peaceful relations with the Arikara. From the Mandan they learned the art of making glass objects by fusing glass. The "sky disc " used in the Arrow ceremony is made in this way. From the Arikara they borrowed certain of their ceremonies. Many of the features of the Cheyenne Buffalo ceremony and Animal dance are copied from the important summer ceremony of the Arikara. It was while they were living at Cedar mountain that the Cheyenne established the system of forty-four chiefs. According to tradition the forty-four sticks representing these chiefs were brought to them by a Cheyenne woman who had been held captive by an enemy tribe "which lived by a large lake which they worshipped, and they often killed persons and threw them into the water in sacrifice to the spirits." 2 It is also evident from their traditions that the tribe was then composed of forty-four bands, represented by a like number of sticks. The definite organization of forty-four chiefs was doubtless a strong factor in their intertribal warfare. It was a tangible organization of four head-chiefs, an executive chief, and forty councillors. When a decision was reached there were forty men of authority to lead their respective units. The author has had the privilege of observing the Cheyenne chiefs of this generation in council. Although the number of chiefs has dwindled, and the status of the tribe has changed from a great dominating people to that of pseudo-civilized wards of the Government, yet the chiefs still maintain the authority. What might have eventuated from such a definite organization had the Cheyenne been left to their own devices for a few generations longer is an interesting question. 1 See page I 6. 2 See Election of Chiefs, page I Io. {view image of page 110} IIO THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Inherently warriors, fearless in battle, the Cheyenne were in constant conflict with neighboring tribes. After the alliance with their oldtime enemy, the Sioux, a favorite field for their raiding was the region to the south where horses were more plentiful; and it was in the same direction that their migratory drift from the Cedar Mountain country was made. In 1825 they made their first treaty with the Government, by the provisions of which they relinquished their claims to the Black Hills region. From that time began their real difficulties which extended over a long period and were characterized by broken covenants and unkept promises. During these troublous years there grew within the ranks of the tribe two factions: one desiring to remain in the north, the other preferring the southern country. The outcome of this tribal difference was a division into the two groups which came to be known as the Northern and the Southern Cheyenne. The Southern Cheyenne were ultimately given lands in Oklahoma, which in I901 were allotted in severalty. From the point of view of tillage, their lands are good, and their living comes from agriculture. No oil has yet been developed in their part of the state, hence the Cheyenne are still poor. They retain much of the old ceremonial life. During the summer of 1926 the writer was in attendance during the rendering of the Arrow ceremony, the Sun dance, and the Animal dance, and was in several of their encampments where minor rites were performed and where the spirit of primitive times was maintained to some extent. Origin of the Forty-four Chief-sticks and the Election of Chiefs Cheyenne tradition relates that once a Cheyenne woman was a prisoner of another tribe. These people lived by a large lake which they worshipped, often killing their captives and casting them into the water as sacrifices. The woman had made a friend of a young man whom she called Son. One day Son informed her that she was to be killed and sacrificed. He told her to make several pairs of moccasins, then to flee and not to stop anywhere, because the tribe had a dog trained for trailing which would surely overtake her if she did not make all haste. The woman fled, and the tribe chose three youths, one of them being Son, to set the dog on her trail and pursue her. Two of them fell exhausted in the chase, but Son was still strong enough to continue. {view image of facing page 110} Chiefs in the sun dance parade - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 111} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE III Finally he overtook the woman, and after killing the dog, told her that it was now safe for her to proceed, but that he would return to his tribe and report that he had been unable to catch her. The woman continued on her way. Soon she saw that some buffalo bulls were pursuing her, so she ran to a small pond, dived into it, and swam to safety. Hardly had she recovered her breath on the other shore, when a bear chased her. She ran and climbed a nearby tree, the bear close behind her. With her hatchet she severed the forepaws of the bear, so that he fell and limped away. She descended and resumed her journey. It chanced that her husband and son were on a hilltop from which they saw the woman running toward them. As she came nearer, they recognized her and ran to meet her, happy that she was with them again, for she had long been given up as dead. At the camp the woman told her story to the people, saying that she had brought back something to them, something very good and much needed to help them make peace with other tribes, but that before telling about it she had some work to do. She then gathered forty-four sticks and decorated them with porcupine-quills. Meanwhile the other tribe was on the warpath, and came to fight the Cheyenne. The woman said that she would call to the warriors to learn if Son was among them; if so, he was not to be harmed, because he had been good to her. She called out, and he was there. At her hail, Son went to the camp of the Cheyenne, where he was kept safely throughout the battle which ensued. After the Cheyenne had won, the woman brought forth her fortyfour sticks, and said to the people: "These sticks represent chiefs. All other peoples have chiefs, while we have none. These chiefs must be good men; they must be able to make peace. That is why I have done this work. Let forty chiefs be selected and a tipi arranged for them in the middle of camp." As they took the young man back to his people, he assured them that there would be peace between the two tribes, because his father was a chief and he himself had been well treated while with the Cheyenne. A messenger, sent in advance, returned with the chief, so they made peace and exchanged gifts. At that time chiefs were elected every four years, and later every eight years. For the election a tipi is arranged in the centre of the camp. The bands have dances in their own lodges. Four chiefs are elected from the bands in each of the four directions; one other chief is elected, and these five are the head-chiefs. {view image of page 112} 112 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The remaining chiefs are elected regardless of band. The fifth head-chief may be chosen without regard to band or tribe. His position in the council lodge is by the door. All questions for consideration before the council are discussed, each man expressing his views; then the fifth head-chief is asked for his decision. He can decide for or against any matter, and according to tribal rule there is no appeal from his decision. But laws, rules, and questions of custom are always open to discussion, and should this chief render a decision unsatisfactory to the other chiefs and to the tribe, there would be at least a great deal of talk. When new chiefs are elected, they go to the centre lodge where they give away horses to the bands electing them. They then gather inside the lodge, where they are instructed by the old chiefs in their duties. The head-chief has the lodge swept clean and the dirt piled. The swept ground, he informs them, represents the earth, while the dirt represents the people of the earth. He lays eight sticks in each of the four directions, and eight in the centre. These, he says, are the chief-sticks by which they are elected. The remaining four are to represent any other four chiefs with the Cheyenne chiefs. Ceremonies The Sacred Arrow Ceremony The sacred arrows of the Cheyenne are the central feature of their religious thought and teaching. According to the old men conversant with the Arrow rite and with tribal traditions, the Cheyenne received the four arrows and the instructions for their use from divine sources. These old men state that at the time they received the arrows and the accompanying teachings the people knew little of how to live; in fact, they were almost like animals. Present informants - men close to ninety years of age - place the Cheyenne habitat at the time that divine instruction regarding the arrows was received, in the Cedar mountains in the Black Hills. The definite location was the sacred mountain known as Nuwawus. The Cheyenne lived at the mountain and the Sutai near it. But the definite naming of Nuwawus as the place where they received the teachings is doubtless the result of an error that has crept in owing to the great lapse of time, for the Cheyenne did not reach the Black Hills until they were well advanced in culture. A traditional story, related by one of the oldest Cheyenne, tells {view image of facing page 112} Hivihhnihpoih Society, Cheyenne sun dance [photogravure plate] {view image of page 113} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE 113 of a sacred mountain and a large spring far to the east, but after travelling westward, the people came to a "Land of Lakes and Swamps," where they lived for a time, then migrated to the "Land of the Red Bunch-grass." Later, after many years, they moved to the "Land of Stumps," and after a long stay at this place they came to the Missouri river and began to cross on the ice. The ice broke; some turned back and others crossed, ultimately reaching the Black Hills. This story regarding the passage of the "big river" is the only one obtained from the Southern Cheyenne which parallels the characteristic Algonquian legend of tribal division through crossing on broken ice. The legendary glimpse would indicate that they brought the holy-mountain teaching with them. At this sacred mountain, wherever it may have been, Mofteiyoiv, the Prophet, came to them. In a part of his teaching the origin of the ceremony of the four arrows is accounted for. The genetic legends do not make it clear that this Prophet brought the arrows, but rather that his spirit teacher gave them to him while he was instructing the people. However, the old men in speaking of them say, "The Prophet brought the arrows." It is clear to all informants that the sacred arrows are a Cheyenne institution and that their acquisition preceded the final amalgamation with the Sfitai. These arrows are guarded from the touch and sight of every one except those participating in the Arrow rite, and no woman ever can be allowed to see them. It is difficult for us fully to appreciate the awe with which they are regarded. The presence of these sacred objects in a large camp of Cheyenne brings a hush like the oppressive stillness before a great storm. Even the dogs seem to catch the spirit of devotional silence and subdue their customary howling. The first keeper of the arrows was selected by Mofeeiyoiv, the Prophet. The bundle containing them is guarded in a tipi near the home of the arrow-keeper, who alone may enter it. The keeper must always remain at home to guard the sacred bundle; but in no circumstances may he open it, nor may he enter the tipi in which the Arrow ceremony is performed, unless, before becoming the keeper, he has taken the vow to give the rite. The arrows are kept in a wolfskin quiver, which with accompanying sacred objects is wrapped in a covering of buffalo-skin. In olden times, when the tribe was moving from place to place in hunt or warfare, the arrow-keeper travelled on foot with the arrow bundle on his back, watchful outriders being constantly on guard. VOL XIX-15 {view image of page 114} II4 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN At the end of a day's march, the arrow tipi was erected quickly, and there he took his place in holy seclusion. The position of arrow-keeper was one of great honor, but it involved what was equivalent to benevolent imprisonment. The Cheyenne say that the life of the arrow-keeper is a hard one. An interesting incident is told in relation to the arrows. During a battle with a large war-party of Pawnee, two of the arrows were stolen. Later a party of Sioux in battle with the Pawnee captured one of the stolen arrows. The Cheyenne and Sioux at that time being allies, the latter returned the long-lost arrow. Later, when the Cheyenne and the Pawnee held a peace council, the other stolen arrow was returned as one of the conditions. In fact, from the viewpoint of the Cheyenne, the only object of the peace council was to secure the arrow, but being somewhat clever in intertribal negotiations, they did not reveal the real purpose of their overtures.1 The Arrow ceremony is held only when necessity arises. For instance, if a Cheyenne should kill another Cheyenne, or commit suicide, then it would be necessary to conduct the rite in order to remove the evil which would envelop the tribe by reason of the crime, and to revive the arrows- remove the contamination. The murderer in the meantime would have been sentenced to banishment from the tribe for a period of four years. Sometimes the ceremony is performed because some man has dreamed that he made the vow. Apparently a man having such a dream feels obliged to make the vow and to give the ceremony. If the performance of the rite is in pursuance of a dream, the feathers on the arrows are not renewed; but if it is to remove the stigma of blood, new feathers are attached and the points purified. Only men of importance in the tribe presume to make arrow vows. There are four arrow priests or teachers, who, like the keeper, hold the position for life. The four teachers are really the four highpriests of the tribe. When an occasion demanding the ceremony arises, a man or men make the necessary vows to give it. At the appointed time the tribe gathers, camping in the customary campcircle with the opening to the north. As seen by the author, the camp-circle was about a mile in diameter. A short distance from the rear of the circle, at the south, on the inner side, was erected first 1 The information obtained from the Southern Cheyenne in regard to the stealing of the sacred arrows and their recovery does not wholly agree with that procured from the Northern Cheyenne some years ago. It is evident, however, that the statement here given is the correct one. See Volume VI, page I 5. {view image of facing page 114} Hefatyu Society, Cheyenne sun dance [photogravure plate] {view image of page 115} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE 115 the preparatory tipi in which takes place the first day's ritual, consisting largely of instructing the votary, who here offers his silent prayer for the welfare of all the people. The votary throughout the rite wears a buffalo-skin, painted red, with the hair side inward; and with great ritualistic formula his body also is painted with the same sacred red. After these preliminaries the teacher instructs the votary to sit by the incense fire and to spread the robe over his head, far out and around the fire, that there may be room within its folds for all the people. "Then you will inhale the smoke four times," he directs. At the close of the silent prayer the teacher addresses the votary: "I thank you for what you have done; it means that you are going through this for the benefit of the whole tribe, blessing them and giving them long life." The camp is instructed that these are four sacred days and that all must be quiet. No one may pass in front of the arrow lodge. No one may dance, nor in any way indulge in levity. On the morning of the second day the participants move to a larger tipi which has been erected near the centre of the circle. This is the real arrow lodge. The activities of the camp become more subdued, and members of the soldier societies constantly patrol the camp to see that even the children make no noise. People found wandering outside the campcircle are driven to their homes by these guards, who are armed with willow whips. Those moving about inside the circle are treated in like manner. The whipping is severe. However, should a person be caught by the patrol and immediately crouch on the ground and cover his head, he would evade punishment. Similarly, a noted warrior, by recounting his valorous deeds, would also avoid this summary treatment. Only one of the four priests is allowed to touch the arrows. Additional teachers from among those having previously given the vows are chosen. Only the four priests, the votary, and the chosen teachers may enter the sacred precincts of the arrow tipi. Having previously made the vows and participated in the rite does not give one the privilege to enter. However, those giving the ceremony have the right to invite any previous votary to assist. The entrance to the lodge is at the north; in the centre is the lodge fire; in the rear, on the south side of the lodge, is the incense fire, and to the east of the sacred fire are placed the four arrows with points directed toward the south. Near the east side of the lodge is a series of circles, one set of circles for each votary. The first circle with a small fire in the middle symbolizes the earth. At the centre of the second circle is placed a {view image of page 116} II6 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN fused glass disc representing the sky.l The third circle has at its centre a white shell representing day; while the fourth, with a small bucket at its centre, represents life. Before each set of circles burns an incense fire. All incense fires and the ceremonial pipe are lighted from the central fire. Extreme care must be exercised to avoid any mistake in following the ritual precisely. Participants whose positions are at the right of the lodge must keep to the right side of the entrance; on going out they must keep close to the right, then circle the lodge to its southern arc. Those occupying positions at the left follow the corresponding rule of procedure. No one may cross the entrance or pass between it and the fire. To violate any rule of ritualistic procedure, it is believed, would bring death to the offender and evil upon the tribe. At the end of the fourth day a smaller tipi is erected close to the large one. At the rear of this one is built a small bower where the high-priest takes his place, and at his side the other priests are stationed. Before the high-priest rest the arrows. The simple ritual in this second lodge is only semi-secret. Men of the tribe may enter and reverently view the arrows; but this privilege does not extend to a tribesman of mixed-blood. Information regarding the Arrow ceremony was obtained from two old men who had participated as votaries. Both became greatly depressed and worried before closing the interview. Howling Wolf, who told much in detail of his own ceremony, grew more anxious and uneasy with the telling of each step, and ceased before reaching the end. He went a short distance from camp, where he spent a full quarter of an hour in prayer, asking all the gods, Indian and Christian, to forgive him for revealing the secrets of the Divine Ones.2 Legend of the Sacred Arrows The Prophet was reared by an old woman whom he called grandmother. He was a dirty, ugly boy, unnamed as yet, but called "Big Belly" by everybody. The old woman called him "grandson." No one ever knew who were his parents, nor whence he came. The tipi 1 This disc is made in the same manner as that employed by the Mandan in making glass beads and ornaments. It may safely be assumed that the Cheyenne learned how to fuse glass from the Mandan. 2 In the summer of 1926 the author was in the camp of the Cheyenne on the Canadian river during the performance of the Arrow rite. There were two votaries, both Northern Cheyenne. When it is necessary for the Northern Cheyenne to hold this ceremony, the votary must come to the Southern Cheyenne and enlist their cooperation. The rites in the sacred lodge were not witnessed, nor was it possible to record details of the ritual. {view image of facing page 116} Preparatory lodge, Cheyenne sun dance [photogravure plate] {view image of page 117} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE II7 where the two lived stood apart from the main camp; it was old and worn, for they were very poor. Often lacking meat, they starved while the others had plenty. The Mahlfhita, the old medicine people, were holding a dance one time, a sacred dance, in their lodge surrounded by a wall of cottonwoods. In those days the medicine people were great people. They were able to cut deep gashes in their arms, necks, and legs; to shake themselves and the cuts would be healed. The Prophet asked his grandmother, "Grandmother, may I go and dance with the medicine people?" "No, child, if you go over there, the medicine people will not like it." "Yes, grandmother, I am going anyway," he insisted. He painted his face, picked up a buffalo-calf hide, and tied a bow-string around his neck. His grandmother took him by the hand and led him to the medicine-lodge, saying, "My grandchild wants to dance with you, but I am afraid you may not like it." "That will be all right," they said. "Let him sit there." They told him: "We are going to sing and dance all the medicine-dances and all the ceremonial dances. After we have finished, we want you to give the last song and dance." They finished their songs and dances, and asked the boy to give his. He danced around the cottonwoods, jumping like a buffalo calf. He had the buffalo-calf hide, which he held in his right hand. This he threw on the ground, once toward each cardinal point, and once in the centre. There stood a buffalo calf. He rubbed it four times with his hands and it was transformed into the robe, which he put about him. The others said: "Let us leave him. Let us go out, because none of us can do anything like he can." He then went to the centre of the lodge, pulled on the bow-string around his neck in such a way as to pull his neck out, and fell down. The grandmother cried: "My poor grandchild; he has pulled his neck out! I wonder how we can put it back again!" "Put my neck back in again; untie the buffalo-robe from my shoulders and cover me," he said. She covered him, saying: "I do not know if he will come to life again; but let his name be Mofteiyoiv ['Medicine Root']. Get up, grandchild, and dance as you did before." He stood up, whole again, just as he was before. A long time afterward he grew up. It was winter, and very cold, with much snow on the ground. There were no buffalo; the people were starving, for there was nothing to eat. All were very hungry. The Prophet said, "Grandmother, make me a little round wheel and braid it with rawhide." She made it and painted it red. Then he got two sticks, painted them red, and said to her: "Roll that wheel toward me and say that it is a fouryear-old buffalo. I am going to shoot at it." " I do not want to do that," she protested. {view image of page 118} II8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN "Just throw that wheel toward me," he ordered. She threw the wheel, and he shot it with his sticks. It fell over, and a large buffalo was lying there. He then said, "Let us visit that great man who has such a fine daughter." "No, we cannot go. We are too poor for him. He will not like to have us," she objected. "Yes, we are going. Let us go now," he insisted. The grandmother put a fresh piece of fat in her shirt and they went to the lodge of the great man. The girl came to the door and welcomed them. The great man also greeted them, but he could offer them no real feast, since he had only some wild turnips. Soon the Prophet turned to his grandmother, and said, "Let us go." "No, let us wait," objected the grandmother. "No, we are going right now," insisted the Prophet. As they went out, the piece of fat dropped from her shirt. He picked it up, saying, "Why, look at that! That fat is mine!" After they returned home, he sent her back to the lodge of the great man to tell him to go over the mountain, for there were the buffalo from which he had obtained the fat. It was very cold, with much snow on the ground. The great man sent a crier to spread the news that buffalo were over the mountain. All the people believed it. They prepared for a hunt and crossed the ridge where they saw many buffalo. The Prophet and two other boys were with the crowd when they surrounded the herd. He told the boys not to go too close until the animals were slaughtered. After most of them were killed, he went around pulling hair from carcasses, which he stuck inside his shirt. As they were returning, he saw a yearling. "Let us kill this one and I shall take the hide," said he. They skinned it and he took the hide and a hoof. An old man came up to them, saying: "You boys get away from here. I killed that yearling and I want the hide." "No, that belongs to me," protested the Prophet; but the man tore it away from him. He felled the man with the hoof, then took the robe and ran with the boys back to camp. All the hunters returned, and there was plenty of meat in the lodges. The Prophet went to his tipi and pulled from his shirt the buffalohair, which turned into good meat. The camp learned that he had knocked down an old man, so they surrounded his tipi, intending to give him a whipping. One boy ran ahead of the rest and told the old grandmother what was about to happen. She was cooking when the crowd came. The Prophet kicked the cooking-pot into the fire and went out with the steam through the smoke-hole. The people next saw him running over a ridge, so they gave chase, but when they arrived on the summit they saw him in the next valley. After pursuing him over four ridges, they gave up to return to the village, saying amongst themselves, "Let him go; he must be a great prophet." He came back to a river close to camp and was sitting there when some women came for water. They reported the news, and all the {view image of facing page 118} Sun dance lodge - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 119} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE II9 people came to surround him, but he was gone when they arrived. They saw a coyote running away, and that was he. A second time he was found, but he flew away in the form of an eagle; the third time, he became transformed into a tree; and the fourth, he flew away with a flock of birds. After four days the people saw the Prophet come over a ridge toward the camp. He had a crooked spear, decorated with otter-fur, after the fashion of the Hehmoiy6i. Then he disappeared over the ridge, to return a second time with a spear decorated with feathers like the Mufointan. At the third appearance he came out dressed as a Maha6ivas (" Red Shield"). A fourth time he had a spear with a feather at the end, and held a yellow bird and a whistle in his hand. He was dressed as an Ohihnfihk6 ("Clown"). He did this to teach the people the dress of the four bands, because they did not have bands before that time. He did not return to the camp, but was absent four years.1 The Prophet went to the sacred mountain, Nuwawus, and passed inside where the Medicine Spirits dwelt, the spirits of the rocks, trees, grass, animals, and all things. They told him that his friend Yellow Man (of the Arapaho) had just been sent out. The spirits were all around him to teach him. There was a log inside, decorated with many feathers and other ornaments, also a beautiful rock of all colors. The spirits sat all about him, teaching and instructing. They asked him which one of them he liked best, and he pointed to the log. They said, "This is your medicine; from this will come your four arrows." Some one coughed at the door, and there they saw a sickly-looking being, of whom the Medicine Spirit said, "That is the spirit of disease." This spirit declared, "You spirits are all great and wonderful, so I have come to smoke with you." They bade him to enter, but he would not, saying, "You Medicine Spirits tried to leave me out, but I shall spread over the whole world." His name was Osanano6hish (" He Who Has No Care For Anybody"). The Medicine Spirit taught the Prophet the use of the four arrows, saying, "These you must take back to camp and teach the use of them." The people had moved to the foot of the mountain, where they camped in a circle. The Prophet had now been in the mountain three years. One young man left camp and went up the mountain crying and wailing. Those inside heard him and sent out a spirit to see who was crying so. He returned and reported that a young man was outside, but that he was not prepared to come in. The spirits then said, " We shall bless this young man who is crying, so that he will have plenty as long as he lives and that he will be a good man." A second young man went up the mountain, crying to be blessed, but he too was unprepared. A third who was unprepared was sent 1 The version of Howling Wolf gives the Maha6ivas and the Muf6sontan, as does that of Old Crow; but he gives two different bands: the HotamitaLny and the HImoyuhhis. {view image of page 120} I20 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN a message that he would be blessed so that in war he would have good luck, that he would become a great warrior. A fourth young man went up the mountain, crying to be blessed. The spirits sent out one of their number to see who it was, and he reported that the young man was painted red and that he had a pipe and a worship stick. He was allowed to enter, because he was prepared. They told him: "We are glad that you are prepared to see us. You will have long life; your life will be good and you will be a great man among your people. Look at us closely; observe our paints and listen to our good words." He went back to his people, who were poor and starving. A great wind arose and the people moved to other mountains. The spirits said to the Prophet: "Look us over carefully and you will see that we are dressed in all the colors of the earth. You must choose one of us to help and instruct you; to aid you in worshipping." The Prophet saw four arrows which he thought would be of help in worshipping, and he saw a spirit dressed in yellow, looking at him fixedly. He liked the paint and colors of this one, so he chose him. They said: "You have chosen. The color of this spirit is symbolic, meaning that all things in the world will in time become yellow and old. You have chosen the cause of old age and death. Had you another choice, you might have selected long life." This was the fourth year of his instruction. This year he left the sacred mountain with his four arrows. The people were starving, for there were no buffalo. He went toward the camp, meeting some boys who were playing an archery game. He spoke to them: "I am the Prophet. Look about you for some old buffalo-bones and bring them to me." He took the bones, worshipped them, and they turned into good buffalo meat. He took some buffalo-chips, which turned into buffalopaunch; and he broke up the marrow-bones, which became grease. These he gave to the boys, and they ate. He instructed them: "Go to the camp and tell the people that the Prophet is coming. Tell them to put up a tipi in the centre of camp for me. Say that I shall be there soon, and tell them to get a crier to herald these things to the camp." The people believed in him, so they built his tipi in the centre of camp as he had instructed. They saw him come from the east and enter the lodge, where he put down the four arrows. He called in all the people and told them to gather around, but not too close to the arrows. He said he was going to teach for four days; that in that time no one was to cross the open space of the camp, but to remain where they were and to be very still. He instructed them to listen carefully at sunset because much game was coming to camp, and in the morning they would see many buffalo. At midnight they heard the noise of all kinds of game, at first far off, then nearer; and in the morning they saw the animals all around the camp. They killed many which stood still for them; and they {view image of facing page 120} Interior of sun dance lodge - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 121} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE I21 gathered the tongues and ribs, which they brought to the centre tipi. They built a great fire for a feast. The Prophet taught them: "These are our arrows, representing all that is on the earth, the rocks beneath, and the birds above. Here are the marks on the arrows: the water mark, symbolic of all water on the earth, even the rain and the snow; the moon mark, which means that we shall live long, good lives while we are on this earth and that we shall increase; the cyclone mark, which represents the most powerful wind. These arrows mean that the world is standing here; that everything in the world is growing and increasing; that everything is useful and good; that all is wonderful and is to be worshipped." The Prophet continued to live in the centre tipi, where he grew very old teaching his people and revealing the future. The people sat up nights with him, listening to his words. The Sfitai and the Cheyenne claim to have learned their ceremonies in the Cedar Grove when they were one people. The Sfitai were from a mountain near the sacred mountain, Nuwawus; the Cheyenne were from the sacred mountain. The story is handed down to men only. When the old people tell the story, a pipe is filled and laid across the doorway. The storyteller says that if he makes any mistakes the others must check him, and make a cross on the ground. All cry a little in memory of the good old days of the Prophet. All touch the earth and rub their palms, arms, legs, body, and head to receive strength and long life, as in the other ceremonies.1 The Sun Dance 2 In Volume VI of this work is given an observer's description of the Sun-dance camp and ceremony among the Northern Cheyenne in the autumn of I909. On that occasion permission was obtained to witness the ceremony in its entirety and to photograph all important incidents of the rite; but it was not possible to record the ritual. For that reason only a general description of the rite as witnessed was presented. On the occasion of the Sun dance with the Southern Cheyenne, occurring in the summer of I926, it was not possible to obtain permission to witness the rite in all its details, but it became 1 The legend was obtained from three informants, and as here given is the blending of the three into one. 2 The Cheyenne cannot procure official permission for rendering the Sun dance. To circumvent this arbitrary ruling, they have resorted to the simple expedient of renaming the rite, so with them the Sun dance is now known as the Willow ceremony. VOL. xix-I6 {view image of page 122} I22 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN feasible to record a close description of the ceremony. In the present volume, therefore, attention will be devoted to the details of the ceremony rather than to a general description, hence the data may be regarded as supplementary to the material pertaining to the Northern Cheyenne, presented in Volume VI. The Sun dance is given by some person who in time of illness or need has made a vow to the Spirit and has received an answer from that divine source.1 At the proper time, perhaps many months after making his vow, the votary has it announced that he will give the Sun dance, and he issues a call for all to assemble in the camp-circle. At this time he gives a feast to his own band, when he tells of his vow, imploring their aid in the ceremony, saying that he wishes all to be happy; that he is doing it as the result of a vow to the spirits, not only for himself, but for the whole tribe. The location of the camp is decided on and the time set. Some days preceding the appointed time the people assemble at the selected ground. A day or two before the actual beginning of the rite, a preparatory lodge is erected at the western side of the camp-circle; also a sweat-lodge for the purification of the participants. The ritual in the preparatory lodge is in a measure secret; at least, none but those who participate in the rite are permitted to enter. In preparation, the votary goes to this lodge in company with his teachers, those who have given the dance before, and the medicine-man. The votary approaches one of these and offers him a pipe, thus signifying that he is to be mahaksi, the head-teacher, the high-priest. The second day of the four-day cycle is devoted to the ceremonial gathering of the materials to be used in building the Sun-dance lodge. A chief who has a notable war record is selected to scout for a fine tree to be used as a centre-pole. He should leave camp before daylight, and if possible return before the sunrise. While scouting, he finds a suitable tree, marks it, and offers a brief prayer. On his return to camp, he simulates the movements of a returned war scout, advances to the centre of the circle, and builds a small brush mound, at the completion of which he gives the scout wolf howl. He then proceeds to the preparatory lodge occupied by those who are to participate in the rite, where he delivers an allegorical oration, telling of 1 When questioned as to his understanding of the Spirit, the informant stated that it was Mofieivoiv. From discussion with different groups of Plains Indians it is the writer's opinion that "Great Spirit," or "Great Mystery," before contact with Christian teaching, broadly encompassed all the Divine Ones. It was the Spirit Over All, yet not inclusive of all. {view image of facing page 122} Sun dancers - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 123} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE 123 his scouting in the enemy land; that he found and struck an enemy, the tree. He continues to speak, recounting his prowess as a warrior. The fertility of the reconnoitrer's imagination determines the length of this harangue. In the early forenoon the four principal bands, those instituted by the Prophet, the Hot'amitnye, Hivihhnihpoih, Ovimana, and Omishiih, go to the forests for the lodge timbers. Each band goes as a separate unit, and all are mounted. In leaving camp they assemble at a given point, and in riding away keep outside the camp-circle. While in the forest the men decorate themselves and their horses with willows. On returning they ride slowly until close to the camp, then all break into a mad race to the centre of the circle where is situated the brush mound made by the tree-scouting chief. This brush mound symbolizes an enemy, and the race is for the purpose of counting coup upon it. The rearmost horsemen of the band drag in the pole. Each of the four bands follows the same procedure. Oahanowin, Club Band, the women's band, also go to the forest for poles. They are the last to return, racing in on foot. There is an interval between the return of the different bands. Each after its coup-counting race assembles at the eastern opening of the camp-circle to ride slowly round the camp. As they pass lodges of their bands, they stop to sing songs and to receive gifts. Following this song-making, gift-collecting parade, the women of the several bands erect lodges around the site of the proposed Sun-dance lodge, while the men begin the digging of holes to receive the centre-pole and side-posts. Meanwhile the chiefs assemble and go to the forest to bring in the selected centre-pole, led by the scout chief who found and marked the tree. On reaching the tree, they encircle it. One of the number who has struck down an enemy with a tomahawk recounts his deed of valor and fells the tree. A loud shout accompanies its crash - an enemy has fallen. The pole is then dragged to the camp, and into the camp-circle from the west. The chiefs riding abreast then parade round the camp, two of their number acting as flankers, riding back and forth in front of the line to keep it straight. When the bands have completed the digging of the hole, the centre-pole is placed across it. The outer crotched poles have already been set up in a circle; also in place are the horizontal poles or cap timbers on which will rest the rafter poles. Each band has provided two slender poles for use in lifting the centre-pole in place. These are deposited close to the centre-pole. {view image of page 124} I24 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The teacher, votary, and other participants emerge from the preparatory lodge and devoutly file to the centre of the Sun-dance lodge, where, after taking their seats close to the centre-pole, they recite a long prayer. Certain of the participants now make a large bundle of willow brush, which is securely tied to the fork of the centre-pole. Through this is thrust an arrow, typifying the arrows from the sacred mountain, Nuwawus, and signifying also the place of origin of the ceremony. Many persons now bring offerings to be tied to the pole - strips of cloth of many colors, deerskin clothing, all are brought as gifts to the spirits in return for blessings received or desired. As the sun sinks, the head-chief of the tribe calls the bands together to raise the pole. As they assemble, they take positions in line on each side of it. The old people and certain of the ceremonial participants, including the chief teacher, chant the songs of poleraising. The men of the bands raise and lower the pole three times. At the fourth movement of raising, it is lifted to its position in the hole. As it slips into place a great shout of accomplishment goes up from workers and spectators. The moment the pole is in place, the bands, acting as separate units, hurriedly place the first four rafter poles. Great rivalry is shown by the bands in an effort to have their pole first in place. The four rafters are painted: that from the south is black; that from the west, red; the one from the north, white; from the east, yellow. The centre-pole itself is painted red. Following the placing of the cardinal poles, the further needed roofsupport members are put in place and the coverings of many lodges drawn over the frame. With the completion of the lodge, the votary and his wife approach and enter. This approach and the entrance of the votary's wife follow exact ritualistic formula. Awed silence holds the assembly. Constant halts are made when the pipe is offered to Mother Earth and to the spirits. The buffalo-skull which will later form a part of the altar is borne ahead of the votary's wife, and at each halt is placed upon the ground before the devotee.' Day has now advanced to night, and the band members and spectators go to their lodges to dress and prepare for the ceremony which follows during the early part of the night. In the meantime, the teachers and assistants prepare the bower and altar at the western side of the lodge.2 An important part of the See Volume VI, illustration opposite page io6. 2 For an illustration of the altar, see Volume VI, plate opposite page I26. {view image of facing page 124} Buffalo society, animal dance - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 125} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE I25 altar is a mound of dirt representing the earth. By it is placed the buffalo-skull, and at each side there is planted a row of sticks covered with rabbit-skin and decorated with down. It is not essential that these sticks be of the "wild-tomato vine." At night those who are to join the dance assemble, taking their places on the north and south sides of the lodge. They are naked, except for the breech-cloth, and each carries his eagle-bone whistle. The votary and his teacher sit at the western side, near the altar. The teacher causes all the dancers to stand while he sings. During the singing they all stretch first their right hand to the pole, then the left hand. During this alternating movement of extending the hands to the centre-pole, they continuously blow their whistles. At the end of this song they join hands, and swing their arms and hands while the teacher chants four prayer songs. All then sit and smoke. Then follows a period of what may be termed non-ritualistic dancing. Many chiefs, singly or in groups, dance and recount war deeds. Gaily bedecked horses are ridden into the lodge. The chorus of drummers and singers grow wildly enthusiastic in this part of the ceremony. On the morning of the third day, the dancers, who have already commenced to fast, enter the lodge and fill a pipe which they offer to men who have participated in the Sun dance four times, asking that they show them the paints they have used. The old warriors sit by the dancers and begin the ceremonial painting.1 The color scheme for the first painting is yellow. The votary with his teacher is at his post at the west of the altar. He still bears the red paint, and continues to do so throughout the rite. The votary's wife, also painted red, maintains a position in the bower back of the altar. During the entire ceremony the votary's wife wears only a wrapping about the loins. At the time of this first painting of the dancers, any one of their number who desires to show exceptional devotion may announce his determination to go beyond the customary four paintings and four dances and call for a fifth painting. This one is distinctive, the face being black and the body spotted, and is preserved throughout the rite. Thus the spectators know that the wearer is a man of great courage. He is supposed to dance a fifth dance after the others have finished, either until the completion of the cycle or he ceases from sheer exhaustion. Following the painting, food is brought in to be blessed and as an offering to the spirits. The teachers take morsels of all the food and 1 It may be said that ceremonially the Sun dance is a cycle of four ritualistic paintings. It is the opinion of the writer that, in its undebauched form, each painting covered a day of the rite. {view image of page 126} 126 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN give them to the dancers, instructing them to proceed to the centrepole, offer the food to the spirits, and then to place it on the ground at the foot of the pole. In so placing it, strict observance of the four cardinal points must be followed. The votary is then instructed to take a buffalo-hide to the singers and present it to them. In this presentation he makes three movements of giving it, and on the fourth the singers take it from his hands. Immediately they begin to drum upon it, and give a great shout of joy. This act is symbolic of the spirits giving them the buffalo. Now begins the actual dancing of the fasting devotees. The drummers begin their singing, the dancers rise. The teachers give each one a bunch of sage to hold in his right hand, and four branches are placed in the belt; also they must stand upon sage. A feather wand is held in the left hand and the eagle-bone whistle in the mouth. The teachers take the dancers by their right hands and lift them four times to the centre-pole, doing the same in turn with the left. This stretching of the hands is done four times. The teachers then dance with their pupils, showing them the step, finally releasing them to dance by themselves. While they are dancing, they keep their gaze fixed on the centre-pole. The movement of the dance is to lift the body on the balls of the feet, at the same time exhausting the air from the lungs in a blast of the whistle. In each case the dancing is a cycle of four songs by the drummers. At the end of the fourth song the devotees take their seats, and after a short interval of rest they again take position for another cycle of four songs. This continues until late in the day, when at the close of a dance the votary fills a pipe and takes it to the singers. One of them accepts, rises to his feet, tells a story of his war deeds, dancing meanwhile and showing in pantomime some act of great valor. At the finish of his pantomime war-dance he fills the pipe and all smoke. Following this, the teachers wash the paint from the devotees. and repaint and redecorate them. Black is the color for this painting, but various designs may be employed. Some paint a sun on the breast and a crescent moon on the back, with stripes of black extending from these devices to the shoulders and down the arms. These are termed the "moon roads" and "sun roads." Willow takes the place of sage this time: some is placed in the belt; a complete head-dress is made of it, as well as wristlets and anklets. The procedure of dancing is the same as for the first painting, except that the teachers do not give instructions. {view image of facing page 126} Buffalo dancers, animal dance - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 127} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE I27 Shortly after midnight the dancing for the night ceases. The fasters now wrap themselves in blankets for a period of sleep, but they must be repainted and redecorated ready to start the final day's dance as the sun rises. To the sun and moon symbols are added representations of bison tracks, and of the June-bug signifying the whirlwind. Willow decorations are again used. By this time some of the dancers begin to show fatigue, making it necessary for the teachers to assist them to their feet. The procedure of the dance is but a repetition of the preceding one. In the early afternoon the final painting is begun. The dance then commenced should continue until sunrise of the next day. All dancers, however, may not possess the endurance to continue to the end. At the beginning of this dance many may not be able to rise to their feet unaided. The teachers assist them. Even when standing, they may lack the strength to raise their arms to the required position. The teachers stand behind them, steadying their swaying bodies and holding their hands toward the centre-pole. Once started, they are supposed to gain strength and to continue unaided. They maintain the dance throughout the night, but long intervals of rest are necessary. As sunrise approaches, the exhausted devotees are for the last time helped to their feet. Singers, dancers, and teachers throw themselves into the closing dance with all possible vigor. The dancers bravely simulate strength. At the conclusion of this final dance the devotees are led, each in turn by his teacher, around the centre-pole to the altar, where, with his foot, the dancer pushes over one of the rabbit-skin covered sticks. He then is laden with gifts from relations and friends. When all the dancers have gone through this procedure, those who are still able to stay on their feet follow, at a trot, the head-teacher and votary through the eastern entrance a few rods outside, where they turn, reenter the lodge, and run once around the centre-pole. In like manner they run out of the north, south, and west entrances, always to return and encircle the centre-pole once. Now the votary, the head-priest, and assistants chant the final sacred songs, and there remains only the sweat-lodge purification to close the rite. It is evident that much flexibility of procedure is permissible in this ceremony. Certain units of order are vital and necessary, but the time and manner of incorporating the separate units depend on the leader. It is not necessarily a four-day ceremony. The pre {view image of page 128} 128 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN liminary rite might be prolonged until five days are consumed, or circumstances might require that it be given in three days. There are certain minor points of the Southern Cheyenne rite which seemingly differ from that of the Northern Cheyenne. But it must be borne in mind that seventeen years have elapsed since the ceremony was witnessed among the northern group, and many slight changes in a ceremony can be made in that time. In the writer's opinion, no two men of the tribe would adhere precisely to the same formula for the rite. The Buffalo Ceremony The Buffalo ceremony of the Cheyenne is the dramatization of two separate Sfitai legends - the Buffalo legend and the "Coming of the Animals," which are here included. The locality of the teaching of these stories is placed at the sacred mountain, Nuwawus. Like most Indian ceremonies, it is a dramatized prayer, and, as given now, is a prayer for the reanimation of all living things, with special stress on the curing of the physically afflicted. Yet it is evident that in the beginning it was basically an animal propagation rite. The units of ceremonial participants at this time are the buffalo, the otter, and the deer; formerly other animal groups were represented. Certain features of the public ceremony suggest borrowings from the Mandan Okipe, with lesser borrowings from the summer ceremonies of the Arikara. The rite is initiated on the vow of some tribesman who may have dreamed that he should make it; or perhaps some member of his family was ill and he made it as part of his invocation to the spirits for recovery. The vow is made months before the ceremony is held; in fact a year or more might elapse before the votary would be in a position to give the ceremony, for it can be held only during the midsummer months. It is of four days' duration, the first three days being devoted to the semi-secret ritual. On the afternoon of the fourth day occurs the public ceremony, a dramatized performance loosely termed a dance. The esoteric rites are the usual extended series of ritualistic prayers and songs, begging the favor of the spirits of the four winds, of the sky and the earth, of the animals, and of all growing things. The participants are members of the different animal societies who are chosen to assist. The tribe camps in the usual circle, with the opening at the east. The ceremonial tipi is in the centre of the camp, facing the west. {view image of facing page 128} Animal dance - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 129} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE I29 In erecting the tipi, a cottonwood tree with its topmost branches intact is planted. On the back of the lodge is painted the moon, over its entrance the sun, and on its side, grasshoppers. In fact, the tipi is referred to as the grasshopper lodge. The significance of the grasshopper was not learned; as they do not eat this insect, it is not conceivable that they would pray for a superabundance of the pest. On the morning of the fourth day, lodges are erected at separate points within the camp-circle for the use of the participating animal societies; also a lodge for the clowns. In the instance under observation, two Buffalo societies participated, each having a separate tipi. At midday the ceremonial lodge was opened and extended until it formed a broad canopy, facing the west. Here sat the teachers and votaries, also the men who personated the wolf and the coyote. In their respective lodges the Buffalo and other participants dressed and awaited their cue. Coyote, yellowpainted, face striped, a coyote-skin down his back, and an eagle-bone whistle in his mouth, took his position some distance to the west and began his ceaseless trotting back and forth. Other participants worked intermittently, but Coyote never stopped his trotting. With each step he played a plaintive pipe upon his whistle. His task seemed to be an endurance test. Now one band of the Buffalo, which wore buffalo head-dresses and had faces and arms painted black, emerged from their lodge and started to encircle the camp, their line of march being close inside the line of tipis. The group was composed of bulls, cows, and calves, with a large cow at the head of the line. Obesity was seemingly a factor in the leader's selection. Bringing up the rear of this singlefile parade were two master bulls. All about the camp the sick and afflicted, the lame and the blind, were brought out and placed on the ground in front of their tents. As the Buffalo reached one of the ailing, they circled around him and the cow leader performed her healing incantations over the body. As the band started to file away, the bull closed the shamanistic performance by crouching down and sucking the evil from the body of the patient. Thus they continued around the circle. As the afflicted were numerous, progress was necessarily slow. Next the Otter society members emerged from their lodge and in like manner circled the camp, treating the ailing. This party was similarly composed of mother otters and their babies, and the males. The color painting of the Otters was red; the two master males wore feather head-dresses. Then came the members of the Deer society, VOL. XIX-17 {view image of page 130} I30 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN their exposed bodies painted yellow. Like the Otters, each carried a willow wand, and as with the other groups the mother deer was of ample proportions. The last group was the second society of Buffalo. From the time Coyote started his melancholy, whistling trot, the clowns began their spirited and amusing antics. These fun-makers were each dressed in a scant loin-cloth and a coat of white paint; their hair was painted white and tied at the forehead in a knot decorated with a single eagle-feather. They carried miniature bows and arrows. Their clowning consisted largely of acting the part of a crazy person and in doing everything contrary to ceremonial order. In their funmaking there is a tendency to perform antics such as this basically propagation ceremony would suggest. When the first Buffalo society completed its circle of the camp, it filed to the centre lodge, dancing in a circle before the singers. Coyote joined it, but wound his whistling way in and out the dancing line, paying no attention to the line or its formation. Wolf, dressed with a wolf-skin down his back, its head forming a head-dress, paraded slowly around the dance circle. He simulated walking on all four feet by the use of short canes in his hands. The clowns were constantly performing their fun-making antics, the direction of their movements being invariably the reverse of those of the dancers. At the conclusion of the Buffalo society's dance, the members all filed to the society lodge. The Otters, on completing their circle, came likewise to the ceremonial lodge, where they danced and were joined by the first Buffalo society. When the Deer reached the ceremonial lodge, they were augmented by both the Buffalo and the Otter, all returning after the dance to their respective society lodges until the second group of Buffalo had completed its round, when all joined in the dance. A cycle of four dances with all participants then ensued. Following this came the distribution of the sacramental meat by the votary and teachers, now dried beef in lieu of buffalo. Spectators as well as participants scrambled for a morsel of this sacred food. The closing act of the ceremony must be held at a body of water. In this instance it was a picturesque pool about a quarter of a mile to the west of the ceremonial grounds. Toward this pool the participating societies, led by Coyote, advanced, making four halts and singing a song at each stop. At the close of the fourth song, Coyote sprang from the group and started a race for the water, followed by participants and spectators in a mad rush, the object being to see who could reach the water first, but no one would presume to outrun {view image of facing page 130} Brush huts, animal dance encampment - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 131} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE I3I Coyote. At the pool they dashed some of the water on head and face, by this presumably receiving personal benefit from the ceremony. Following the race to the water, all participants formed in ceremonial order and sang their way back to the ceremonial lodge in the manner in which they had advanced from it, that is, by four halts and songs, except that now the clowns shot various animals with their toy weapons. These animals pretended to be sorely stricken, staggering as though mortally wounded. Then fellow members of their society rushed to aid them, supporting them on each side and rubbing the pretended hurt, whereupon the injured recovered. This by-play was of course another bit of symbolism in the drama of reanimation. After once more reaching the ceremonial lodge, all dispersed. Buffalo-dance Legend At one time buffalo were very scarce and all the people were starving. One day, while all were playing the wheel game, a warrior spirit, with mouth and eyes painted black, with a black circle around his face, a feather in his hair, black paint on wrists and ankles, a painted design on his breast, and a crescent moon on his back, came up and watched them. Another warrior spirit, similarly dressed, came up, and said, "You must have seen me and have gone home to dress as I am dressed." "No," replied the first, "I got my dress from Big Spring on the mountain." "That is where I got mine." "Let us go into the spring and visit grandmother. Then let us bless the starving people." The headman of the tribe, who had been looking at them and listening to their talk, said: "You are both dressed alike, and you come from the spring. If you know something that we do not know, will you bless these starving people and get them something to eat?" One warrior spirit told him to assemble the people to watch them enter the spring; that if the grandmother there told them anything, or gave them anything, they would come out at once, but if they were kept in the spring until morning, the people should go to bed. One of the spirits asked the other, "Where did you learn about the spring?" "My grandmother taught me when I was a small boy. Where did you learn?" " I learned of it about the same time. You have been blessed by her; you lead the way." Both were wearing buffalo-robes exactly alike. They went into the spring, where they saw an old woman sitting by the fire. She {view image of page 132} I32 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN spoke: "I have sent for both of you. The people in the world are suffering. I am going to bless you both, and if you need anything, I shall get it. Come closer." She took off their feathers, threw them into the fire, and washed off their paints. She said, " I am going to give you something to take out to the people, then you must come back here." She painted them as before, took their feathers out of the fire, and put them back on again. She gave them meat and fat to take to the people. They went out and fed the people with the meat and fat. The last person, an orphan boy, finished it. They told the people to watch again, because they were going to drive out the buffalo. They went back into the spring and were instructed by the old woman to drive out the buffalo. The people saw great herds come from the spring, but they waited for the warrior spirits. The woman, who was the Old Buffalo Medicine-woman, addressed the two warrior spirits: "You must not forget me. I shall send for you again. You will be called the 'Two Boys.' You must tell the people that when they kill a calf, they must never say, 'I have killed a poor calf.' If they do, the buffalo will become scarce again." After embracing her, the warriors came out where the people were waiting, to tell them to hunt the buffalo and get plenty of meat. They told them of the forbidden words, and said that Old Buffalo Medicinewoman had given them these animals and that the people would now increase. From that time the people increased and there were plenty of buffalo. To teach the tribe, the two spirits had a tipi set up in the centre of the camp, where they instructed the people. They had an altar built inside. They said: "Come and sit by the altar four times, once from each direction. Now sweep up the altar and pile the refuse inside the door, on each side. Next make a fireplace in the centre and build a fire, first placing four sticks in each direction. You must go outside, offer a prayer to the Spirit, and return. Get four gourds, and sing three songs. Let your relatives cook food and bring it in; this you must divide in four parts and place them in the four directions by the fire. The votary must sit down and open his right hand. We are going to put five pieces of food in his hand - one piece in the centre of the palm and the other four toward each direction. These we shall take from the meat we laid down before. Now the food must be changed to the other hand. You must take each piece in turn and hold it up to the south, west, north, and east, asking for the spirits to come. The last piece hold up to Spirit Above, then return it to the altar. Now you are to rub your hands, arms, body, legs, and head. "In the morning let more food be brought in and do with it as you did before. When the sun rises, hold a pipe in each direction and point it to the sun. This pipe is to be handed the votary, who will puff four times, afterward knocking the ashes out, putting the bowl on the ground, and rubbing the stem upward twice with the right {view image of facing page 132} Brush lodge - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 133} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE I33 hand and twice with the left. This is the way the Spirit will bless you. Food was brought in again. The teachers gave their share to the votary, who in turn gave his to the teachers. A pipe was smoked after being pointed to the cardinal points and to the earth. Animal-dance Legend Big Ghost, who was very tall and had big feet which left huge tracks, had a tipi far across the river. He used to prowl around the camps at night, and when he heard a child crying outside a lodge, he would snatch it up and take it to his tipi, where he ate it. One night a girl was crying, and would not stop. Her mother put her outside, saying, to frighten her, "Big Ghost, come and take away this child!" Just then Big Ghost came up, snatched away the girl, and put her in a cradle which he carried on his back. The mother heard the girl's cries become fainter and fainter. She rushed out, but could not find her child. They trailed Big Ghost to the water, but knew that it was of no use to attempt to go farther. Big Ghost carried the girl to his camp, where she saw the skeletons of children he had eaten and the ashes of the fires where he had roasted them. He began to abuse her, sending her out for firewood. Each time she brought some, he would scold, because it was not the right kind. Finally she brought some roots which satisfied him. She walked down to the water, crying. A bird flew down, warning her, "You had better get away before Big Ghost eats you!" She went to some Cranes and asked them to carry her across the water to her camp, but they refused. She asked an Eagle, and he agreed to take her. "Get on my back and hold me tight," he ordered. When Big Ghost saw that the girl was gone, he trailed her to the water's edge, but there the trail ended. "Who took my bait [food]?" he howled. Eagle carried the girl close to her camp, and said: "I have carried you home now. Tell your parents to get me some fat, because I like fat." As the girl went home, she saw on a ridge two people who proved to be her father and mother. They were very happy to see her, for they had given her up for lost. After she told her story and asked her father to provide fat for the eagle, he called together the people, for he was a chief, and had much fat collected. When she took it to the ridge outside of camp, four Eagles flew down, thanked her, and said: "You must not forget what we did for you. We like fat, which you must bring to us sometimes. Now tell your father to move camp, for Big Ghost might come again. Always put some fat on a ridge near camp, and we shall come and get it." They moved to where the buffalo were numerous, and the girl did {view image of page 134} I34 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN not forget to put out plenty of fat for the Eagles. They flew down again, saying, "That is fine! We shall visit you four times and we shall watch for Big Ghost. When he is coming, we shall let you know." They came four times as promised. The fifth time they said: "We shall fly to the water and watch for Big Ghost. When he crosses, we shall come back and tell you how to kill him." One night the people heard a whistling overhead. The girl went out and saw the Eagles. "Big Ghost is coming again!" said they. "Tell two brave men to get their bows ready. Have them take four arrows apiece; let the point of one be blunt; let another be sharp; let the third be softened by chewing at the point; and let the last be a hardened rawhide point. Now we are going away to watch Big Ghost." They flew away, but returned soon, asking if all had been done as they had instructed. "Now tell the people to have their axes ready, and give this medicine to the two men to rub on their arrows." They flew away a third time to watch Big Ghost, and all the people made ready as they had been commanded. The Eagles returned once more, this time saying: "Big Ghost is trailing this camp now. We want all the people to form in two lines; the two men with the bows and arrows at the head of each line. We are the Thunderbirds." A fourth time they winged away and came back, ordering: "Get some little child; take her a little way off and make her cry. That will attract the Ghost. These two men must not be afraid, but must go up and shoot Big Ghost." Big Ghost, cradle on his back, sparks shooting from his eyes, gradually and slowly approached the crying child, for he was very wary. Suddenly he swooped, but the two men shot him with their arrows. He ran to the timber, and there the two men shot him down. Then all the people came around with clubs and axes and chopped him into small pieces. They built a big fire and threw him on it. When sparks and fire flew out from him in every direction, they caught them and threw them back on him. Big Ghost was at last dead, lying very still. The people went back to camp. The Eagles flew down again to the girl, saying: "We are the Thunderbirds. We have taught you the use of the medicine from the swamp to put on the arrows which killed Big Ghost. This medicine can kill anything, even a powerful ghost. We are going to bless you and teach you, and you will be great among your people.1 The Thunderbirds flew down again to the girl, saying: "We are the power birds, for we have supernatural power. We are going to teach you our medicine. Back in the mountains is a big spring, 1 The Thunderbird's medicine, said the informant, is on the lightning, which can kill anything. The teaching of the Thunderbirds is that of the Animal or Crazy dance. The name of the Thunderbirds is Nunzma, and the name of the dancers is H6hnuhka. The dancers have their teachers in the ceremony, which is given by some one who has previously made a vow. It is a part of the Buffalo dance, brought in by the Sdtai. {view image of facing page 134} The clowns, animal dance - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page } THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE I35 where your people must camp. There a wonderful dance will be begun. There all the birds and animals will be created. You are to be the teacher of this dance." The camp was moved over to the spring in the mountain. When the girl went and looked down into it, she saw a hawk and all kinds of other birds fly out and then fly back again. She sent for four young men, to whom she said: "I am going to teach you a wonderful dance which comes from this spring. You must paint yourselves and tie your hair in a knot on your foreheads. Two of you must have small bows with four arrows, one of them blunt, one chewed soft at the end, one sharp, and one with a hardened rawhide point. The other two must paint with black stripes on arms and legs to represent the lightning." Just then the buffalo, elk, deer, antelope, and all other animals came out of the spring and danced around. She ordered: "Now shoot at the animals. When one is hit, it will stagger and bleed, but the others will come up and rub it so that it will be well again." The four young men returned to the camp and all the animals went back into the spring. She heard the rain coming, and thunder from above. Thunderbird flew down, saying: "My girl, I have blessed you. This is the way the dance must be held in the future." Back in camp, she said to her father, "Now we can scatter and go where the buffalo are, and be happy." This was the only teaching at that time, because before then the people were very ignorant. The spring whence all the animals came is in Cedar Grove. Band and Society Legends Isiometaye, the Ridge Hill Band The name of this band is indicative of the fact that it lived in the hills, whereas other bands lived in level country. Once they were a very poor people. Game, and buffalo especially, was so scarce that they were forced to live on wild fruits. They wandered northward, in search of food, until they came to a large mountain with a deep open spring, where they camped facing the spring. The old people used to sit in the centre of the camp, studying and thinking how they were going to live. One night, as some of the people were playing the wheel game, two warrior spirits standing together, dressed and painted alike, came to visit them. One said to the other, "My friend, where did you get your paint and clothing which are like mine?" " I got mine from this spring on the mountain," he answered. The old people meanwhile were standing around these spirits, listening to the conversation. {view image of page 136} I36 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The second spirit said, " If you know what I know and if you want to help these starving people, let us march into the spring and bless them." "Very well, let us go in," responded the first. While all the people watched, the two spirits walked to the spring, covered their heads, and dived in. Once inside and in the mountain they met an old woman, who greeted them: "My grandchildren, I am glad you came in. I shall call one of you Feather In The Head, the other, Noisy One." She fed them corn and meat, telling them to eat all they could. When they had finished, she instructed, "Hold out your hands, and then touch the earth." In the hands of the one she put buffalo meat, and in those of the other, corn, opening and closing their fingers four times. Then she bade them return to the people. The spirits came out of the spring to the people, who gathered around. They ordered, "Put up a double tipi; get a horn spoon and a large wooden bowl." All the people entered the tipi, where the spirits placed the meat and corn, which increased until the bowl was filled. The people were told to eat their fill, then to leave after circling around once inside in a clockwise direction. The last one to depart ate the remaining food, so that nothing was left. Then the spirits commanded: "Tonight you must all be in your tipis. You must be very quiet, and you must listen. We are going to sing four songs, and then you will hear something." After the fourth song, they heard a noise and thought that an enemy tribe had slipped up on them; but after listening more carefully, they knew that it was the sound of many buffalo in movement. In the morning they looked out and saw a great herd. They looked again and saw a large cornfield. The tribe killed and butchered many buffalo, and gathered and stored much corn. The spirits instructed them to move away and to find a level camping-place and field for corn; then to find a hill and plant a tree on top of it as a lookout for buffalo. Next they were told to plant the corn, and when it had grown fairly high, to go out in search of buffalo and wild fruits. After the hunt they were to return and find the corn tall and ready for the harvest. They were also to grow sacred tobacco. All these things the people did. Once they went on a long hunt, for buffalo were becoming scarce again; but several years passed with scant success. At last they came back to the camp looking for the corn and the meat stored away, but they had disappeared. Then the people moved on until they came to the Country of Lakes and Swamps. After a stay here, they migrated once more until they came to the Land of the Red Bunchgrass. Here they abided a while only to wander again to the Land of Stumps. After a sojourn in the Land of Stumps, the people moved {view image of facing page 136} The wolf, animal dance - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 137} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE I37 to the Big Missouri. It was winter, and ice was on the river, so they started to cross. When part way across, the ice began to crack. Some went ahead, and others, becoming frightened, ran back. Those who continued are those who are here today. The tribe lived beside a big sharp mountain for a time, but kept on in an ever-westward movement until they reached the Cedar mountains in the Black Hills. While there they never saw any other people but themselves - the Cheyenne and the Arapaho. The Arapaho chief said to them, "Let us all be friends and brothers." So from that time they have been friends and brothers. Himatanohish, Bear Bow-string Society Once there was a man called Big Owl, a member of the Hefata society, who started off to visit another tribe. While on his way he was overtaken by a snowstorm. He struggled on and on, and finally saw what seemed to be a fire ahead of him, but as he approached to warm himself, he observed that there was no fire, but only a bunch of red grass. He pushed on until exhausted, then sat down against a bank to rest. As he reclined, he heard some one approaching, and voices asking if the man were still alive and the answer that he was. Four times he heard the question and answer. As he felt the blood within him freezing, he had the sensation of being lifted and borne away. Then consciousness left. When he awoke, he was inside of a mountain and quite thawed. He heard people talking, and on looking around he saw them making lances, rattles, bows and arrows, and giving the song of the Bow-string dance. One of them asked if he were hungry, and what he preferred to eat. He answered that he liked buffalo meat, so buffalo meat, entrails, and kidneys were brought to him. He was unable to recognize any of them, but one of their number told him to look around and become acquainted, because they were his friends. While there he went on a buffalo-hunt with them, and during the course of the hunt saw an arrow feathered with an eaglefeather. He picked it up, but the people told him to put it down again. He remained in the mountain with them four days, and then they danced outside. All had whistles in their mouths, rattles and spears in their hands; some were decorated with feathers and others with otter-skin, but they had taken off their moccasins. The drummer was a Bear. A pipe lay before the Bear, and cedar was put on the fire, so that Bear and drum were wreathed in smoke. While Bear was thumping the drum four times, all were blowing their whistles, shaking rattles, chewing the medicine-root, and dancing on the fire until it was extinguished. He was informed that all this was a method of instruction; that he was to go back and teach his people what he had learned; that he would have good luck on the warpath, but that if a war-party started off unluckily, he was to return home. They told him to cover his VOL. XIX —I8 {view image of page 138} i38 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN head and start home to his camp, but after proceeding a way, to uncover and look behind him. He did as directed, and on looking back saw that they were Wolves. One of them howled, and called out names such as Sleeping Wolf, Wolf, and Brave Wolf, as he howled. These he told Big Owl to distribute among his people. When Big Owl returned to the camp, he had a tipi put up in the centre. He announced that he had been taught the ways of the Bowstring Society; that if any one wanted to join, he could, but he himself could not elect men to it - they must come of their own free will. Then he howled like a wolf four times, and a herald spread his word around the camp. Those who entered Big Owl's tipi he taught to decorate their spears with feathers and to prepare gourd rattles. He dressed one man in the skin of a bear; he chose eight chiefs and dressed them in war clothing with scalps along the fringes; he taught the songs and the dances. Four days he devoted to the new teaching. At the end of that time he had a fire built outside the lodge, where the chiefs rubbed medicine-root on themselves, and danced on the fire until it was out. Big Owl then howled four times like a wolf. He sent some young men to make a pile of stones a little way off, telling them to race to it and return after he had finished howling. Big Owl knew that if he ever slept after the sun rose he would not live long; but one day the sun caught him in bed, and he died. He had told the people to have his body carried to the creek and placed upon the bank. Then in four days they were to return and see him, for there would be a heavy rain, and the drops, when they struck him, would make him come to life. On each of the gourds used, there is an image of the sun on the top and a star on the bottom. If the dance is in the daytime, the sun is uppermost; if at night, the star. Gourds are carried and shaken in battle, for when this is done, the carrier can not become alarmed nor suffer harm. He either is killed or is uninjured. Witchcraft Witchcraft, or the taking of life through exorcism, was apparently not so prevalent among the Southern Cheyenne as with some tribes, yet there were those who were known to carry on such death-dealing practices. Great care was taken by members of the tribe to avoid locks of hair falling into the hands of those belonging to the lethal brotherhood. Whether the group was organized as a society is open to question, but from information gained it is evident that it was a definite organization of medicine-men who operated secretly. {view image of facing page 138} Deer society, animal dance - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 139} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE I39 Those who participated in the "short life" rites wore concealed upon their persons dried fingers or tongues that had been cut from their victims. If a man met accidental death, and a necklace of these sinister trophies, or even a single one, was found upon his body, then the people knew he had been one of the "death bringers." The deathdealing medicine objects were kept in a bag made of the dried skin of a bullfrog, which was kept in an outer wrapping of the usual medicine-bundle type. When participating in these fatal rites, the bundle was opened and its contents spread out. The participants crouched about the gruesome paraphernalia, with blankets over their heads and only the eyes showing. Prayers were uttered in absolute silence. This inviolate rule is shown by a related incident: An important man of the tribe noticed that something of a secret nature was going on in the lodge of one of the medicine-men. This man gathered about him a few close friends, and they decided to investigate. In the darkness they crept up to the tipi, peeked through a hole in its buffalo-skin wall, and saw all the men in a circle about the frog medicine. After consultation they decided to destroy the frog bundle by shooting through a hole in the lodge. While pushing the barrel of a gun through the hole and trying to sight it at the frog, one of the participating wizards saw the gun-barrel, but owing to the rule of silence, he did not dare warn his companions. The one shot completely demolished the frog and its accompanying fetishes. An incident, illustrating the practice of sorcery, was related by an old man. The daughter of an important man was awakened by a stealthy hand stealing a lock of her hair. A slit had been cut in the lodge covering. The marauder escaped in the darkness. The father was certain that it was an act of a wizard, and the family wailed loudly because they knew that their daughter was doomed. The girl sickened and died. The father grieved, but his heart was filled with revenge. As was the custom, the girl's body was given sepulture in a tree; but the father, with purpose in his heart, placed it high in the branches. Knowing the habit of "frog-men" of stealing fingers and tongues of victims, the bereaved parent spent his nights in concealment near the body. On the third night he saw a man stealthily approach the tree, climb up, and begin to cut open the bundle. As he was thus engaged the watcher shot him. The "frog-man" fell to the ground with a thud like a dead bear. On looking at him, the father of the dead girl found that it was one of the greatest medicinemen of the tribe. He cut off the head; then butchered, skinned, and cut up the body as though for cooking. Taking the flesh home, he told {view image of page 140} I40 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN his wife what he had done and what he had in his heart. "You will cook this meat and we shall give a feast to all those whom we think are frog-men." When the meat was cooked, the father went about the camp to all the suspected ones, all the friends of the slain man, and invited them to the great repast. As is the custom at Indian feasts generally, the host never eats with his guests; so the father sat at the head of the hungry crowd, urging them to eat liberally of the fine meat and to take plenty of the soup. Before sitting down, he had placed the wrapped head of his victim behind him. When all the guests had gorged themselves, their host talked to them, saying how pleased he was to have them at his feast and how glad that they had liked the meat. The guests grunted their appreciation. "That was fine meat," they said. "Now, before you go, I want to show you the head of the animal that gave the fine meat." Then he quickly slipped the cover from the bundle and held before them the gory head of their leader. The frog and toad seemingly form a part of death incantations among many of the American tribes. As noted in Volume X of this work, which treats of the Kwakiutl, who carried "short-life" practice to an extreme, the toad was invariably used, the procedure being to place hair of the victim in the mouth of a live toad, then fasten it between split sticks to die and wither. As the toad dried, so was the victim supposed to wither and perish. The Sweat-lodge In making a sweat-lodge, fifteen willows are cut, with a prayer to the willow: "We have come after you with good intentions. We ask a good life and we ask a long life; for this we come to you." Five motions, one in each direction and toward the ground, are made; then the willows are stuck in the earth and bent over, the one at the west reaching entirely across the others, forming a ridge-pole. Next the centre hole is dug, after putting the digging implement in the ground four times. The earth is piled outside the door and a buffalo-skull is placed on top of it. The willow frame was formerly covered with four buffalo-hides, each laid on in the direction of one of the four cardinal points, beginning with the south. The opening is at the east. The whole is then covered with a tipi-cover, tightly fastened down. The round form of the sweat-lodge is symbolic of the earth, while the ridge from {view image of facing page 140} Healing rite of the Deer society, animal dance - Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page 141} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE I4I east to west represents the path of the sun. Sage is taken inside and spread around to sit on. The fire is ceremonially built in a pit outside. Four sticks are laid toward the cardinal points, and one is placed in the centre. About twenty-five stones are used; but first, four are laid on the fire-sticks, one in each direction, and one is placed in the centre; then the rest may be piled on. Live coals are brought, and after the customary motions, the fire is lighted. All now enter the lodge. The leader takes a pipe, and, standing in the doorway, points it in each direction, toward the sky, and downward to the earth. Next he makes a simple design, > <, to symbolize an enemy, outside the door, and lights his pipe after going through the usual motions to the cardinal points. All participants smoke in turn, and after the pipe is returned to the leader, he knocks the ashes out on the enemy mark. The leader now takes up the pipe, rubs it twice with the right hand and twice with the left, and finally presses it to his breast, which means that it will make him strong and give him long life. He then makes a rotary movement with his hand over the hole in the floor, presses his hand to the earth, rubs his hands, legs, heart, arms, and body, to indicate that he desires his life to be strengthened. After all smoke four times, the pipe is refilled and placed with the medicine-bag beside the centre hole. The leader calls to the fire-tender, who has remained outside, and asks if all is in readiness. The fire-tender has two forked sticks with which to carry the heated stones. He first goes over and sits beside the door. With his open hand he touches the earth in the same manner as did the leader. The leader places a small piece of dirt in his own mouth and blows four times in the palm of the fire-tender, who again touches the earth, and rubs his legs, heart, chest, arms, and body. The fire-tender is asked if he sees the mark on the floor. On his positive reply, he is instructed to strike it with one of his forked sticks, an act symbolic of a coup against an enemy and signifying good luck on the warpath. The leader now takes five heated stones from the fire-tender and places them beside the centre hole in the four cardinal positions and the centre. He then places cedar on each hot stone, creating dense smoke. All inhale the smoke and rub the body. The fire-tender passes in the remaining stones. The leader takes up the pipe, makes the usual motions, and passes it to the fire-tender, who places it on the mound outside. The medicinebag is passed out also, and placed on top of the lodge. Then the fire {view image of page 142} 142 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN tender closes the lodge tightly. The leader offers a prayer and sings four songs. At the close of each, a woman pours water on the stones, causing steam to fill the lodge. All drink water and rinse themselves. Those who have illness or sores, fan themselves toward the seat of illness or the sores to cause them to disappear. The fire-tender is ordered to lift one side of the lodge-cover on the east and again on the west, letting out the steam. Songs, steam, and the lifting of the cover take place four times. The leader orders the fire-tender to sit by the opening, where he gives him a cup, saying: "Hold this cup while I give a talk for you. I am glad that you are helping us. I am going to give you this sacred water so that when you go on the warpath you will have nothing but good fortune. If you are married, you will be blessed with good children. Your help has been noted by the Spirit who is watching from above." The woman with the water chews some medicine-root, spits on the stones and toward the water, saying that the water will give the fire-tender long life; that the stones are solid and long-lasting; that his life may be as long as that of the stones. The fire-tender drinks, and takes the medicine-bag from the ridge to place beside the pipe on the mound. Then he opens the lodge again to let out the steam. He closes it tightly, while all within drink water and rinse themselves. The waterwoman pours water on the stones, after making the usual motions to the cardinal points. Then the lodge-cover is lifted on all sides. The young people leave the lodge at the western side (they had entered from the east), thus following the sun's path, but the older people leave from any convenient point. Outside all line up facing the direction whence comes the wind, while the leader tells them to inhale it, saying that it is the breath of the spirits. All breathe deeply four times. They sit in a line by the fire, while the leader lights the pipe, making the customary motions, and all smoke. He then spreads his hand on the ground, knocks the ashes from the pipe, holds the bowl on the ground, and with his right hand rubs the stem four times. He then places it on his right arm, his left arm, chest, and finally clasps it to his breast. The stem is taken out and blown through four times, after which it is reassembled. He touches the ground again and rubs himself; then all disperse. {view image of facing page 142} Black Man - Arapaho [photogravure plate] {view image of page 143} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE I43 Mythology Seven Star Story In a large camp some children were playing, pretending that they were animals. They dug a hole and covered it with brush to represent a den, and told one girl to creep into it. Then they punched into the hole with sticks, and the girl would growl, so that they could guess what kind of animal she was. "You can call me any animal you like, but do not call me 'Bear-hair,"' she said. She crawled under the brush and they poked into it with sticks. She growled, and they guessed that she was skunk-hair. "That is not right. Guess again," she said. Then they guessed that she was coyote-hair. "That is not right," she growled. The third time they called out that she was raccoon-hair. "Again you are wrong." "She is so hard to please that we shall call her 'Bear-hair."' With that they ran away. When she heard them call her the forbidden name, she rushed out of the hole in great anger, telling her younger sister to go and crawl into the dog hut; then she turned into a bear and chased the children, killing several. The people in the camp saw the Bear. They ran for their weapons and shot at it, but it killed many in the camp. Bear then went over to the dog hut, where she abused her sister, threatening to scratch and bite her, but finally went to sleep and slept until the next morning. Her sister, while Bear was sleeping, ran away. Bear awoke, found that Sister had escaped, and started to trail her. Sister looked back and saw Bear coming up fast behind her. She said, "Wherever I am playing, there are prickly-pear spines." Immediately the prairie became covered with prickly-pear spines. Bear came up, but got her feet full of the spines, so that she was obliged to go far around. Sister went on, having a good start, but soon she heard Bear puffing and blowing behind her. She said, "Wherever I am playing, I always get sand-burrs stuck in my feet and I can not pick them out." Then the plain filled with sand-burrs, and Bear's feet became stuck with them, so that again she had to go out of her way. After a long while, Sister, who was running, again heard Bear panting along behind her. This time she said: "Wherever I am playing, there is a river. Water does not show tracks." A great river sprang up behind her, but Bear was able to swim across. After hunting up and down the farther bank, Bear found Sister's tracks and hotly pursued. Again Sister had to say, "Wherever I am playing, there is always a rock bank I can not climb." The rocky bank piled up behind her, and Bear had a very hard time scrambling over it. Sister saw seven boys on horseback, all brothers. "Look!" cried one, "There is a young girl running up to us." "What is the trouble, little sister?" asked another, when she had come up. "There is a great bear behind me who has killed many people in our camp. I am afraid it will get me." They told her to get behind the younger brother and ride ahead to the big mountain while they stayed there to fight the bear. Soon Bear lumbered up to the brothers, saying, "I saw Sister's tracks coming up to you. Give me my sister." The brothers answered, "No, you can not have Sister." Four times Bear commanded that they give up Sister, and four times they refused. Bear stood on her hind-legs, growling to the four points of the compass. Then she pawed the dirt and started for the brothers. The youths scattered, and rode around her, shooting arrows into her; but when she shook herself, the shafts fell out. Finally their arrows became exhausted, so they retreated to where the remaining brother and Sister were waiting. Sister said, "Whereever I am playing, there is a rough mountain to climb." A great mountain grew up [Bear butte], which they climbed. As soon as they reached the top, Sister said, "After I reach the top, the rough mountain always becomes smooth and slippery." Bear tried to climb it, but each time she got up a little way she slid back, tearing deep scratches in the mountainside with her claws. Bear went to the river and painted her face with {view image of page 144} 144 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN red clay. Then she came back and called up: "Give me my little sister! If you do not, I shall hug this mountain, throw it down, and eat you all!" "Go ahead and hug the mountain! We shall not give up Sister!" they answered. Four times Bear called up, and each time the brothers refused to yield Sister. Bear rose up on her hind-legs and reached her fore-paws around the mountain. She hugged hard, twisting and pushing, so that it began to lean. The youngest brother sharpened an arrow, held it to the sun, then aimed it down at Bear and shot her through the forehead. After that no one ever saw the seven brothers or Sister, because they had gone up into the skies where they remain together today [the Pleiades]. The leaning mountain with bear scratches on its side may be seen today in Cedar Grove. Feather in the Head Wins a Wife Once a man, with his wife and daughter, lived apart from the tribe in a land of buffalo and plenty. They had a fine tipi, a deep spring, and two swings down by the spring. But the rest of the tribe was starving. One day some young men rode up to his lodge, and he fed them, saying that buffalo were plentiful, and to inform the whole tribe about his country. After the camp had moved, he had some young men line up, because he wanted to select a husband for his daughter. He picked out one and invited him to his lodge. After eating, he said, "You are to marry my daughter, but before you do that I want to have you go down to the spring with me and swing." They started to swing, and when they were going well, the father, just as the other was about to swing past him, kicked him in the abdomen, so that he fell into the spring and was drowned. He killed three young men that way. The fourth man had a feather on his head. The daughter liked him, and instructed him secretly, "Father has chosen you for a son-in-law, and I shall take you to our lodge; but be careful to do your best, because he has drowned three others already." The father heard her talking, and called out, "What are you telling him, daughter?" "I told him that you had selected him for a son-in-law, because he is such a good young man." The father invited him to swing, trying the same trick, but the young man was transformed into a bird and flew away. Father gave him the name of Feather In The Head and let him marry his daughter. All night the father watched the young couple. They were unable to move without his calling out: "Are you moving? Lie still there!" In the morning they went for a swing, when again the father tried his trick; but the young man was watching and turned into a bird at just the right moment. Then the father told him he wanted some arrow-shafts. The boy went to all kinds of trees looking for good shafts. Every kind of wood said that it was good, but he chose some slough grass. The second night the couple was unable to move, and in the morning Feather In The Head had to go after feathers for the arrows. He found an old eagle-feather, which he brought back, and the father grumbled. The third day he was sent for some sinew, and gathered cottonwood-bark. The fourth morning he went after arrow-heads, and returned with some sandhill weeds, which were so brittle that they broke easily. The father grumbled at their quality, but the old people said they would do. He also brought back a weed for a bow, at which the father complained more than ever, but he accepted it. The next morning, after keeping the young man from moving in bed all night, the father said: "Get me a four-year-old buffalo bull. I want to test my bow and four new arrows." Feather In The Head found seven bulls, which said, "We shall show you what we shall do to that father-in-law of yours when he tries to shoot us." Each one went a little way off, turned, and ran full-speed toward a huge rock to horn it; but six of them broke their horns. The seventh tossed the rock in air from all four directions and split it in small pieces, so he was chosen. Feather In The Head drove the bull up to the door four times, but each time the bull pretended to be frightened away, acting as though winded. The father appeared, and said: "You {view image of facing page 144} An Arapaho [photogravure plate] {view image of page 145} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE I45 will have to do better than that. You are just running the bull down for me. I shall show you what I can do with my arrows." The bull ran at the father, who stood still and shot an arrow. It crumpled up. When all four arrows were thus shattered, the father tried to flee into his lodge, but the bull caught him, tossing him into the air and goring him when he came down. Feather In The Head gathered up the pieces, threw them into the lodge, and set it on fire. When the ashes had cooled, he found that the bones had turned into many-colored beads. This event occurred in Cedar Grove. The buffalo bull turned into a rock, which is there yet. Mad Bull Story Once there were seven youths, all unmarried, who lived by themselves on a great mountain. The people heard about them, but never saw them. A girl in the camp was so very curious about them that she decided to go to see them. She took her shinny-ball and -stick, made seven pairs of moccasins, and started out one morning without telling any one where she was going, not even her father and mother. She said to herself: "Now I am going to visit the seven boys on the mountain. If they wish to marry me, it will be all right; but if they do not want to, I shall live with them as their sister." She put the shinny-ball on the ground, hit it with the club, closed her eyes, and when the ball fell on a mountain, she landed beside it. She passed over three mountains in this way. On her fourth journey through the air, she came down on the mountain where the young men lived. As she landed, the boys who were inside heard her and sent out the youngest to see who it was. He said to her, "My sister, where did you come from, and what are you doing here?" "My brother, I came to see you, and I brought along some moccasins for you and your brothers." He led the girl inside, where were the other brothers, and said, "My brothers, this is our sister who has come to see us and who has brought moccasins for us." They all exclaimed: "What a fine-looking girl! Our youngest brother calls her Sister, so she must be sister to all of us. That will be all right." Next day they told the youngest brother to stay with their sister while they hunted buffalo. She asked them to bring in seven hides and some porcupine-quills, so that she could make robes for them. She told the youngest brother to get some dogwood sticks to use for pins in staking out the hides. Next she asked him to find a smooth stone and attach to it a wooden handle for use as a hammer in pounding stakes and meat. After the brothers brought what she had asked for, she roasted a quantity of meat, broke up the marrow-bones, and punched out the marrow with a stick. They all ate heartily and were glad to have such a sister. Then she made her stone hammer and staked out the hides to dry. Out of one she cut a large circular piece. She gathered several forked sticks, stuck them in the ground in a circle, hung the circular piece of hide over them, thus making a buffalo-hide pot. Water was poured in the pot, and the crushed bones were put in too. Next she placed some stones in the fire, and when they were hot, dropped them in the pot by means of forked sticks. This made the water boil, but when the stones lost their heat, she took them out. When all the grease was cooked out, she took a buffalo-paunch and peeled it so that it made a bag into which the grease was poured. She hung this up to cool and to become solid. The brothers were glad to have such a wise and industrious sister. Next Sister asked the brothers to find some chokecherries, and when they were brought, she dried and pounded them. Her pounded meat she mixed with the chokecherries and made it all up into seven balls, which she gave to the brothers. She used the shoulder and knee bones to make scrapers, and scraped the hides until they were well dried. The brothers said to the youngest: "We are going on a buffalo-hunt now, and we want you to stay with Sister. If any yellow or blue bird flies near, do not shoot at it, but watch over Sister, because some medicine-man may turn into a bird and try to court her. Then we might lose Sister. Always stay close beside her." She asked them to bring back the brains and livers of the animals they killed. The youngest brother she told to get soapweed-roots. These she pounded up, mixed with the livers and brains, VOL. XIX-19 {view image of page 146} I46 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN rubbed the compound into the hides, and staked them out in the sun. This mixture, under the sun's rays, would soak into the hides and make them soft. Thus were hides tanned. Next she took the tail of a porcupine and put a stick inside of it for a comb. The rest of the quills were put in a bag ready for use in decorating. She said: "I am going inside with these hides and the quills to make a robe for each of you. I must be alone, but I shall come out for meals. If you do come inside, be sure to pass behind me, because this work is sacred, and if you pass in front of me, you will get hurt when you hunt buffalo." She gave the finished robes to the seven brothers. The brothers went hunting again, bringing in otter- and panther-hides to be made into bow-cases and arrow-quivers, but they made their own bows and arrows. She had them gather all kinds of fruit, which she dried, pounded, bagged, and put away. She also made rawhide receptacles for the meat and stored it away. Thus they had plenty of everything. The brothers hunted once more, telling the youngest to remain with and protect the sister, but to watch out for any yellow or blue bird. After they had been gone some time, and the youngest brother and Sister were sitting by the fire, a blue bird flew near them. The youth reached for his bow and shot at the bird, but missed it. The bird flew a little way off and came down again. He started to shoot another arrow, but Sister warned, "Remember what your brothers said about shooting the birds." "Oh, no harm can come of it. I can have some fun shooting at it." Each time he shot, the bird flew a little farther off, he following, until they were soon out of sight. Then a young man ran up and carried off Sister. When the youngest brother came back, he found her gone. He studied the tracks, which were those of a buffalo, saying to himself, "That is Crazy Mad Bull who has run off with Sister." When the brothers returned and found Sister gone, they were very angry, but the youngest told them to build four high walls; in the meanwhile he would hunt for her. He shot an arrow into the air, closed his eyes, and went along with it, turning into a Black Eagle. Soon he saw a group of boys playing. He asked them who lived there, and they replied that old grandmother lived there. He asked her, "Grandmother, did you hear any news lately?" "Grandchild, I heard that Mad Bull has stolen a fine-looking girl from the seven brothers." He shot another arrow and flew along, alighting amongst a flock of Eagles. They had not heard any news, but told him to see the old woman in the tipi. The old woman informed him that Mad Bull had a pretty girl and was abusing her. She fed the boy, and warned him against talking too loud, because Mad Bull might hear. After leaving her and shooting his arrow, he lit amongst some more Eagles, from whom he learned the same news as before. Next he came to some Crows, but they could tell him no more than he already knew. Shooting his fifth arrow, he ended on a ridge, and there, on the other side, was a big herd of Buffalo with Mad Bull in their midst and Sister sitting in his shadow. The youngest brother called a flock of Blackbirds to him. He said: "Brothers, Mad Bull has stolen my sister. Will you fly over and see if you can rescue her for me?" They obliged him by flying over. Mad Bull roared: "Fly away! I know you are sent by the youngest brother. Fly away, or I shall kill you!" Next some Coyotes tried to rescue her, but Mad Bull quickly frightened them away. The Foxes were a little braver than the Coyotes, and went a little nearer, but they too were afraid, and were easily scared off. Finally, Gopher said he could rescue Sister, so he burrowed over to where Mad Bull was standing. Then he punched Sister until she looked down and saw him. She crawled in the hole after Gopher, leaving her blanket covering the entrance. When she reached the youngest brother, they went back to the mountain in four arrow-shots, landing among the Crows, Eagles, Black Eagles, and the boys, and finally home. The other brothers had the breastworks finished, for they knew that Mad Bull would probably attack them. Meanwhile, toward noon, Mad Bull said, "Wife, get up and bring some water." There was no answer, and he repeated his command four times. Then, without looking, he made a sweep with his hoof to strike her, but of course he hit only the air. When he looked down and saw only her blanket, he bellowed and pawed. All the herd came up and pawed out the gopher-hole until they came to the tracks of the youngest brother and Sister. Then they all went on the warpath against the seven brothers. {view image of facing page 146} Arapaho shield [photogravure plate] {view image of page 147} THE SOUTHERN CHEYENNE I47 Mad Bull sent a calf to them, demanding that the girl be returned, but the young men shot at the calf, and it died by the fore-hoofs of Mad Bull. A cow and a bull were sent as messengers, but they too died at his very feet. The bulls all charged together with their horns, and after much fighting broke down three of the breastworks. The brothers and Sister were behind the last wall. Sister wanted to give herself up, so the others would not be killed, but they would not agree to this. Youngest brother said, "Do not be afraid; watch me and I shall save you." He shot an arrow up at the sun, and a great tree sprang up. All climbed, Sister first and then the brothers. Most of the Buffalo now gave up, but Mad Bull only became angrier. As he rolled and stamped, a big rock appeared. Three times he backed away, rushed at the rock, and gored it with his horns. The fourth time the rock split. Mad Bull thought he could do the same with the tree and fell it. Four times he charged the tree, and each time there was a great rending and splitting of wood. Then he rested. Sister became afraid again, offering to surrender and thus save the brothers, but the youngest said: "No, we shall save you. Just watch us." He took an arrow, pointed it at the sun, then downward at the bull, and loosed the shaft. It pierced the eye and brain of Mad Bull. The Buffalo scattered in all directions, moaning because their leader was dead. The seven brothers and Sister went up in the sky, but from there the people do not know where they went.' In those old times, buffalo ate human beings and were very powerful. It was a great risk to go against them. Sister one day was carried off by a buffalo bull, and the youngest brother started on the trail to rescue her. After travelling four days, he saw that instead of the two tracks there were three, the last those of a young calf, Sister's child. After a long while he reached the herd, but hardly dared to go amongst them because he knew they ate human beings. A big bull chased him, but as he came close, he swerved to one side; this was the father of the bull who had stolen Sister. A younger bull gave chase, but he too swerved to one side as he came up; this was the brother of the bull who had stolen Sister. A cow and a younger cow in turn pursued; these were the mother and sister of the bull who had carried away Sister. A calf ran up to the youngest brother, and asked, "Is that you, my uncle?" "Yes," he answered. "Uncle, I am Sister's son. These Buffalo will put you to a test. If you win, the whole herd will go back with you, but if you lose, your life is forfeit. You will be asked to pick us out from the herd, and I shall tell you how to do it. I shall put some weeds in grandfather's hair. He will be in the first rank. In the second line will be my father; I shall put weeds in his hair. In the third will be the heifers, and in my aunt's hair I shall put some weeds. In the next rank will be some calves - one of them will shake his left ear; I am that one. In the last will be the cows, and I shall put weeds in mother's hair. Watch for a bag with weeds on it. You must say that it is Sister's. If you recognize all these things, you will be safe, and we shall go back together." The Buffalo assembled in ranks and put him to the test of picking them out, successfully following the directions given him. The whole herd then started back with him. Some of the Buffalo still conspired against his life, and one bull suggested to the youngest brother that they have a wheel game. He said, " I shall roll the wheel, and we shall run to that bank yonder and see who can throw his stick through it." When they ran to the bank, instead of throwing his stick, the bull tried to butt the youngest brother over the edge; but he saw through the trick, and stopped suddenly, so that the bull missed him and tumbled over himself, breaking his neck. The bulls picked another for the game, saying, "If we do not win this game, the youth will get the better of us." Four times they tried the trick, but each time the brother saw through it and each time a bull broke his neck. The Buffalo decided that they would beat him in a race, so they called to all the animals and birds and went out to the race-track at Cedar Grove, which is still there. The animals all painted themselves. The Buffalo were painted black. The Chicken-hawk, Sparrow-hawk, and Mudhen were among the birds. Omih (Thunder Spirit) blessed the young man and gave him a sharp spear decorated with crow- and magpie-feathers to help him, because, while Magpie is slow, he is long-winded. 1 The story to this point was told by Howling Wolf, the continuation by Old Crow. {view image of page 148} 148 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN He also had a stick decorated with sage. He knew that if he lost the race, people would always be eaten by buffalo and other animals. All lined up for the race, which was from a given point to the sacred mountain and back, four times. All started, but the youngest brother was soon far behind. He sent his thoughts ahead and made many of the animals lame, so that they fell out of the race. He did that at each lap, so that at the end only a few were running, and he overtook them. On the last lap he ran around the mountain, and all the others abandoned the race. Youngest brother won the race because of the medicine given by Thunder Spirit. Magpie is slow, but long-winded. Because of his winning, people now can eat and use all game, but the buffalo can no longer eat people. The youngest brother went up to a tree, knocked on it, and called out, "I want all you women folk to come out of that tree!" They came out and he gave them buffalo fat. They had never eaten any before. They cried: "This is good. Now we know what to subsist on." Women and men came out of the tree and sat around. The youth taught the men to make weapons and to use them, while Sister showed the women how to make tipis and to prepare food and clothing. Both taught the people to live on the prairie and to scatter to hunt game, because, after the race, all the game animals scattered out on the plains. The people had lived in caves up to this time, but now they learned to live on the prairie. {view image of page 149} The Oto {view image of page 150} {view image of page 151} THE OTO General Description IN life and manners the Oto compare closely with the other tribes of the western prairies, with all of whom the buffalo was the determining factor. Material existence was regulated by the buffalo, and as they lived so they worshipped. While during historical times the Oto have been primarily a hunting tribe, prehistorically they were agricultural, and indeed it is doubtful if they ever wholly abandoned agriculture. They were still growing substantial crops when first noted by white explorers. Their genesis legends account for the miraculous gifts of corn and other food crops. Oto dwellings were earth-lodges, suggesting a degree of permanency such as would become an agricultural people. Judging by description, the earth-lodge of the Oto was in form and appearance similar to that of the Mandan and the Arikara.' Heavy posts supported horizontal timbers, against which were leaned poles or hewn logs. This timber-work was covered with sods, which, growing together, in time formed a solid structure, rain-proof, cool in summer and warm in winter. In the centre of the dwelling was the fireplace, merely a hole scooped in the floor, with a stick, thrust in the floor, leaning over it to support cooking-pots. Meat was sliced thin and sun-dried for preservation, and often was broiled on a framework over the fire. This framework consisted of green willow hoops, the ends stuck into the ground, the hoops braced by longitudinal strips. In appearance it resembled a bisected horizontal cylinder, with the fire underneath. Bottle-shape caches about six feet deep were dug in the lodges, earth-plastered inside, with a cover of sod neatly fitted in order that the casual observer would not see it. Food supplies such as pumpkins, corn, beans, nuts, berries, dried meat, wild turnips, wild sweet-potatoes, all contained in rawhide cases, as well as clothing, hides, weapons, and trinkets, were stored in the caches. 1 See Volume V, illustrations facing pages 65, 68, and 76. I5I {view image of page 152} 152 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Such was the earth-lodge with its appurtenances, used as a more or less permanent structure. Father De Smet, who visited the Oto near the mouth of Platte river during the spring of 1838, gives a good description of one of their commodious earth-lodges.1 Before we reached our destination, we traversed the villages of the Otos. They build their huts in the form of mounds and cover them with sod. These huts are so large that 150 people may be lodged in one at their ease; the interior resembles a temple; the rafters which support the sides rest upon a score of pillars or posts; a hole arranged at the top lets in the light and gives an outlet for the smoke. While the earth-lodge was the home structure in the permanent villages of the Oto, the skin tipi was the dwelling during the hunting season, which may be assumed to have been the greater part of the summer. A drawing by Samuel Seymour in I8I9 shows an Oto hunting encampment, wholly of skin tipis, near Platte river. An established village invariably had its ceremonial house. The form and method of building such a structure were the same as for the circular habitation. These large structures were the tribal meetingplaces; whether for council or for ceremony the great lodge may be said to have been the tribal home. The Oto political organization is composed of the tribal chief and a council of seven. Chieftainship is hereditary, provided the son or the grandson is qualified to assume the position. If a chief dies, his office passes to the eldest son, and in event of his death, to the son of the eldest son. If there should be no grandchildren, then the chiefship goes to the second son. Failing any children or grandchildren, the chiefship passes to the sister's son, as descent is matrilineal; otherwise an election is held by the council. If it be decided that no member of a deceased chief's family is worthy of the office, a successor is elected by the council. The council is composed of the chief of each of the seven clans, who hold their positions by hereditary right or by election, as in the case of the tribal chief. In Oto mythology the seven chiefs of the seven clans reside in the Pleiades. The council is assembled by order of the chief, sent through a messenger. Its members meet in the council lodge around a council fire, where they are guarded by a marshal who allows no one to disturb them or to be within hearing. There is a ritual in which a medicine-man asks for courage and wisdom to descend upon the council, that its decisions may be wise H. M. Chittenden and A. T. Richardson, Life, Letters and Travels of Father PierreJean De Smet, S.J., I80I-I873, Vol. I, page 162, New York, 1905. {view image of facing page 152} Seeing High - Oto [photogravure plate] {view image of page 153} THE OTO 153 and just and be carried out to the satisfaction of the spirits. All important matters pertaining to the tribe are discussed in council. The clans are of two groups, the first of which consists of the Bear and its subsidiaries, Elk, Eagle, and Beaver. This grouping includes only the four genetic clans. The Beaver clan, which is prominent in the genesis legends, is for some unexplained reason omitted from the political group of seven. The second group is the Owl and its subsidiaries, Buffalo, Snake, and Pigeon. Each clan has its own sacred bundle. A list of the clans with their respective functions is as follows: I Bear, Tunapi-m6nje. Keeper of the pipe and maker of the bowl. Subsidiaries: Tunapi-hanje (Big Bear band). Tunapi-wak6nda (Bear Spirit band). Tunapi-yinge (Little Bear band). Elk, Huma. Care of the sacred fire; lighting of the pipe. Eagle, Hra. Leader in war, keeper of the war-bundle. Beaver, Liw6. Maker of the stem of the pipe. II Owl, Mankfahe Subsidiaries: Owl, Mak6ge. Ground Owl, Hunh6ke. Horned Owl, Hindan. Buffalo, Aluqa. Care of the sacred tobacco. Snake, Waka". Guardian of the fireplace in the sacred lodge. Pigeon, Lije. The Oto have several societies for both men and women. Of these but two are of first importance: Che or Aluiqa ("Buffalo"), and Dostanye or Mankanye ("Otter"). These two societies are of such importance that they should rightly be considered as a part of the political organization. They are the power behind the council. The membership naturally is interlocking, as each clan chief would belong to one society or the other. Prospective members of either society must be men of high moral standing, and they are usually under observation for some time by the members of the societies before being invited to join, although a man himself may ask to become a member and to be voted upon, in which case also he is closely watched. An applicant may fail of election at one time, but may later become eligible to membership on proving his worth. Each society has initiatory rites, accompanied with feasting and dancing; and each has four degrees, each degree being characterized by its own particular clothing, painting, and songs, and growing in fulness and meaning as the initiatory rites progress. Members who have VOL. XIX-20 {view image of page 154} I54 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN taken the final degree select the head of the society or lodge. Strict secrecy is enjoined, and the death penalty is inflicted on any one who would have the temerity to violate a society secret. Each society has its own sacred bundle, which is in the custody of the head member, as other hands are believed to lessen its power; and especially would this be the case were the bundle to be touched by a woman. The main object of each society is to promote men of worth, hence in this respect it is said that all members are persons of standing in the tribe. A particular function of the Buffalo society is that of helping people in need, illness, or other distress, and to teach right moral living. The Otter society has largely to do with ministering to the sick, but more from the healing than from an economic point of view. The function of the Buffalo society inclines more to charity in cases of illness. The Otter society contains more medicine-men than the Buffalo society. There was no organized camp-circle; clans and families had no fixed positions. However, a camp was arranged in a circle, with the council lodge (chibofheje-wahonita) and the sanctuary lodge (c'he-wahonita) in the centre. The latter was a lodge in which any one, even an enemy, might take refuge with every assurance of safety so long as he remained within. It was under the protection of the headchief. The rule against marriage within the clan was rigid. Descent was matrilineal, the children belonging to the mother's clan. The father, however, continued to owe allegiance to his own clan. An illustration of matrilineal descent is shown in the position of male captives and their progeny. A captive was looked upon as a quasimember of the tribe, but had no voice in tribal affairs; his children, however, were members of the mother's clan, and thus took part in tribal matters. While politically the captives became members of the tribe, yet socially their children were not of the elect, as is shown by the rule of tattooing the virgins. A star tattooed upon the forehead of a girl at the time of the puberty rite was supposed to show to all the world that she was of full Oto blood. No captive's daughter could be so honored. The naming of the children is attended with considerable form and ceremony. The child is usually named within four days after birth. A lodge is erected and a naming ceremony conducted, in which the immediate family and other relatives participate. Some one of the old men of the tribe gives the family four names from which to select. It may be a family name, or the name of a plant or an {view image of facing page 154} Standing On The Earth - Oto [photogravure plate] {view image of page 155} THE OTO I55 animal, but it must have some association with the clan in which the child is born. For example, the daughters in an Eagle family were named Soaring High, Good Eagle, and Standing Above The Earth. Following the family ceremony, others are invited, a feast is held, and gifts are offered. The old man who has given the name in behalf of the parents of the child is so highly esteemed that he is made the recipient of many gifts. He offers long prayers to the spirits, and afterward forecasts the child's future. After singing songs of a sacred nature which contain words used in his prophecy, he relates the story of the name. Gifts are exchanged, and food which is considered sacramental is eaten. A name may be changed later in life, as when a name is transmitted to a person by a member of the family; or when some one outside the family has chosen a particular person to carry on his name in perpetuity; or perhaps when one gives his name to another in admiration. It is also customary for a man to adopt a new name after the performance of some noteworthy deed, or by fasting and dreaming, when he assumes the name of whatever appeared or was suggested by the dream. The puberty ceremony for girls was more elaborate among the Oto than among many tribes. The lodge in which the ceremony was conducted was of inverted-U shape, opening to the north. The relatives of the family, and the family itself, sat at the left of the entrance, while those to whom invitation sticks were given completed the circle. The firekeeper, or Elk-man, had a position outside the entrance, to the left, while the pipe-men at the beginning of the ceremony were at the south side of the lodge. The girl herself stood in the entrance at the north. The gifts, such as blankets, food, weapons, or horses, were placed along a horizontal pole which extended from north to south through the middle of the lodge. The firekeeper kindled a fire and lighted his pipe, which was carried once around the circle by the father and uncle, who then took their positions beside the girl. The pipe-men next lighted and passed the pipe around once, commencing with the family, then returned to stand by the girl, where they delivered an oration and a song. The firekeeper now lighted two pipes which he gave to the pipe-men, who, each in turn, marched four times around the circle and returned to take their positions at the entrance. The people then looked upon the pipes in silent prayer. Following this the people made gifts to the father of the girl, but instead of keeping them, he gave them away to his tribesmen gathered outside the lodge. {view image of page 156} 156 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Some member of the family then tattooed a star on the forehead of the girl with an instrument made of a porcupine-quill or a turkeybone containing a rattle. Singing accompanied the tattooing, which may have been on the arms or the neck as well as on the forehead. After the tattooer finished his task, the girl presented him with gifts. Then the firekeeper, Elk-man, presented the gifts in the middle of the lodge to those who had invitation sticks. The girl, the pipe-men, and the firekeeper then ate some of the meat, a part of which was dropped in the fire so that the smoke might rise to the spirits. All the people next partook of a feast provided by the family. In marriage, monogamy was the general rule, but polygyny was not uncommon; in fact, chiefs and headmen often had several wives, a large domestic establishment being an indication of the individual's importance. The marriage of a daughter conveyed an optional claim on her maturing sisters. If a man lost his wife through death, he had the first claim to her sister for an economic reason - to keep the wealth in the family. A chief's choice of his wife's sisters had the added motive of retaining the same blood relationship in the family, since the office was often hereditary. Since boys and girls, especially those who had reached puberty, were kept strictly apart, courtship necessitated the exercise of cunning on the part of a young couple. A man, seeing a desirable woman, attracted her attention in some manner, perhaps by flashing a mirror in her eyes from a distant place of concealment. If she was pleased with him, she made an affirmative sign and met him at his place of hiding; otherwise he was ignored. A favorite device was to meet the young woman when she went after water, since if they should then be discovered talking together, they could resort to the pretext of accidental meeting. When both were agreeable to marriage, they notified their respective parents, though both of the families must be satisfied with their children's choice; otherwise there was no union, for elopement was severely punished if the offenders were caught. If both families agreed, a payment of the girl's worth was made to her father or to her uncle. Her family then gave a feast, at which some older person talked of marriage, its responsibilities, the rearing of children, and the like. This formal feast constituted the wedding. As mentioned, children belong to the clan of the mother; however, they had a claim to the property of the father. Divorce, as with most tribes, was very common. The usual reason for desiring separation was that either the man or the woman {view image of facing page 156} Oto puberty lodge [photogravure plate] {view image of page 157} THE OTO I57 had seen some one else who, at least for the moment, had caught his or her fancy. A couple on reaching a fixed disagreement asked their respective parents for permission to divorce each other. If the desire was agreeable to all concerned, the woman returned to her family, while the man lost his original payment. Separation thus arranged was not in itself a disgrace, but adultery was quite another matter. Those apprehended in its practice were reported immediately to the council. The guilty man was brought in by members of the soldier society, because delay in his arrest might result in his death at the hands of the outraged husband. In tribal theory it was better to administer punishment through the council than to allow the husband to take the matter into his own hands and to kill a man who might be possessed of power valuable to his tribe. If, after questioning by the council, it was found that the couple were guilty, the man was whipped, while the woman was pronounced an outcast and no one was supposed to speak to or associate with her. For a woman thus officially cast out, prostitution was the only alternative. If, as often happened, the husband acted before the council could conduct a hearing, he would kill the guilty man and beat the wife, and perhaps add to her physical punishment by cutting off the end of her nose. Disposal of the body after death was similar to that of most of the Siouan tribes. The body was painted red and dressed in the finest clothing possessed by the departed. The face was decorated to indicate the clan. Food and implements were placed at the head and the remains were wrapped in buffalo-robes or blankets. Those who touched the body in any way must go through a purifying process with cedar smoke and by sweating in the sudatory. Friends and mourners helped with the obsequies, bearing gifts of food, arms, and horses to the bereaved family. Invocations to the spirits were offered by the old men. The common belief was that if the life of the departed had been upright, he would travel a good road to the spirit land; but if his life had been evil, his spirit would remain on earth and know no rest. After the ceremonies, the body was carried from the village and placed high in the branches of a tree, or on a framework built on four upright poles, the body being placed with the head toward the north. Purification of the lodge in which the person died took place within four days. In this purification the lodge was smoked with cedar and many prayers were offered. All personal belongings of the dead were placed with the body, {view image of page 158} I58 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN burned, or given away. The son or the brothers took the clothing, since it would not be proper for others to have it in their possession. Other property was disposed of according to the last wishes of the deceased, although mainly it went to the wife and children. A tipi, after purification, was given away, but the earth-lodge could be used again by the family. Unless the purification rites were performed, the spirit of the deceased might return to inflict evil on the family or the tribe. The religious beliefs of the Oto are so strikingly similar to those of the Lakota, or Teton Sioux, that the author takes the liberty of quoting from his own description of the Siouan beliefs which appears in Volume III. To the Lakota all things passing the understanding are wakan. When supplicating Wakantanka, the Indian conceives the Mystery as possessing and being all things that transcend his comprehension. After invoking successively each deity in his belief, he comprehends all in the prayer, "Great Mystery!" and in the cry he has included all the forces of the universe, from that represented by the personal fetish on his body to the undefined consciousness of the infinite. Not only the heavenly bodies, but cold, heat, snow, rain, frost, a tree struck by lightningall these, as well as the tipi used for ceremonies and all the consecrated paraphernalia, are waka". The ceremonial pipe is waka", likewise the tobacco-pouch that accompanies it. The spot where the ceremony is held is holy ground, waka". The horse, which came first as a strange, huge beast, they call mysterious dog, s'hu"ka-waka"; and the gun, which they could not understand, became maza-waka", mysterious iron. Briefly, this quotation covers the religious concepts of the Oto. As shown in Volume III, there is a tendency, both by observers and the Indians themselves, to translate Wako6da (Wakan-ta ka) as "Great Spirit." Such a translation is not borne out by the primitive use of the word nor by Siouan thought. The translation should be "Great Mystery." Without putting it in words, Siouan philosophy says, "We know not what it is, but we do know that it is." Genesis of the Clans The Bear, Beaver, Elk, and Eagle Clans In the beginning, a very long time ago, there was nothing upon the face of the world but water: no land, animals, plants, or people nothing but never-ending water. The spirits had made it so. Then came land, yet soft. Soon the land was green with growing things; the trees became forests. Upon the land walked the animals created by the spirits. In the air were many birds. Out of the water, all at one time, emerged the Bear clan; they were very happy because they thought they were the first people. As they looked about taking their first glance at the world, to their surprise they saw tracks other than their own leading out of the water. {view image of facing page 158} Wife of Wakonda - Oto [photogravure plate] {view image of page 159} THE OTO 159 The Bear were very angry to learn that others had emerged first; so they pursued, intent upon killing these others, whoever they might be. They overtook these other people, who proved to be the Beaver clan. The Beaver did not care to fight. They said: "Let us be brothers and travel together. There is no need to fight, because we shall prove useful to each other some time." The two clans travelled on together, marvelling at the animals, which were tame at that time and could speak the same language as the people, and the trees and grass. After they had proceeded for a long period, they saw another band and were surprised, because they thought they were the first two people. These others, who were the Elk, tried to run away, because Bear and Beaver were so much stronger in numbers. But they were headed off and stopped. Bear and Beaver wanted to kill Elk, but Elk said: "Let us be brothers and go on together. We should not fight, because we may need one another." Bear answered, "Let us not kill Elk, because he may in time be helpful to us." To this Beaver agreed. Meanwhile the Eagle clan had come down from the sky and in proceeding had come across the tracks of the three other peoples. They sent a scout ahead, who saw Bear, Beaver, and Elk. The scout returned and told the Eagles where these others were. The Eagles then hastened on, angry because the other bands had reached the world ahead of them. When they saw how strong in numbers were Bear, Beaver, and Elk, they decided not to fight. The Eagles approached, asking who Bear, Beaver, and Elk were. "We are Bear brothers," answered the Bear. "We are Beaver brothers," replied the Beaver. "We are Elk brothers," responded the Elk. "We," said the Eagles, "are the Eagles; we are glad to be with you and to be all together, for we may be helpful to one another." Bear declared: "To show that we are all brothers, we are going to give you a name, not 'Big Bear,' whom we are, but we shall call you 'Little Bear' [Muncrhine]." Eagle clan, to show their friendly spirit by giving away something, answered: "To show that you are brothers, we are going to give you a name, not Eagle, whom we are, but because we have big wings we shall call you 'Big Wings."' As the four clans wandered along together, they wondered how they were to eat. "There are plenty of animals for us to kill, but how are we going to eat them? they asked one another; but none could answer. They then prayed to the spirit to show them how they could eat. At last their prayer was answered, for the spirit took pity on them and descended into their breasts, telling them what to do. The spirit made his revelation to an Elk, who volunteered to show the others how they might prepare food. When they had all gathered around Elk, he made for himself a drill which he twirled rapidly between his palms until a thin spiral of smoke was given off. Elk twirled his stick again, and a red ember {view image of page 160} I6o THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN appeared. He blew the ember into some tinder, and so made fire. Then an animal was roasted and they learned how to cook food. Elk is the maker and keeper of the sacred fire. The four people in those times had very little knowledge, but they knew that the spirit would show and teach them. They were at a loss how to approach the spirit properly, but he took pity on them and told the Bear how to make the bowl of the sacred pipe. This the Bear did. The spirit told the Beaver in their hearts how to gnaw out the stem and make it hollow. This the Beaver did. Now the pipe was finished, but still the people did not know how to use it. In a dream the spirit showed them where to find the sacred tobacco and how to use it. In a dream he told the people that the pipe could not see nor hear, but when they smoked he would see and he would hear, for the smoke would rise into the sky where he was - he, their father. Then he told them that the earth was their mother, because it fed and took care of them. He also instructed them to use the pipe at the time of planting. Then the spirit put seven pipes among them, and he placed seven chiefs together in the sky to remain there (the Pleiades). So the Bear is the maker and keeper of the sacred pipe, while the Beaver is the maker of the stem. As the people travelled about over the land, the old men gathered in council, for they had to discuss many things. Chiefly they pondered over the means of living: what life meant and how life was continued on earth. They decided that a woman when of an age to bear children should gather many hides; that she should give away as many sticks as there were hides; and then a feast should be given, when she should give away a hide to each stick-holder. Finally, she should be tattooed on the forehead and everyone would know that she was of an age to marry and bear children. Once in council, the men asked, "What may we do that we may have success in war?" The head-chief said that the spirits had told him how to make a sacred war-bundle, so he bade four men paint themselves, two red and two black, each to arm himself with two clubs; that they should kill and bring in a hawk, a green hawk, a sparrow-hawk, and a crow. These the chief put in the bundle. A buck was then killed to furnish a skin in which to wrap the bundle, and a war-club was next wrapped inside of it. A pipe was necessary, but they were puzzled how to finish it in such a way as to insure success. A bird flew down, crying: "I am Woodcock, the redhead. If you put something of mine on the pipe, good luck will follow on the warpath. Put my red head on the pipe and you will have success." An eagle flew down, saying, "I am Eagle; put my head on the pipe and you will have success." A second eagle alighted, saying, " I am Golden Eagle; put my head on the pipe and you will have success." A third eagle came to them, saying, "I am Bald Eagle; put my head on the pipe and you will have success." The pipe was now ready, and when smoked insured success on {view image of facing page 160} White Elk - Oto [photogravure plate] {view image of page 161} THE OTO i6i the warpath. To those who fell in battle, it meant that their spirits would travel the good road. The Eagle clan became the keeper of the sacred war-bundle and was the leader in warfare. This legend was related by a member of the Bear clan, which, in Oto thought, is the dominating unit of the tribe. The following fragments gathered from members of the Elk, the Owl, and the Eagle clans furnish a little further light on genetic matters. There is a noticeable contradiction as to the method Elk used in producing fire. However, such minor inconsistencies occur in all legendary accounts; in fact, so persistent is the occurrence of anachronism and contradiction that one is scarcely justified in noting them. Such legends should be considered as they are. From them we gain many valuable glimpses into Indian philosophy and must overlook their inconsistencies. The Eagle clan of the Oto are a sky people. Growing tired of their old habitat, they looked for a new country, at last finding an opening in the sky through which they descended to the earth. Now, they thought they were the first people on this earth, but after travelling for a time, they found the tracks of many people leading northward. They followed these tracks, thinking, "This is our world; no one else has a right to live here." In time they overtook the other people and at first they quarrelled with the new-found humans. Bear was the spokesman for the combined Bear, Elk, and Beaver people. Bear said, "The spirits have given us a pipe and with it we rule this world." Eagle answered, "We, too, have a pipe which the spirits gave us." This made Beaver so angry that he snatched the pipe from Eagle and chewed it up. "For this reason," say the Eagles, "we do not have a real pipe." Then they all talked together and decided that they had better travel on as friends. When Elk saw the Bear and other peoples coming up to him, he was frightened. When he started to run, they began to intercept him. Elk in his flight, suddenly coming to a very steep bank, jumped; he sprang a long distance, so that, when he came down with his forefeet plowing the dirt, smoke arose in the air. When the other peoples came up to him, he said, "Do not kill me, because I may be of use to you." Then Elk showed them the fire. The people all rejoiced because they now had fire. When Elk got the fire he was called Pejewagoon (" Fire Maker"); but after he brought the fire to the lodge, he was called Petaniji (male) and Peta"ijimi (female) (" Fire Bringer"). The chief is called VOL. XIX-21 {view image of page 162} I62 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Wfayekigiiwao" ("Chief Maker"), a name which is handed down from father to son; a chief's daughter is called Wanyekigiiwaonmi. In the tattooing ceremony Elk is called Honegi. In camp Elk performs the duties of peacemaker. Whenever there is a quarrel, he offers the pipe to those involved, and if they accept, they have become appeased. The pipe is seldom refused, because fire is sacred, coming from the spirit, and is a means of communication with the spirit. To refuse is equivalent to refusing the spirit, which is considered very bad. The Elk takes part in all ceremonies, such as the tattooing of girls at puberty, held to bring health and long life not only to the recipient but to the generations to come. The firemaker chief has charge of the winter and summer ceremonies, hunting trips, and the like. With the power of his pipe he can influence for good, even to the extent of making the weather favorable. The Elk also has much to do with all the functions of all the seasons, since he has charge of the sacred fire and the lighting of the pipe. The Owl, Buffalo, Snake, and Pigeon have charge of the spring and fall ceremonies; while the Bear, Beaver, Elk, and Eagle control those of winter and summer. The Elk was formerly called Hfima, but now has the name of Hodachi or Hodachistl. The Buffalo, Owl, Pigeon, and Snake Clans 1 There was once a group of four male peoples in the sky, who lived there wandering about until all the game and everything good to eat was consumed. Then they held a council to find out what to do, and decided to hunt in different directions for a new place. They each set out, going in opposite ways, the eldest to the north, but he found nothing and came back. The second then set out to the west, but he found nothing and had to return. The third went to the east a long way, but he too was unsuccessful in finding anything. The youngest, however, who went to the south, saw a land of plenty and came back to report. All rejoiced at the news, and preparations were made to start out for this new land, but while the council was taking place the eldest died. Since the decision of the council to move was sacred, they had to abide by their word and to go even though they felt very bad about leaving the eldest behind. After they had commenced their migration, they sent one brother 1 As related by an Owl informant. {view image of facing page 162} A little Oto [photogravure plate] {view image of page 163} THE OTO i63 back to see if all was well with the body. He found that a mark had appeared on the dead man's face. It was the red paint of the dead. This the youngest brother reported to the council, and he was sent back again. This time he saw something growing out of the dead man's side, which proved to be a stalk of corn which yielded ears. So he brought back the corn to take the place of the brother who was dead. Finally they came to the land of plenty (the earth), where they erected the sacred council lodge. The remaining brothers were sent in turn to find some wood for the stem of the pipe. The eldest failed, and the next two failed, but the youngest found the right kind of wood, the ash. The people did not know or learn all things at once, but when they found the wood they recognized it as the right kind because the spirit led them along and showed them what to do with it. After the pipe was made, the people became four clans, the Buffalohead, Owl, Pigeon, and Snake. Once some one saw a strange animal. They all said it must be killed, but that care must be shown in the killing, for it was sacred and they must make use of what is sacred. They killed the Buffalo and from him obtained the tobacco which they used in their pipe. Next they saw a vine growing in the manure; this was the pumpkin. They then in council decided to use the paunch of the buffalo, for that is sacred and must be used in the ceremonies. After the ceremonies were concluded they encountered the Bear clan, with whom they tried to make peace. The Bear were very mean and chewed up the pipe when offered them, but at last they crossed pipes and made peace. Then all the clans (eight) decided that the Bear and his bands should have charge of the winter and summer, while the Owl and his bands should have the spring and fall, and be in charge of the planting and harvesting. How the People Learned to Make War One time after the council lodge was put up, the head Bear-man said to his brothers, "Let us make something that we can use in case of war, because there are other people and some time we shall have to fight them." When asked what he was going to do, he replied, " I shall make a fireplace; you must get some paints." He then painted himself all red, two other Bears all red, two more all black, and these sat on each side of him. Then he told the Beaver to go out and get four clubs and bring them to him. After they returned with the clubs he painted these, two red and two black, and gave them to the painted Bears. "You must now go out," said the Bear-man, "and kill four birds: the chicken-hawk, sparrow-hawk, hawk, and crow. You must circle {view image of page 164} I64 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN around these birds, getting closer and closer, and you must sing as you circle around; then the birds will not move. When you are close enough, throw your club and kill them, for you can not miss." The four went out as directed, each man killing one of the birds, which they skinned, dried, and brought back. Next they were told to go out and kill the first animal they saw. This proved to be the buck. All four threw their clubs and killed it. They brought it back. They asked what they must do with the buck, and were told: "You must lay it on the ground with the head to the north, then tan and dry the hide. To tan it you must paint a tree half black and half red, then scrape the hide on it. You must now decorate the hide with eagle-feathers, for you will need it some time on the warpath." The Tunapi-wak6oda-hanje ("Bear Spirit band") wanted to be the leader on the warpath, but the rest would not agree to this. Both then made ready for a fight. The headman called all together and said, after showing them the fireplace, pipe, and bundle, "I have made these for you, which are good things." He then painted all the people and all the clubs red and black. The red people took the red clubs, the black people the black clubs, and they fought and defeated the Tunapi-wakonda-ha-je. The people now wanted to know what to do, so the head Bearman told them to give a big war-dance and to have the different warriors show what they had done in battle. The Tunapi did the same thing, and they invited all the other Tuinapi bands to come and help them whip the Bear. Both peoples came together for another fight. The headman of the Tunapi called out, " I am coming after your head-tail!" The headman of the Bear answered, " I am going to get yours," although he did not know what the other had meant, for the people had not yet learned to scalp. The Bear defeated the Tunapi in the fight. The tanned hide belongs to the headman; the first two birds to the two red men, and the other birds to the black men, who all carried them in battle, though in times of peace they constituted a sacred bundle. After a war-dance the war-bundle was wrapped up again. Mythology Turtles War Party A little Spotted Turtle sat asleep on a log above the water and dreamed that he went with a war-party. Snapping Turtle, swimming by, called out, "Little fellow, why do you sleep while the sun shines?" Spotted Turtle felt very proud because he had dreamed he was a great war-chief. Looking down on Snapping Turtle, he boasted, "We are to go on a real war raid and bring home scalps." Snapping Turtle feared that they were too slow for warriors, but Spotted Turtle said, "We shall sing war-songs and get the scalps of even the ones who run so fast." {view image of facing page 164} Big Heart - Osage [photogravure plate] {view image of page 165} THE OTO 165 Rabbit, on hearing the Turtles singing their songs of war, decided he would like to join the gathering; but Spotted Turtle objected. "I am chief of this war-party," he said; "you travel too fast; we shall not let you go with us." Rabbit laughed at them, saying, "You foolish ones, whoever heard of turtles being warriors?" Skunk came by and asked if he might join them. Snapping Turtle said, "Yes, you can go with us if you do not travel fast." Spotted Turtle thought for a long time about who else they should ask, then he decided: "We shall get Squirrel to join our party. He will travel in the trees and be our scout." Mortar and Pestle cried to go with them. "Take me along," wailed Mortar; "I always wanted to go to war and get a scalp." Snapping Turtle replied, " If Mortar thinks she can get a scalp, we had better let her go with us." Squirrel thought that Comb should go along too. Then they sang their war-songs and were ready to start to the land of the enemy. Spotted Turtle declared, " I am chief of this war-party; I shall stay home and sing songs while you go after scalps." Snapping Turtle was angry. He snapped his jaws at Spotted Turtle. "No, little brother, you will not stay home," he said. "You thought of this war-party and now you will have a brave heart and be first to attack the enemy." They searched for a long time to find an enemy camp easy to surprise. At last they found a village near the water. "Here is a fine place to fight," declared Spotted Turtle. "Throw me into the brush close to the camp," demanded Mortar, while Comb wanted to be left close to the camp where some one would find her. Skunk slipped away into the brush, bragging, " I shall soon have a scalp!" Squirrel sat in a high tree, keeping watch, and all the time talking to his brother warriors. Little Spotted Turtle, certain that his war-songs had given him great power as a warrior, was the first to attack. Before he could take a scalp, the enemy found him. "Here is a foolish one who attacks us. What shall we do with him?" they said. All cried, "We shall throw him into the fire and listen to him cry!" Spotted Turtle was greatly frightened, for he did not like fire. "Before you put me in the fire, let me sing," he begged. "That's good! We shall listen to you sing; perhaps we can learn a new song." Spotted Turtle sang four songs. When he had finished, he told the people who were standing around the fire that to throw him into it would not be good, because he would use his medicine and explode, throwing fire all over camp. The enemy talked long: "What shall we do to kill this Turtle? He acts as if he had a strong medicine. We will throw him in a big kettle of hot water and boil him." Spotted Turtle sang again. In his fourth song he chanted: "That way is no good; that way is no good. I shall blow up; I shall blow up, and the hot water will scald all the people." Then the enemy decided to drown him in the pond. Spotted Turtle laughed to himself, but aloud he cried: " I am afraid of the water! I am afraid of the water!" As they threw him into the pond, they shouted, "Listen to the brave warrior cry!" Spotted Turtle swam through the water and crawled out on the bank at the feet of the enemy. "Now see how strong is my medicine!" he said. Again they tossed him into the water, but farther from the shore, and a second time he came back to laugh at them. Then a man threw him far across the pond, so that he went splash! They shouted, "This time he will drown!" but soon he was back at their feet. At last a young man who could throw more strongly than any of the tribe threw him for the fourth time. So far did he cast him across the pond that the watchers could scarcely see the splash. For a long time the people on the bank watched, and when Spotted Turtle did not return as before, they said, "That Turtle will not laugh at us any more." Then from far across the water they heard Spotted Turtle singing, "You foolish ones, my home is in the water; you took me home!" The people were angry and discussed what they could do to this Turtle who so bravely laughed at them. Finally the chief called Big Belly, and commanded, "Swallow all the water; then we can kill Turtle with a club!" {view image of page 166} i66 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Big Belly came and drank and drank. As the water receded more and more in the pond, Turtle became frightened and cried out, "My friends, you must help me!" Squirrel from high in the trees chattered: "I shall help! I shall help!" Then he shot the monster in his big belly, so that the water all flowed back into the pond. Skunk hid in the forest close to the camp. A woman came by, and, seeing him, thought, "He will be good to eat." As she leaned over to hit Skunk with a club, he shot her in the face with his stench. She fell over stunned. While she lay as if dead, Skunk took her scalp. Squirrel from the trees chattered, "Skunk has taken a scalp!" A girl seeing Comb on the ground took it home. As she entered her lodge, she called to her father, "See what a fine comb I have found!" Then she began to comb her hair. As she drew Comb through her tresses, the hair all came off. Father thought: "That's strange. I'll try it." He, too, lost his locks. The father angrily said to his daughter, "Take that Comb far out into the forest and throw it away!" Squirrel laughingly said: "Comb took a scalp! Comb took a scalp!" Two women returning home from root-digging saw Mortar. One said: "Oh, here is a fine mortar we have found. We shall take it home." Then she tried to lift it by the pestle, but it stuck to the bottom, regardless of how hard she lifted. Suddenly it became released and flew up, hitting the woman on the forehead. As she fell over, Squirrel laughed, "Mortar has a scalp!" Snapping Turtle had hid in the deepest part of the pond, waiting for his chance. Soon a party of boys came down to swim. As one of them swam in the deep pool, Snapping Turtle caught him by the foot and pulled him down to the bottom. Four times he did this, until the boys ran to their homes, crying out, "A monster is swallowing us!" Squirrel chattered, "Now each of us has a scalp; we had better go home." He jumped from limb to limb as he guided his victorious companions slowly homeward. On reaching camp Spotted Turtle called all his Turtle brothers together to help him in the scalp-dance. When they were all there, some of the Turtles complained: "Scalps may be all right for some, but we want a feast. Who is going to supply the feast?" Spotted Turtle was very proud, and boasted: "Do not cry, brother; remember I led the war-party; I shall give you a great feast. First we shall sing songs of war." Elk, hearing the singing, came by, and when he saw a scalp-dance was being performed, he laughed: "How did you slow ones get scalps? Perhaps you found them." Spotted Turtle answered: "We are not so slow; I'll run you a race. I'll bet my scalps against your life that I can beat you. We shall run to the three hilltops in the distance and back to this camp." Elk laughed at him. "You are foolish, but I shall show how I can beat you," he answered. Spotted Turtle was wearing a cap, and he dressed three brother Turtles just like himself, sending one to each hilltop. All the people gathered to see the race start. Elk thought, "This will be no race at all." He merely trotted to the first hill. As he reached the top, a Turtle was starting down the other side, running so fast that one could not see his feet go. Elk thought: "That Turtle can run a little. I shall go faster to the next ridge." But as Elk came to the second hilltop, a Turtle was again ahead of him. To the next hill he ran even faster, yet a Turtle was just going over the summit. Then Elk thought, " If I am not to lose my life, I must really run this time." He ran as swift as the wind, so swift that his belly hardly left the ground; yet, as he came into the camp, Turtle was scampering slightly ahead of him. Spotted Turtle called all his people together, saying, "Now we shall feast." The Red Ducks Once there were four brothers who lived somewhat apart from the rest of the people. In their lodge they kept four medicine-arrows, for the elder brother said: "So long as we are together, living as one, we are safe. One alone, or two, or even three, may be overcome, but four can overcome any evil. Let us have the medicine-arrows to represent us. While the arrows are together we are safe, but if one is lost or broken we shall know that some harm has befallen one of us and evil may descend upon those remaining." The youngest brother had a lame foot, so he always stayed at home and took care of the lodge while the others were hunting, which was most of the time, for they were mighty hunters. {view image of facing page 166} Osage summer arbor [photogravure plate] {view image of page 167} THE OTO I67 One day while the others were gone, the lame one left the tipi and noticed that everything was tinged a red color, but redder at the creek, and the ducks were the reddest of all. He thought this was strange and wanted to kill a pretty red duck. He returned to the lodge for a bow, but there were no arrows except the four medicine-arrows. Being unskilled in hunting, he missed three ducks, but slightly wounded the fourth. The duck flapped away and the youth limped after it, but it always kept out of his reach. Finally he came to another tribe, where he stayed over night. In the morning he wrapped up his lame foot and was preparing to go home when he saw the red duck a little way out of camp, but as he approached to catch it, it started away again. Determined to have that red duck, the youth followed it, but never could he lay hands on it. Four nights he rested with four different tribes, and four days he pursued the wounded duck. The last tribe asked him who he was and where he was going. He answered: "My name is I Am Of Four Boys The Last One. I am following a wounded duck." They said that they had seen the duck before and had talked with people who were following it, who never had come back. They advised the young man to give up the chase, but he would not heed. Next day at noon he saw a steep hill with a large red lodge at the top, then watched the wounded duck flap up the hill and enter the lodge. He climbed the hill and entered the lodge too.. There he saw a man who had his head wrapped in a cloth and his own medicinearrow in his hand. The man said: " I Am Of Four Boys The Last One, are you hungry? If you are, name what you want and I shall get it for you." The youth mentioned what he most liked, and as he named the dishes, the man drew on some strings which led into a hole and brought up different foods. After the two had eaten, the man unwrapped his head and showed where his entire scalp had been cut off. He said: "A tribe not far from here took my scalp. Now the chief's son wears it when he wants to play ball, and when he is through with it he hangs it in a sacred tree where it is out of everybody's reach. I want my scalp back, and I send my ducks for brave men so that I can despatch them for it. Many have gone, but none has returned. Are you brave enough to go after it?" The youth thought a while about his brothers and what they would think of his absence; but as he wished to prove his bravery, he answered that he would go in search of the scalp. The man instructed the youth: "You will have to cross the river. There are no boats except those of my enemies, and they are on the other side, but my two Beavers will ferry you across. There are four fences around the village, each one higher than the last, but with care you can climb over them. Once inside you must do the best you can." The youth started out, and once safely across the river told the Beavers to wait for him, but, while waiting, to gnaw holes in all the boats. He scaled the fences safely, but when inside he did not know how to get the scalp. Once he sent a Bird after it, but the tree which held the scalp was sacred and the Bird was unable to touch it. While walking in the woods trying to solve his problem, he saw a large Bird caught in a deadfall. The Bird asked, "Boy, what are you doing here?" He replied cunningly, "On the tree is my scalp which I wear when I am playing ball, and I want to wear it now." The Bird then said, "Well, you are the chief's son; why do you not get it?" He thought that he must indeed look like the chief's son if the Bird so addressed him; so as a reward he set it free from the deadfall. He then determined to take the place of the chief's son, for in that way he might come into possession of the scalp. After much waylaying and waiting he finally managed to kill the son of the chief. Then he went to the lodge of the chief, calling to the mother that he was going to play ball and wear the scalp. As she was very busy, she suspected nothing unusual, so let the youth have the scalp to wear. After he and other youths had been playing for a time, he purposely hit the ball hard to make it bound far off in the direction of the fences. He spurted, passed it, and kept running toward the fences, still wearing the scalp. The other boys and the people, watching, thought there must be something wrong, so they gave chase, but they could not overtake him, in spite of his lame foot. He climbed all four of the fences safely and leaped into the river, where the Beavers were waiting for him. The whole village now piled into their canoes, but they all sank except one, for the Beavers had done their work well. This canoe was rapidly approaching the youth, when one of the Beavers swam back and wrecked it with a flip of her tail. {view image of page 168} i68 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN As he approached the other bank and safety, the man who had lost his scalp was there jumping up and down excitedly. When he saw him out of danger, he shouted for the youth to dip the scalp in water to make it soft and pliable. This the youth did. As soon as he reached shore the man snatched up the scalp and put it back on his head. He was very thankful, and made the youth a gift of some of the red ducks for his brothers. After receiving instructions how to get there, the youth set out for home. He passed through all four of the villages, where he was greeted well because their people had seen many follow the red ducks, but none return. The brothers welcomed him gladly, for they had found their medicine-arrows floating on the water and his own gone. Through this they knew that the lame one was in peril, but they could not trail him. They were astonished at the brilliantly colored ducks, which were not only red but turned everything around them red; and they were especially happy to have the four medicine-arrows together again. Why It Does Not Pay to Steal At one time the people used to turn their horses loose, all together in a drove, so that when spring came there would be many colts, which would belong to the owners of the mares which the colts followed. One man, believing himself to be sharper than the rest, figured ahead so closely that he was with the herd when the young ones were born. He observed that his colt, a bay standing by its mother, had a drooping ear, for which reason he thought it was not any good. He picked out a spotted colt, perfect in every way, and changed the two about, neither colts nor mothers noticing the difference. Then when the villagers turned out to get their ponies, he took the spotted colt and brought it home. Everyone admired it and said he was lucky to get such a foal. He felt quite proud of what he had done. But during the first year the bay's ear grew straight and he became a fine-looking horse in every way. After training and gentling, he defeated all other horses in the races, even the spotted one, though he was fast too. Later the bay beat all the horses of other tribes and won a great reputation. The tricky man did not feel so elated now, so he began to plan how to recover his bay horse. He thought to himself, "That is my horse, and I must find a way to get it back." He thought that way all day and all night and all the time. At last he took the spotted horse and two others to the lodge of the bay's owner and said: "That bay horse you have is really mine. I stole him and substituted the spotted colt. Now you have had him long enough, and to pay for keeping and training him I shall return your spotted horse and give you two others." The good man merely laughed and laughed, while others, seeing all the horses before one lodge, began to gather around. The good man looked about and said: "A while ago this man stole a horse from me - the spotted one. Now that he sees what a good one he lost in swapping unknown to me, he brings back my horse and two others for the animal that was his in the first place. So I shall give him back his horse and get my own and two others besides. Sometimes it seems good to steal, but stealing never turns out well in the end." Little Sister Rescues Her Brothers There was once a hunter who knew intimately all the countryside of his home-land. With his family of four boys and a girl he lived apart from the rest of the tribe. When the boys were old enough to bring in game for themselves, though the girl was still a child, the father warned them that they could hunt anywhere except south toward the big black forest, " Because," said he, "if you do so you will never come back. Many have gone there, but none has ever returned." The eldest boy became weary of hunting over the same territory all the time, and thought of the abundant game that must be in the dark forest. One day he disobeyed his father's warnings and set out alone for the forbidden woods. At first he was afraid, and kept looking sharply all around him; but the forest was quiet, and nothing appeared that could harm him. After he had succeeded in killing several deer, too many to carry home alone, he decided to go back for his brothers' help. He retraced his steps until he was near the edge of the timber, when he heard some one call: "Ho, brother! Stop! Wait for me!" He stopped and saw a big warrior with a white head-dress and a large war-club. This man, {view image of facing page 168} Frame of Osage arbor [photogravure plate] {view image of page 169} THE OTO I69 as soon as he came up, attacked the eldest brother without further words. The honors of the fight were about even until three others came up and by combined effort finally slew the eldest brother. When the son did not come home, the father knew what had happened and again warned his other boys: "Your brother has gone into the big dark forest to the south. Now he is dead. He did not heed my warnings. You may hunt wherever you like, but do not go into that forest." The hot-headed second son kept thinking of his brother and decided to avenge him if he had been killed. He too went into the big woods and came finally to the deer his brother had killed. Then he saw the tracks of his brother leading out, which made him think: "My brother was just a long time hunting. Here are his tracks going out, so I must have passed him without seeing him. No doubt he is home by this time." He started back, but just as he reached the place where his brother had been killed, he heard a voice shouting for him to wait. Then, as in the case of his brother, he had to fight four warriors until he was killed. The remaining sons, in their turn, each thought the others were still living somewhere and that they could find them. If the brothers should happen to be dead, then they would wreak vengeance. In turn they went to the big dark forest, where they too lost their lives in the same manner. The little sister was so young at the time that when she grew up she did not remember having had any brothers. Her parents did not tell her, because they thought she also might go seeking them and never return. She often saw her mother crying, but whenever she tried to comfort her and ask her why she was sad, she was never answered. But one day, while playing, the girl heard her old grandmother crying and wailing for her four grandsons who were lost in the big dark forest. She ran home and asked her mother, "Mother, where are my brothers?" "My daughter, you are our only child, as I have told you many, many times." "But mother, I heard grandmother crying for her four lost grandsons today. Tell me the truth. Did I have four brothers?" Her mother saw that she must tell the truth at last, so related the whole story. Little Sister felt very sad, but she was determined to search for her brothers, because she knew in her heart that they could not be dead. First she went to a wise old woman to ask her what to do. This old woman advised: " First get some good meat and pound it up. You will be stopped four times in the forest, but the meat will help you out. Now get nine little turtles for the gambling game, because after you meet these four men you will have to play with an old woman and gamble with her. The stake will be your life. But first teach your turtles how to play. Remember that they are white on the bottom and colored on top. You will have to toss them in the air, and when they fall down, if more white bottoms show than colored tops, you will win. Be sure to teach the turtles how to fall so that you will win. Now take this ball and learn these words; you will know what to do when the time comes. You may lose your life, but if you follow my instructions you may win and get back your brothers." Little Sister set forth the next day without saying anything to her parents, and entered the woods. She saw the tracks of her brothers going in and starting back. Since they were all together, she thought that after all they might have come out safely and that perhaps she had missed them, for the tracks pointed in the direction of home. She turned around to go back, following the trail, when she heard a man's voice calling to her: "Ho, sister! Wait for me!" She stopped and the man came up, asking: "Sister, where are you going, and what are you doing in this big black forest? Do you not know that we allow no one here? Do you not know that you come here at the peril of your life?" "I am looking for my brothers," she answered. "I saw them going home a little while ago, Sister, and if you follow their trail you will go just where they have gone. But first, what have you in that bag?" Little Sister offered some of the good meat. Then she realized what she must do, for she was in peril. While the warrior was eating, and as he bent over his food, she hit him on the head with a club, killing him. Little Sister met three other warriors. Each time she took out the meat she felt in her heart what she must do. In this way she killed them all. After a while, as she went on through the dark forest, she came to a lodge and was let inside by a fierce-looking woman. This woman was VOL. XIX-22 {view image of page 170} I70 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN surprised and angry to see her, because no people had ever come alive to her place. She was also anxious about the four men. This girl must never get any farther than her lodge! "Have you met four men in the woods, Little Sister? How and why did you come here?" Little Sister thought quickly: "I came here looking for my four brothers who are lost. I saw four warriors who told me to come here and wait till they arrived, when they would help me find my brothers." The woman was satisfied with the answer, and went back to her corner, where she sat long in silence. At last she asked Little Sister if she would like to play. She answered, "Yes, I shall play, but I want to play with my own dice." She then brought out her nine little turtles and shook them in her hands, talking to them and telling them how to fall, for she knew that if she lost the game her life would be forfeit. She threw the turtles high in air and they fell just as she had instructed them. Five fell whiteside up and four colored-side up, so that Little Sister won the game. The old woman was very angry at this and mumbled to herself. Finally she asked the girl to get a bucket of water, which she did. As the woman stooped over to dip some up with a cup, Little Sister knew in her heart what to do. She hit her on the head with a club and killed her. Something then told Little Sister that she had nothing else to fear in the big dark forest. She started home, feeling sad because while she had made the forest safe, she had not found her brothers. On the way out she came across the tracks again, and where the trail ended she saw a heap of bones covered with a deerskin robe. She knew that these were the bones of her brothers, and she mourned over them, thinking that her journey had been in vain. After a while she remembered the ball and the words taught her by the old woman who had told her what to do. She tossed the ball in air and cried: "Get up, my brothers, get up! Get up, my brothers, get up! Get up, my brothers, get up!" But nothing happened. The blanket and the bones under it looked just as before. She tossed the ball in the air again, singing, "Get up, my brothers, the ball is falling on you!" Three times she cried this, and then, she saw a stir beneath the blanket. Greatly excited, she tossed the ball up once more and cried out, " Brothers, get up, the ball is falling on you!" Then the blanket shook again and she saw feet protruding from under it. A fourth time she threw the ball high in air, as high as she could throw it, and called out as before. This time the blanket was thrown aside and her four brothers stood before her. They were greatly bewildered, and called to her: "0, woman, you are in danger here! We must all run away before we are killed!" They never knew that they had been dead, and they did not recognize the girl as their sister because she had grown so big since they last saw her. "No, no!" answered Little Sister, laughing in her happiness. "I have killed all those warriors and the fierce woman. There is no need to fear anything in the big dark forest now. I am your sister, and I now have my four brothers whom we all thought dead." The brothers were very happy to be alive and together again, and to see Little Sister almost grown to womanhood. When they arrived home, they made their parents very glad, because they had believed all their children had been lost forever. How Skunk Gets His Game Old Skunk had a wife and seven children, and sometimes it was hard to find food enough to feed them all. One day, as he was out hunting, he saw a bear ambling along, but the bear did not see him. Skunk's mouth watered, for the bear looked like good food, and food for a long time; but he did not know just how to kill such a large animal. At last he thought of a scheme, so he ran home to tell his wife. " I am going to play a trick on Bear so that we shall have plenty to eat for a long time," he said to her. "You do just as I say. Lie down and play dead. Then when we come along, let us do with you just as I think best; but when I punch you, you shoot." His wife stretched out and played dead, while Skunk began to cry and moan and wail very loudly. Bear heard the noise, and, as he was a curious animal, he shuffled over. "0, brother, why do you cry and moan and wail so loud?" he asked. "O! O! O! My wife is dead; I am left all alone, with no one to help bury her," answered Skunk. {view image of facing page 170} A Ponca dancer [photogravure plate] {view image of page 171} THE OTO I7I Bear volunteered to help, and he dug out a big hole with his paws. Then the two went back to the lodge and brought out the body. Skunk directed, "Put her in head-first, and we shall begin covering her with dirt." They put Skunk's wife in head-first and began pawing earth into the hole and around her. After a while she was buried, all but her hips; and as Bear was scooping earth in with his forepaws, Skunk punched his wife on the thigh, and she shot Bear in the face and head. Even that did not quite kill Bear, so Skunk called up his seven children and they all shot at him until he was dead. Skunk said, "Now, that is how I get plenty of meat for my family." Why the Buzzard is Not Good to Eat One time when Manyikifhe (Coyote) was trotting through the woods, he saw something coiled in his trail. Manyikafhe did not want to go around through the brush, so he politely said, "Get out of my way, little one; you can crawl off into the brush more easily than I!" But little Rattlesnake never moved. He just rattled his tail; then he stuck up his head and thrust out his tongue at Manyikfthe. This so angered him that he cried out, louder this time: "Get out of my way, ugly coiled one! Get out of my way, or I shall step on you!" But little Rattlesnake only buzzed louder than before, and stuck out his tongue faster. Manyikfthe was more infuriated than ever, so, without wasting more words, he reached down and brushed the little crawling one out of his way. Indignant at being thus treated after giving fair warning, little Rattlesnake bit Manyikfthe on the paw. Manyikafihe did not feel the bite, so he trotted on to his village, glad that he had thrown little Rattlesnake from his path. After a little while his paws became swollen, then his legs puffed up, and finally his whole body, but he did not notice until a friend said, "Manyikafihe, it seems to me that you are getting a lot larger and fatter lately." Manyikifhe replied, looking himself over proudly, "Yes, I am a big man now; I am almost getting fat." And he strutted all around the village. It was not very long before he began to feel queer, then sick, so he went to his lodge and covered himself with a blanket. The illness grew worse; Manyikaffhe became frightened enough to send for a medicine-man. Buzzard was the medicine-man at that time, and he came over quickly with all his paraphernalia. He began his performance by dancing slowly around the sick man, flapping his wings all the time, cocking his head first to one side and then the other, looking at Manyikafhe with one eye and then the other. At last Buzzard declared, "Manyikfihe, you are possessed by an evil spirit, but I shall take him out of you and then you will get well." Buzzard then bent over Manyikafihe, pecked a hole in his side, and sucked out the evil spirit, the poison. Manyikafhe began to feel better. He threw off his blanket, got up, and finally was entirely well again. But the poison still remains in the buzzard, so he is not good to eat. The Boy Who Went to the Moon Once there was a chief who claimed all the good meat of the hunt, who gave only the poorer portions to his tribe. Because he was very powerful and kept his people afraid of him, he was able to get all the good provisions. A youth, Hok6le, lived with his grandmother in a lodge set apart from the rest. One day when he was out playing he saw two hunters hide some buffalo steaks in a little canion. After they had gone, Hokele stole the meat and hid it somewhere else; then he went home and told his grandmother about it. "Hokele," she said, "at night you must get the meat and bring it here, but you must never tell any one, for if the old chief should ever hear about it, we should be punished." Next day the grandmother fried two pieces of the meat, which she gave to Hokele and his playmate. The friend was astonished to receive such good meat, and asked: "Hok6le, where did you get this fine meat? All the rest of us have only the poor and stringy pieces." "This was given to me, but if you promise you will never tell any one about it, I shall let you have some every day," answered Hokele. Of course his playmate promised very joyfully, and came every day to eat of the unaccus {view image of page 172} I72 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN tomed tidbit. Soon he began to feel that he was selfish, because he could eat so well when his mother and little sister had nothing but tough lean meat. The next time he went to Hokele's lodge, he hid half of his portion, which he later took home and divided between his mother and sister. As he gave it to them, he said: "Mother, every day I have been eating this good meat at Hokele's lodge. His grandmother gets it somewhere, and she made me promise never to tell, because if the old chief ever hears about it, we shall all be punished." "My boy, you do just as the old woman says, and then we shall all have good things to eat; but we must be very careful not to say anything about it. Do not even tell the grandmother that I know, because she might become angry, and then we should have no more good meat," advised his mother. Things went on very well for several days, and these two lodges had plenty to eat and were well satisfied. But one day the playmate asked the old woman for a slice of tender meat for his mother. The grandmother at once became suspicious, and asked the boy how his mother knew anything about it, whereupon he confessed. The grandmother was very angry, but finally told him to bring his mother. When the mother came, the old woman cut her enough to last several days, cautioning silence and saying, " I am giving you this, since you have already found out our secret; but I warn you not to let any one else know, because some jealous person or mischief-maker might take word to the chief. We should be punished severely." The mother returned home and cooked a supply, keeping out three slices for herself, her son, and daughter. The rest she hid away in a safe place; but Little Sister was watching and saw the hiding-place. When no one was looking she stole a piece and ran out of the lodge. She joined her playmates, standing around watching their game, munching the stolen meat. When the other children saw her meat and her greasy mouth, they crowded around, begging for some, but she would not share it with the rest. One little boy, because he did not get any, ran and told the chief, who called the little girl to him, asking sternly: "Where did you get that good meat? Did you steal it from me?" Little Sister was so frightened that she stammered, "My mother gave it to me." The chief summoned the mother and questioned her: "Woman, your child says she received this food from you. Where did you get it? Did you steal it from me?" Because the mother was frightened, thinking she might be punished, she blamed the old grandmother. The old chief was determined to get at the bottom of the mystery and to learn who dared to keep good meat from him. He went to the lodge of the old woman with the intention of searching it and to punish whomsoever dared to disobey his orders. Hokele, who saw the chief coming, resolved not to let him enter, for he had heard that his playmate's mother had been caught and had confessed. He grasped his bow, and when the chief came near, called out: "Stop! What do you want here?" The chief, who was very angry before, became more enraged than ever at being stopped by a mere boy. "Get out of my way, young one!" he shouted. " I am going to search your lodge, and if I find any meat I shall punish you and your grandmother severely." Hokele knew that some of the food was left, and that if it was found they would suffer the penalty; but he too was angry because the chief had always taken the good meat. He warned, "If you come nearer, I shall shoot you!" The chief approached, and Hokele let fly an arrow into a tree stump beside him. When he saw how determined the youth was, and being somewhat frightened as well, the chief went home for his own weapons. As he approached again, Hokele called out: "Stop! Do not come closer! You have no right to our meat! I killed it myself and it is mine! You never kill any and always take the best parts! Come any nearer and I shall kill you!" The chief continued toward the lodge, thinking the boy would not have courage to keep him out, but Hokele drew an arrow and shot him through the heart. Then he ran out and cut off the chief's head. As soon as the chief's relatives learned what had happened, in revenge they surrounded the lodge to capture Hokele and kill him. There was no way of escaping through the line of warriors, so the youth thought of another way out. Taking the head of the chief in one hand and his bow and arrows in the other, he climbed a moonbeam until he came to the moon itself. There he remained, and there he may be seen when the moon is full, with the head of the chief in one hand and the bow and arrows in the other. That is why the full moon is still called Hokele. {view image of facing page 172} White Weasel - Ponca [photogravure plate] {view image of page 173} THE OTO I73 The Boy Who Returned to His Tribe One day while all the men of the tribe were away on a buffalo-hunt, a hostile war-party, homeward bound, came along and captured the camp. Because they did not want to be burdened with spoils, they took nothing but food, except one warrior, who, spying a beautiful woman, took her as captive. It happened that she was married and pregnant at the time. The warriors hurried by forced rides more than a day and a night for fear of pursuit, but they escaped and ultimately reached home. The warrior married the captive woman, for she was beautiful, but shortly afterward she gave birth to a child who was treated by his foster father as his own boy and given the name of Son. It happened that when Son was nearly grown, some of the boys of the tribe heard his story and refused to play with him, saying that he belonged to another tribe, not theirs. He went to his mother and asked: "Mother, none of the boys will play with me. They say that father is not my father. They say that I belong to another tribe far away from here. Do they speak the truth, mother?" "Yes, my son, they speak truth. Your own father's tribe is far to the northwest. I have kept this from you, but now I shall tell you the whole story," she answered, and related the tale of her capture. Son told her: " I am big enough to look out for myself now. I can not stay here to be made fun of by the other boys. I shall go to my own people, your people." The mother, though grieved at her son's leaving, made up several pairs of moccasins, shirts, and a bundle of food. Before he left she taught him the names of his father, uncle, and aunt, that he might make himself known, for he had never learned to speak the language of his mother's people. Son followed his mother's directions, travelling northwestward several days without trouble. One day he met a large bear, which gave chase to him. He ran all day until, exhausted, he reached a creek and a waterfall. Plunging in the water, he found a cave behind the falls, where he hid until daybreak in the hope of misleading the bear. When he peered out and saw no sign of his pursuer, he again took the trail, but looking back, there was the bear close on his tracks. Toward the end of the day, just as he was about to fall and die of fatigue, he spied a herd of Buffalo. He called to them: "Grandfather! Save me!" The Buffalo closed around him, and when the bear came close, the leader picked out a young bull to fight him. They fought for a long time, but the young Buffalo was killed. Four more fought the bear, only to meet a like fate. At last the leader himself fought the bear, threw him up in the air on his horns, and trampled him when he came down. When the young man was rested, he thanked the Buffalo and resumed his journey after they had shown him the way and informed him that he had three more days to go. Finally he approached his own father's people, but he could not understand their language, nor was he intelligible to them. To the first man he met he gave his uncle's name. It chanced that this very man was his uncle, who was greatly astonished to hear his name uttered by a stranger who knew no other words of that tongue. His uncle took him to the village, where the people soon gathered around. One old man could speak several languages, and after many attempts spoke the one Son knew. When questioned, he replied: "I have come to find my father. Years ago my mother was captured and taken far away by a war-party. She belonged to your tribe. There I grew up, but the people would not accept me because I am not of their tribe, because my mother was with child when captured. So I have come to find my father. I know his name, and my uncle's and aunt's." He gave the names, and some old people remembered that a woman had once been stolen away and that no trace of her was ever found. The father was sent for, and he embraced the youth, saying, "This is my son." Why Manyikathe is Called the Thief One day as Manyikifhe (Coyote) was walking through the woods, he smelled meat cooking and his mouth began to water. Following the delightful odor, he soon came to the lodge of Ihfthinke. He stuck his nose in the door and called: "0, grandfather! That meat smells good! Where did you get it?" {view image of page 174} 174 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Isfhfhnke replied: "0, I just went hunting and killed many rabbits. Sit down with me and feast." Manyikafhe ate and chewed and guzzled. The meat was so good that he began to plan how to get it all for himself. He chewed and he thought, and he swallowed and he thought, and finally said: "Grandfather, all the people are dancing in the north. They are going to dance all day; they sent me here to invite you." It happened that Ighfhinke wanted very much to dance, so he thought a while. "I do not like to leave all this meat here, but if I close the door maybe it will be safe enough. I shall go with you." Manyikafhe took Ishfhinke a long way northward to an open space and left him, saying, "Here is where they dance. They all will be here soon, but now I must go and get others the same as I was sent after you." He went back as fast as he could travel and stole all the meat, chuckling to himself over the trick he had played on Ishthinke. Ishthinke danced all day to the trees swaying in the wind, and he sang until evening came and the sun went down. Then he went home, tired, sweating, and very hungry, but when he arrived he found nothing to eat. He was very angry and blamed Manyikifhe for his troubles. Some time later, Ishfhinke found a bear and shot it as it was coming out of a hole in a rotten tree trunk. He began to cook the meat for a big dinner, and Manyikafhe smelled it as he was sneaking past the door. His mouth began to water, and he tried to think of a way to get all the meat again. He tried very hard, for now he had to deceive Ishfhinke in some new way. Finally he went off in the woods a distance, turned around, and ran as hard as he could toward the lodge of Ishthinke, shouting: "Grandpa! Grandpa!" Ishfhinke came to the door to see who was calling, but when he saw who his visitor was, he became very suspicious, and growled, "What do you want?" Manyikafhe panted as if he were out of breath. "Grandfather, you are just the man I am looking for," he said. Ishfhinke looked sharply at him, for he suspected some trick, and he growled again: "I know who you are. You are the fellow who tricked me before and stole all my meat. You can just send somewhere else for the man you are looking for." Manyikfihe was very wise, so he said quickly: "Grandfather, that was my brother. It was a mean trick, and I am ashamed of him." Ishfhinke felt somewhat appeased when Manyikafhe was so frank with him, so he asked what was wanted. Manyikifhe answered: "There is a big dance in the north where you were before. All the people are there, and they sent me to get you." Ihfhihnke wanted very much to dance, but he did not want to be tricked as he had been before, so he excused himself: " I have too much meat here. I can not leave it, because the last time I did so, your brother stole it all." Manyikathe did not know what to do then, so he left, saying, " I shall go back and tell them you can not come, and they will be sorry." Sly Manyikafhe went off into the woods, where he lay down for a nap. After a while he ran back to Ishfhinke's door, his tongue hanging out as if he had run a long way, and panted: "Grandfather, they want you over there. They can not have a real dance unless you are there. If you will go, I shall stay here and watch your meat until you return." Ishffinke thought it over, for a dance appealed strongly to him. His feet began to tap the floor; the more he thought, the more he wanted to go. Suddenly he decided: "All right. I shall go and you stay, but do not let any one come in while I am gone. There are a bow and arrows with which to protect yourself." After he left, Manyikafhe ran off again with all the meat; and when Ishtfhinke came back tired and hungry there was nothing left. He declared that if Manyikafhe ever came around again he would kill him. And it was a long time before sly Manyikafhe was seen near there again. One time when Ishfhinke went down to the creek, he saw a flock of ducks, but when they spied him they began to fly away. IRhfhinke's meat was low since Manyikfithe had stolen his supply, so he devised a way to get all the ducks. He called to them: "Silly ducks, do not fly away. I shall not harm you. Come back and dance while I sing for you." The stupid ducks returned, and Ishfhinke said, " I shall sing while you dance around me, but you must keep your eyes shut, because if you open them they will become all red." {view image of facing page 174} The Whip - Ponca [photogravure plate] {view image of page 175} THE OTO I75 The ducks commenced to dance, keeping their eyes closed, and as they were passing him, Ishfhinke reached out and wrung their necks one by one. The flapping noise of the dying ducks made it seem to the rest as if the dance was becoming better, so they stamped their feet harder. After a while one curious duck opened an eye, saw what Ishfhinke was doing, and observed his dead comrades; whereupon he screeched: "Fly, brothers, fly! Ihfthinke is killing all of us!" The rest flew-away, but shtfhinke laughed, because he had plenty to eat once more. When he was cooking the ducks, he heard a noise outside, which continued. It so bothered him that he went out to learn the cause and whether he could stop it. He found that the wind was rubbing a limb of a tree in the fork of another and making an irritating squeak. He climbed to the top to stop the noise, and in doing so caught his hand in the fork in such a way that he could not get loose. Manyikafhe and his brothers smelled cooking meat, which made them drool, so they came around to see what Ishthinke was cooking that gave forth such a pleasing odor. When Ishfhfnke looked down and saw them, he tried to frighten them away by shouting: "Go away! Those are my ducks that are cooking! Leave them alone, or I shall kill you when I get down!" Manyikifhe and his brothers merely laughed and stole all the ducks. At last a strong gust of wind freed Ishfhinke's hand and he climbed down; but he was very hungry, for that great thief Manyikifhe had once more stolen all his food. Ever since that time Manyikifhe has been called The Thief. Death of Ishthinke Once while Tshf'hfnke was travelling through the country he came to the banks of a creek where the water looked so clear and cool that he hastily took off his clothes for a swim. Just as he was about to plunge in, he saw some fine large plums resting on the sandy bottom. They looked so ripe and juicy that they made him feel hungry. He dived in and reached bottom, but as he stretched out his hand for the plums, they disappeared, leaving him nothing but a handful of sand. He came up on the bank again, greatly mystified, and looked into the water. There again on the sandy bottom were the fine large plums. As lshtfinke was about to plunge in a second time, his attention was directed to a plum lying on the bank. This he took and ate, finding it very good. When he looked around him, he saw plenty of plums on trees. Then he laughed at himself, for he had seen before only their reflection in the water. Ishfhinke gathered some of the fruit and went along his trail, coming at last to a lodge in the forest. On hearing voices within, he mischievously threw some plums down the smokehole. When two women came out to see who had thrown them, they noticed Ishfhinke laughing at them, with his arms full of plums. The sight made their mouths water, and they asked him where he had found them. They wanted to go after some, but said regretfully that they could not leave their babies behind and would have to stay at home. Ishfhinke volunteered to watch the babies while they were gone, so the mothers went away happily. He began to get hungry again, but there was no meat in the lodge; he was hungry for meat. The sight of the fresh young babies so increased his hunger that he killed one of them and ate all of it but the head, which he stuffed back into the baby-carrier so that no one would at once notice the difference. Soon the women returned after having gathered the plums and taken a swim in the creek. The mothers were grateful to Ishfhinke for caring for their babies. But he told them that he had not minded the babies at all; in fact, he rather enjoyed one of them, but he had to go now, for he was expected soon at one of the villages. After he had departed, one of the mothers, thinking her baby had been quiet for a long time, went over to look at it. When she found only the head, she set up a loud wailing. Meanwhile Ishfhinke had followed the trail until he reached a bend in the creek where he saw a man in swimming. He stole the man's clothes and left his own in their place. Then he painted himself so that no one could recognize him, for he felt guilty and did not want to be caught. He returned down the stream and soon met the two mothers, running, panting, and crying, all at the same time. Ibhfhinke stopped them, asking: "Ho, sisters! What are you crying about, and why are you running so?" {view image of page 176} I76 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN They did not recognize him, and answered: " Ihfhinke has killed one of our babies and eaten it! Then he ran away, so we are going to get help to catch him." "Which way did he run? I'll go ahead and catch him or else set the village on his trail." They pointed upstream, and off he ran, laughing to himself at the trick he had played. He had no weapons, which made him think of how to get some. He came to a village where people were playing ball, and they asked him to join them. He answered: " I shall play with you, but I always play my own game. If any one of you will lend me a bow and arrows, I shall shoot against you." Some one lent him weapons, and they began shooting at a mark. Ihfhhinke purposely overshot his target so that he could run away with the weapons while retrieving his arrow. No one could catch up to him after such a long start. He had another good laugh to himself at this trick. Very tired and hungry, Ishfhinke came to another tribe. The people fed him and gave him a lodge in which to sleep. Meanwhile the man whose clothes he had stolen arrived and asked the chief if he had seen any one dressed in breeches and a shirt decorated with birds' heads along the fringes. Just as this man was finishing his story, the one whose weapons Ishfhinke had run away with came up and asked the chief if he had seen a man who carried a painted bow and arrows. As he was about to finish his narrative, the two women entered and told their tale, asking if Ighfhinke had been seen. The chief answered that a man with shirt and leggings decorated with birds' heads, and carrying a painted bow and arrows, was there, but he did not know anything about Ishfhinke. They all went to the lodge where he was sleeping. The first man said, "He has my shirt and leggings!" The second man, pointing, said, "Those are my bow and arrows!" The women looked closely and said, "That is Ishfhinke!" The paint had worn off a little and they could recognize his features. Ishtfhinke jumped up. He recognized these people at once, and was badly frightened, yet pretended he did not know them and started to walk past them out of the lodge. The people soon stopped him and stripped him of bow, arrows, shirt, and leggings, so that he had no clothes at all; but they did not know what to do with him for his thefts and his eating of the little baby. Finally, when some one suggested cutting him up and throwing the pieces into boiling water, all agreed that he deserved it. Ihthfinke asked that he be allowed to sing a song before they killed him, for while he was singing the cutting could not hurt him, he declared. They chopped him into very small bits, very slowly, and every piece was thrown into boiling water. That was the end of Ighthinke. Mink Deceives Bobcat One winter night a heavy storm arose; the cold was severe, snow piled up in deep drifts, and the river froze solid. All the animals were cold and very hungry, except Mink, who had a snug warm home under the ice and plenty of fish for food. Mink was singing to himself when Bobcat heard him and came up to the hole in the ice. Bobcat was curious to know why Mink was so happy and singing. He asked, "Little Mink, what are you singing about?" The saucy Mink, knowing that Bobcat could not get through the hole in the ice, answered: "I am singing about you; just singing about you." Bobcat was very curious, so he asked, "What are you singing about me?" He was very proud of his sleek fine fur and liked to be flattered. Saucy little Mink started his song again: I am singing about your short bobtail, I am singing about your angry green eyes, I am singing about your long front legs, I am singing about your big flat paws. That made Bobcat very angry, and he fairly hissed: "Ooooooh! I shall kill you for that!" And he went for the hole in the ice, but could not break through. Mink watched from beneath, laughing to himself, waiting until Bobcat should go away. Then he caught many fish and put them on top of the ice. But Bobcat was still watching from a distance, and he rushed to catch Mink, who dived through the hole and was safe. Mink called {view image of facing page 176} First Walker - Ponca [photogravure plate] {view image of page 177} THE OTO I77 out from below: "Do not kill me, Bobcat. This is my home here; if you are hungry, come here and I shall feed you fish, but do not kill me." Bobcat ate the fish and left without saying a word. Mink knew that Bobcat had a grudge to pay for the song and that he might catch him some time, so he planned until he finally thought of a way to play a trick on Bobcat. He dug himself a hole on dry land - dug very deep, and made the other end open under water. He now had two holes. After working he went to sleep in his dry hole. Bobcat happened to come along that way and smelled Mink. He thought to himself: "Oho! Now I have caught you, smart little Mink. I shall dig you out; then we shall see what kind of a song you will sing." Bobcat dug and dug. Mink awoke when he heard the claws scratching and the dirt thrown up. He knew who was after him, but he only laughed to himself and commenced to sing again: Old Bobtail, you can not get me; Old Green Eyes, you can not get me; Old Long Legs, you can not get me; Old Big Paws, you can not get me. That made Bobcat angrier and angrier, and he dug faster and faster; but when he got close, little Mink slid under the water and swam away, still laughing at Bobtail. VOL. XIX-23 {view image of page 178} {view image of page 179} The Commanche {view image of page 180} {view image of page 181} THE COMANCHE General Description THE Comanche are the sole representatives of the Shoshonean stock in Oklahoma. Like most of the tribes in that state, they were not natives of it, but were placed there for riddance. However, they differed from most other tribes removed to Oklahoma in that they were not strangers to the region, for it had been part of their hunting and raiding grounds for many years. No North American tribe ranged over so broad a territory. The Comanche were without prejudice in their selection of victims. Fragmentary tradition collected from the present Comanche indicates that prior to their knowledge of the white race their central habitat was about the headwaters of the Platte river in what is now Wyoming. At that period the Comanche and the Shoshone were no doubt one aggregation, and at a somewhat earlier date had been a mountain people, but with increasing numbers they grew in boldness and moved out on the plains. Jealousy among chiefs and factional strife were responsible for the tribal division which became a permanent separation. The movement of the group which became known as the Comanche was southwardly. No doubt one factor which influenced the southerly migration was the presence of horses in that direction, introduced by the Spaniards about a hundred and fifty years earlier. By the beginning of the eighteenth century raids by the Comanche extended well into Mexico, and for nearly two centuries they were at the height of their savage glory. By natural accretion and by raiding they accumulated great herds of horses, which afforded to them a freedom of movement not hitherto enjoyed. Their vast domain was dotted with buffalo, which solved the problem of the food quest with a minimum of effort. Their hunting range and raiding territory may be likened to a broadly extended oval with its northern point on the South Platte river in northern Colorado, its southern point well down i8i {view image of page 182} I82 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN in Mexico, its western border the Rio Grande in New Mexico, and its eastern limit the hills of Arkansas. In all that region, a veritable empire, the Comanche had no friends. It would seem that a life characterized by constant warfare would have reduced their numbers materially, but when it is considered that the principal purpose of their raids was the capture of horses and women, the maintenance of a vigorous and increasing population was not difficult. The problem of feeding a multiplicity of wives was readily solved by the plenitude of buffalo, which supplied also clothing and shelter, as well as almost every other need. Every woman was an expert in tanning. The larger a man's household, the richer he was. In the early part of the eighteenth century a favorite object of Comanche raids was Pecos and other villages of the peaceful Pueblo Indians of New Mexico; but of these, Pecos on the eastern frontier was the chief sufferer. The principal pueblo of the Southwest in the middle of the sixteenth century, Pecos time and again was so persistently and viciously attacked that the ultimate abandonment by its few survivors in 1838 was due largely to this cause. In the last important raid on Pecos, the Comanche, according to their own admission, killed fully half of the male population and almost all the old women, and carried off more than a hundred female prisoners.' The Comanche were especially hostile toward Mexicans and Mexican Indians. They regarded the Mexicans and Indians of New Mexico as Mexican in nationality, and in recounting their warlike deeds lay great stress on their forays against the "Karisses," 2 among whom the Texans are included. Thus American pioneers in Texas fell heir to this situation, and for a generation constant conflict existed between the people of Texas and the Comanche, with the result that the Indians were ultimately driven from the state. With Americans other than those of Texas, the Comanche seemingly felt that they had no quarrel, hence usually were inclined to avoid conflict. Following the tribal peace with the Kiowa, about I795, however, they were at times drawn into hostility with the American frontiersmen. The Kiowa were as inherently hostile to the Americans as were the Comanche toward the Texans and Mexicans. When the Kiowa first moved into the south and came in contact with the Comanche, 1 For additional information regarding Pecos, see Volumes XVI and XVII. 2 In referring to the "Karisses," the Comanche apparently allude primarily to the inhabitants of Pecos, but include also Taos and the villages of the immediate Rio Grande, as well as the Texans. Compare Keres, the name of one of the linguistic stocks of Pueblo Indians. The Comanche name for the Pueblo tribes collectively is Pimfksi. {view image of facing page 182} Kicha - Comanche [photogravure plate] {view image of page 183} THE COMANCHE I83 there followed some years of bitter intertribal hostility which proved so disastrous to both that their chiefs decided it would be better to hunt and fight in alliance than to continue the decimating warfare among themselves. This peace, broken at times through minor dissension, has continued to the present day. The agreement, the Comanche say, was brought about by the effort of a trader whom they called Saparit. The head-chief of the Comanche at that time was Pafhiago; of the Kiowa, Sechdare. The Comanche are a striking example of the variant characteristics which develop from a parent group. The majority of the tribes belonging to the Shoshonean stock, so far as inherent tendencies are concerned, are the antithesis of the Comanche with their fearless blood lust. Truly there is a vast difference between these vigorous, proud rovers of the plains and the lowly Paiute of the deserts of eastern California and Nevada; and an even greater difference exists between them and the mild-voiced Hopi of Arizona, yet they all spring from the same parent group. Ethnologically the Comanche do not furnish a fertile field of inquiry. The old men, when questioned as to the dearth of ceremonies, folktales, and legends such as existed, for example, with the Wichita and neighboring tribes, made answer, "We were hunters and warriors, and had no time to think of such matters." All information gathered from them indicates that they were so active in warfare, so constantly on the move, that they had little time to give thought to the origin and purpose of their existence; in fact, they seemingly took pride in not doing so. In this connection David G. Burnett wrote in 1847: The Comanches have no definite idea of their own origin. Their loose tradition is, that their ancestors came from the north; but they have no precise conception of the time when, or from what particular region.... I do not believe they have any traditions of the slightest verisimilitude, running farther into bygone time than the third generation. Their means of knowledge of the past are altogether oral; unaided by monuments of any description. I could never discover that they had any songs, legends, or other mementoes, to perpetuate the fetes of arms, or other illustrious deeds of their progenitors.... The Comanche notions of religion are as crude, imperfect, and limited, as of geography or astronomy. They believe in, or have some indefinite traditional idea of, the Great Spirit; but I have never discovered any distinct mode or semblance of worship among them. I frequently observed, early in the morning, a shield, such as they use in war, elevated at the point of a javelin (the hilt on the ground,) and invariably facing the east.... I perceived no order of priesthood, or anything analogous to it, among them; if they recognise any ecclesiastical authority whatever, it resides in their chiefs; but I think their religious sentiments are entirely too loose, vague, and inoperative, to have produced any such institution. The elevation of the shield is the only act I ever noticed among them, that afforded 1 In H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States, Vol. I, pages 230, 231, 237, Philadelphia, I860. {view image of page 184} I84 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN the slightest indication of religious concernment; and I doubt if they have any opinions relative to future rewards and punishments that exercise any moral influence upon them. They have nothing like a system of mythology, and neither do they entertain any religious myths of a traditionary or settled character. Robert S. Neighbors, special agent to the Comanche, communicated to Schoolcraft the following information respecting them: The Comanches know nothing positively of their origin, and their traditions on this point are very vague and unsatisfactory. They believe that they have always lived near the same country they now occupy, and they know of but one migration of their tribes; this took place many years since, when they travelled from the west, and met with what they term the "Mountain Spaniards" in the mountains of New Mexico. 1 This lack of cultural development was understood by the tribes with whom the Comanche had contact. Said the wise men of neighboring tribes, "The Comanche do not know anything; they do not think"; by which they meant that the Comanche possessed no "spiritual knowledge," rather than that they were ignorant of anything pertaining to warfare, the chase, and other temporal matters. It is true that the Comanche had the germ of the usual beliefs in supernatural beings - of good and evil spirits - but there is no knowledge that their religious concepts were highly developed. Sedentary tribes usually gave more thought to religious beliefs and ceremonies than did the wanderers, among which no Indians were more noted than the Comanche. Few ceremonies were held by them, yet they had the Sun dance, and, as might be expected, went to great extremes in self-torture. In this ceremony they used songs borrowed from other tribes. The customary Sun-dance lodge was not built; they employed instead a large tipi made by using broadly extended poles and overlaying them with several lodge-covers. The Comanche had also a somewhat elaborate healing rite, known as the "Big Tail Medicine" ceremony, which had its origin in a vision. It is said that a man was fasting in the mountains and in his dream the beaver taught him how to heal the sick. On his return to camp he initiated the healing rite as instructed in the vision, and if he made no mistake in following the divine teachings, the ailing one recovered. Any one with a sick relative could ask the " Big Tail healer" to perform the healing rite, promising the customary gifts if the patient was cured. For this rite a large oblong tipi was erected, the poles and covering of two ordinary tipis being combined. This lodge was prepared the day preceding the ceremony. At the east a deep trench was dug to symbolize the underground runway of the beaver. In the centre of 1 Schoolcraft, ibid., Vol. II, page 126, Philadelphia, I860. {view image of facing page 184} Pakewa - Comanche [photogravure plate] {view image of page 185} THE COMANCHE 185 the tipi was a pool of water, with willow branches and a small willow tree planted at its western margin. At the left on entering the lodge was an earthen mound in the form of a beaver. Directly west of this effigy mound and near the rear wall was a beaver-shape mound of earth on which the patient rested. The giver of the ceremony was a relative of the patient, who first interviewed the healer. Preceding the opening of the rite, the healer and giver entered; next the patient was brought in and placed upon the prepared mound, and then the women filed in, taking their positions in two equal groups at the north and south sides. These were followed by the men, who took their places in a line directly behind the women. Next came the singers, who were seated in two lines in front of the women. Lastly, the healer's assistants in single file came to the entrance and halted. The leader whirled his "thunder-maker" or bullroarer.1 The assistants encircled the lodge, stopping at each cardinal point until the leader whirled his thunder-maker, and then took their places in two lines in front of the singers. As soon as they were seated, the ceremonial pipe was smoked by the assistants, but not by the healer. The giver of the rite then approached the healer, offering prayers to him that he might heal the ailing one and reiterating his promise of gifts if successful. The healer, presumably following the instructions of the beaver, treated the patient by the usual routine of incantation, manipulation of the body, and removal of the evil by sucking. Following this somewhat long treatment, the singers rendered four songs. At mid-day all adjourned until night, when the ceremony was repeated, and it was again performed the next day and night - provided, of course, the patient survived the ordeal. Between each series of healing rites the patient was carried about the camp to various tipis, the procession being led by the assistants and the thunder-maker. Whether this public exhibition of the patient was associated with the thought of producing a beneficent effect is not clear. The usual restraint as to marriage within the gens did not exist. Individuals were free to select wives as they saw fit, so long as they were not blood relations. There was no marriage ceremony, and polygyny was common. Infidelity of wives was punished in the usual Plains Indian fashion by cutting off a portion of the nose, a disfigurement that would seem to have restrained any potentially errant 1 A thin oblong piece of wood tied to one end of a string about six feet long. By whirling this rapidly, a roaring sound is produced. This implement is used in many Pueblo rites to simulate thunder. The movement of the line of men in circling the lodge is in every way suggestive of Pueblo ceremonies. VOL. XIX-24 {view image of page 186} i86 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN woman; yet the Indian love of gambling not infrequently induced women to take chances even when their noses were at stake. During the summer of I926 the author was in an encampment where an Indian wife lost her nose through such an indiscretion, although in this instance the inconstancy was potential rather than actual, as the woman was a participant in the Forty-nine dance, to be described. Indian women generally are not below the average of their Caucasian sisters in chastity. In his description of the various family relationships of the Comanche, Neighbors 1 wrote: The ties of consanguinity are very strong, not only with regard to their blood relations, but extends itself to relations by marriage, etc., who are considered as, and generally called "brothers" - all offences committed against any member, are avenged by all, or any member connected with the family.... The marriage state only continues during the pleasure of the parties, as a man claims the right to divorce himself whenever he chooses. Polygamy is practised to a great extent - some chiefs having more than ten wives, but inconstancy is the natural result of it, which is frequently punished by cutting off the nose of the transgressor, and sometimes even by death; but more frequently the woman escapes unpunished, and the seducer is deprived of all his available property which is yielded to the injured party, by custom, without resistance. The women perform all manual labor, war and hunting being all the occupation of the men. Jealousy is frequently a great cause of discord, but the husband exercises unbounded authority over the person of his wife. Their lodges are generally neat, and on the entrance of a stranger, the owner of a lodge designates the route he shall pass, and the seat he shall occupy. Any infringement of this rule is liable to give offense. They are formal and suspicious to strangers, but hospitable and social to those they consider their friends. They have no regular meals, but eat when they feel hungry, each party helping himself, and joining in the meal without invitation or ceremony. The parents exercise full control in giving their daughters in marriage, they being generally purchased at a stipulated price by their suitors. There is no marriage ceremony of any description -they enter the marriage state at a very early age, frequently before the age of puberty. The children are named from some circumstance in tender years, which is frequently changed in after life by some act of greater importance. Whatever children are stolen from their enemies, are incorporated in the family to whom they belong, and treated as their own children, without distinction of color or nation. There is considerable respect shown by the younger branches of the community to the patriarchal chiefs of the tribe. Concerning their mortuary customs, Burnet'2 says: They imagine that good men (and adroitness and daring in taking scalps or stealing horses are capital evidences of goodness) are translated at death to elysian hunting-grounds, where buffalo are always abundant and fat. The reverse of this maximum of Comanche felicity is assigned to the wicked. In order to facilitate the posthumous enjoyments of a deceased warrior, they sacrifice some of his best horses, and bury in his grave his favorite implements of the chase for his future use. They have no determinate idea of the locality of these imaginary huntinggrounds. They mourn for the dead systematically and periodically with great noise and vehemence; at which times the female relatives of the deceased scarify their arms and legs with sharp flints until the blood trickles from a thousand pores. The duration of these lamentations depends on the quality and estimation of the deceased; varying from three to five or seven days: after which the curtain of oblivion seems to be drawn around the grave. In their invocations they address "Father Above" and "Mother Earth." There is an indefinable relationship between Father 1 Schoolcraft, op. cit., Vol. II, pages 131-132. 2 Ibid., Vol. I, page 237. {view image of facing page 186} Comanche mothers [photogravure plate] {view image of page 187} THE COMANCHE 187 Above and the Sun. The golden eagle is symbolic of the sun, in fact symbolizes the Infinite. There being such a dearth of culture legends pertaining to precepts and teachings, it is no longer possible to gain a satisfactory insight into the mental processes of the Comanche. They believe that knowledge came from the spirits and was obtained by the individual through long periods of fasting. Such knowledge included that of healing and of ceremonies, and could be transferred to others. At the climax of their existence the Comanche were apparently divided into twelve or more bands, but through tribal disintegration this band organization is almost lost. The best informants of today name the following bands: Deftanayfika or Nokoni Penateka or Penande Yapa or Yamparika Taniume Kefteteka or Qahadi Qasiner Meftai Ketate, a branch of some other Pagafgu, the same as Yapa band Muvinavore, some other tribe. Each band had a chief and a second chief who were chosen by the voice of the band in council. Naturally only those noted for bravery and success in warfare were selected. As the dominating position of any band of the organization was dependent in large measure on its chief, it was most important to have as leaders men of great skill and daring. The Comanche did not have the soldier societies so characteristic of the tribal government of most Plains tribes. In his report to Schoolcraft, Neighbors 1 wrote as follows in regard to Comanche chiefs: The position of a chief is not hereditary, but the result of his own superior cunning, known edge, or success in war, or some act or acts that rank him according to his merits. The subjects under discussion in council are at all times open to popular opinion, and the chiefs are the main exponents of it. The democratic principle is strongly implanted in them. The chiefs consult, principally, the warrior class, and the weaker minds are wholly influenced by popular opinion. War chiefs commit hostilities without consulting the other tribes. Any proposition or treaties proposed by the whites are discussed privately, and the answer given by the chief as the unanimous voice of the tribe. In deliberations in council, they consult each other, and one addresses the meeting. The council is opened by passing the council pipe from one to the other, invoking the Deity to preside. It is conducted with great propriety, and closed in the same manner. There is one appointed as crier or messenger, whose duty it is to fill the pipe, etc. Questions of importance are deliberately considered, and considerable time frequently elapses before they are answered; but they are all decided on the principle of apparent unanimity. Capital punishments are rare; each party acting generally for himself, and avenging his own injuries. Each chief is ranked according to his popularity, and his rank is maintained on the 1 Schoolcraft, op. cit., Vol. II, pages I30-131. {view image of page 188} I88 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN same principle. He is deprived of his office by any misfortune, such as loss of many men in battle, or even a single defeat, or being taken prisoner, but never for any private act unconnected with the welfare of the whole tribe. They have no medals except those lately given them, which are worn more as symbols of peace than as marks of distinction among themselves. The priesthood appear to exercise no influence in their general government, but, on war being declared, they exert their influence with the Deity.... Any principal chief has a right to call a general council of his own tribe [band], and a council of all the tribes is called by the separate chiefs of each tribe.... The principal chiefs have shown every disposition to advance in civilization, and only require the co-operation of the Americans, to influence their followers in the same course. No individual action is considered as a crime, but every man acts for himself according to his own judgment, unless some superior power, for instance, that of a popular chief, should exercise authority over him. They believe that when they were created, the Great Spirit gave them the privilege of a free and unconstrained use of their individual faculties. The dress of these nomads closely resembled that of the Plains tribes of the north, for the men dressed in deerskin shirts, leggings, and moccasins. The women wore one-piece costumes of tanned skin, and distinctive, beautifully made, knee-length boots. Indian women take great pride in their footwear, and every tribe had distinctive boots, moccasins, or moccasin-leggings. Once inquiring of a middleage woman as to why this was so, with a twinkle in her eye she said to the writer, "To attract the eye of man." In the matter of dress, Neighbors 1 wrote: Their [the men's] common dress is the breech-cloth and moccasins, with a buffalo robe flung loosely over the shoulders;... They [the Comanche generally] have a great variety of ornaments, many of which are of pure silver, principally fashioned into large brooches. Their decorations are derived from birds and shells which are bartered to them by the traders. The hawk and eagle feathers are the most esteemed of the bird. They use several native dyes, produced from roots.... Vermilion, indigo, and verdigris are sold them by the traders. They also paint with white and red clay on particular occasions. The Comanche of today live on an allotted reservation in Caddo county, Oklahoma, set aside for them, as well as for the Kiowa and the Kiowa Apache, under the treaty of 1867. Their fertile lands possess splendid agricultural possibilities. Many of the more progressive men till their lands successfully, notwithstanding the fact that before being assigned their reservation the Comanche were in no sense an agricultural tribe; but the majority prefer to lease their holdings to white settlers. The old wrinkled men, as a rule, sit about and tell of the days of their ancestors when life was real and full of action. And the men of all ages spend the major portion of their time, as do those of other tribes, in discussing the suits brought or contemplated against the Government on account of broken treaties. 1 Schoolcraft, op. cit., Vol. II, page I33. {view image of facing page 188} A little Comanche [photogravure plate] {view image of page 189} THE COMANCHE I8O Mythology Old Woman in the Moon Four young girls once wandered, in their playing, a long distance from camp. The eldest girl carried a baby on her shoulders, and a little dog accompanied them. They played all the afternoon, wandering farther and farther from the camp. As it began to grow dark, they thought of returning and retraced their steps, but on their arrival they were dismayed to find that the camp had moved. They started off through the woods, following the route taken by the people, but in the darkness lost the trail. They began to walk aimlessly, searching for the path, and the baby commenced to cry. It cried and sobbed, and the elder sister was unable to stop it, for it was very hungry. Suddenly they heard a voice from the darkness, the voice of Giant Owl who ate little children, "You are making my granddaughter cry!" The baby stopped wailing and yelled: "That's my grandmother calling! I want my grandmother!" The other children did not want to go over to Giant Owl, for they suspected her; but the baby continued to cry and at last they submitted to its entreaties. Giant Owl led the way to her cave, where she fed them all. They were so sleepy that they could hardly keep awake. Giant Owl, in a kind manner, showed them some beds at one side of the cave where all the children, except the Eldest Sister, went to sleep at once. But Eldest Sister had seen Giant Owl put a pot on the fire to boil. This made the girl suspicious, so she spoke to the little dog, "Little Dog, if that Giant Owl comes to our bed during the night, you scratch my foot and wake me." In the middle of the night, Giant Owl stealthily approached the sleeping children, but when she was between the simmering pot and the bed, the dog scratched Eldest Sister's foot so that she awoke and saw the giant bird. She asked, "What are you doing, and what do you want, grandmother?" " I thought perhaps you had rolled over on the baby and that she was smothering," answered the Owl. Several times she tried to get one of the children, because she was very hungry, but each time the little dog scratched Eldest Sister's foot so that she awoke in time. In the morning, after breakfast, Eldest Sister planned for a way to escape. Finally she said, "Grandmother, we are going down to the creek to wash some of the baby's clothes." "All right, grandchild; but come back when I call you." Down at the creek Eldest Sister saw a huge Bullfrog. She begged: "Brother, help us! Giant Owl wants to eat us, and you must help us escape. When she calls, you answer that we are not quite finished." This Frog promised to do, and the children began their flight. Soon Giant Owl called, "Come back to the cave, children!" Frog answered, "We're not quite finished yet, grandmother." Several times Giant Owl called, and each time Frog answered, until she grew suspicious. After she called out again, she sneaked to the creek where she saw Frog, head out of water, answering. In a rage, she cried: " I shall kill you for this, you Frog! You have let my food escape!" Frog only swam to the opposite bank. Giant Owl chased him back and forth from bank to bank, but could not catch him. She soon tired of her efforts and left the creek, following the trail of the children. Travelling very fast, she soon came so near to them that they spied her and ran the faster. When they were nearly exhausted, they reached a stream where they saw Crane balancing on one leg. Eldest Sister panted: "Brother Crane, help us! Giant Owl wants to eat us, and she is after us now! Help us across!" Crane made answer, "Pick a louse from my head and crack it with your teeth; then I shall help you to cross." They cracked a louse and Crane stretched his legs from bank to bank so that the children crossed safely and continued their flight. When Giant Owl came up, she ordered: "Crane, my food is escaping! Help me across!" "Pick a louse from my head and crack it in your teeth; then I shall help you across," answered Crane. {view image of page 190} I9go THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Owl cracked it and started over Crane's legs, but when she was midway she spat it out, saying: "Oh! That tastes too rotten!" As soon as she did this, Crane folded his legs and she fell in the water, but scrambled out on the same side that she had left. With great difficulty she reached the other bank, where she took up her pursuit. Soon the children saw Giant Owl coming up fast. They were worn out when they reached a herd of Buffalo. Eldest Sister cried out to the big Buffalo Bull leader: " Brother Bull, help us! Giant Owl is after us and wants to eat us! We are too tired to go any farther!" "Go around behind me, my children, and we shall take care of her." When Giant Owl ran up, Buffalo Bull charged her, but just as he was almost on her she picked up a club and hit him so hard on the skull that he died. A second and a third Bull met with like fate. There was left one small Bull who charged the Owl. When he came close, Owl raised her club and struck, but he stopped short and she broke the club on the ground. Then he tossed her on his horns. When she came down, he tossed her again, this time higher in the air. At the third toss Owl went up out of sight, and when he tossed her the fourth time, she went on to the moon, where she is seen today with her boiling-pot. The Eye of the Raccoon One day Raccoon was travelling leisurely through the forest. As he went along, in a playful way he would take out an eye and throw it up in the branches of an elm tree, where it would land in a fork. Then he would call it and it would come back. Fox was watching him and became very desirous of knowing how this trick was done. Finally he asked Raccoon just how he did it. Raccoon said, "If I should tell you how I get back my eye, you would be sure to make a mistake and throw yours on the wrong tree." Fox promised so much and pleaded so hard that at last Raccoon showed him how to do the trick and then went on his way. Fox was greatly pleased and went along, playing with his eyes, throwing them up in elm trees and calling them back. But at last he became over-satisfied with himself, and thought: "That Raccoon just did not want me to know more than he does. I am smart, and I really know more than he. I shall try a different tree." So he took out his eye and threw it up into another tree, but when he called, "Eye, come down!" it did not move. He called several times, but the eye stayed there. Finally he thought, "I shall knock it down with the other eye." He threw up the other eye, but it remained beside the first one and would not come down. Fox was now completely blind. Fox's Medicine Some people were sitting by the side of a trail when Fox came along carrying a heavy bag. When they asked him what he had in the bag, he answered: "This is my medicine. When I feel sick, I eat some of it and then I get well." " If it is so good, what will you trade it for?" " I would not trade my medicine for anything," he answered. " It is hard to get, and comes from a long way off; but if I were going to trade, it would be for a horse, so that I could ride away and get more of it." They bargained a long while, and finally Fox agreed to trade his medicine for a horse. "After you give me the horse, I am going over the hill, but you must not open the bag until I am out of sight, and then you must turn toward the wind when you open it." After he had disappeared over the hill, the people opened the bag and found nothing in it but dried meat. Fox and Pelican One winter day when the river was frozen and food was scarce, Fox became very hungry and decided to visit Pelican, who usually managed in some way to get fish. "What do you want of me, brother Fox?" "I am hungry and I came over to eat with you." "All right; but I must first catch a fish." Pelican rose into the air over the ice until he could see a fish swimming beneath. Then he dived, breaking the ice with his head and bringing up a catfish. After they had eaten, Fox invited Pelican to visit his place some time. {view image of facing page 190} Comanche footwear [photogravure plate] {view image of page 191} THE COMANCHE I9I When Pelican came on his visit at a later time, Fox was without food; but remembering how Pelican had obtained his fish, he decided that if the bird could catch a fish that way, he could do so too. So climbing a cottonwood tree which overhung the river, he said his prayer to the spirits, then boastfully called out, "Pelican, watch me catch a fish!" With that he dived head-first, but when he struck the hard ice he broke his neck. Pelican tried to pull him out, but he was dead, so Pelican dived and got the fish. Fox and Beaver Big Tail lives in the water, and once Fox went there to make him a visit. When he arrived, Big Tail asked him what he wanted. "I came to see you, because I am hungry and want something to eat," answered Fox. Big Tail called in his wife to tell her that Fox was hungry. She called in the children, selected the fattest young beaver, and killed him. Then she dressed the carcass and cooked it. When they began to eat, Big Tail said, "Be sure to clean the bones well, so that we can make him alive easily." After all had eaten, Big Tail collected the bones, tied them in a bundle, and threw them into the pond. As they struck the water they turned back into the little Beaver who swam ashore to his family. Fox then invited Big Tail to come to visit him some time. Later he did so, saying he had come to eat with his friend Fox. Fox, imitating Big Tail, called in his wife and ordered her to kill the fattest child and cook him, just as he had seen Big Tail do with his child. After the meal, he threw the bones in the water; but he had neglected to tie them in a bundle, so they scattered. The minnows got them and dragged them about. Then Big Tail took pity on Fox and swam in, collecting all the bones except one leg-bone that some fish had taken. Then he showed Fox how to hold the bones and throw them to bring back life. The little Fox returned to life, but he was minus a leg. Fox and Owl One day Fox went to visit Owl, because he was very hungry, with nothing to eat at home. Owl's food was nearly exhausted, but he had his wife pound some meat into a ball. The meat had no grease to hold it together, so Owl called for a sharp stick, with which he poked out his eyes. These he mixed with the meat to make it greasy. After the two had eaten, Owl rubbed his wings on his breast and rubbed his eyebrows. His eyes came back to him, so that he could see as before. Fox thought that was a very good trick to know. Some time later, Owl came to visit Fox, and it happened that Fox had plenty of meat, but no fat. He thought of what Owl had done, so called to his wife to bring a sharp stick, with which he poked out his eyes. They ate heartily, and, at the end of the meal, Fox rubbed his breast and eyebrows just as he had seen Owl do, but his eyes did not come back. He was blind. Fox and the Bears Two Bears lived together in a cave. One of them was very ill, near death, and the other was doing all in his power to save him. Fox, hearing about it, came around to see what he could do, but in spite of all his doctoring, Bear died. As they were about to bury the body, Fox said: "No, do not bury the body in the ground, because some animal might come along and dig him up. It would be better to throw him in the water." Fox went home and told his children to go downstream; that when they saw Bear floating, to haul it out of the water and bring it home. It was not very long before the Fox family were holding a big feast with Bear for meat. As they ate, Bird came down and asked for some food, which they refused. Bird said: "I know what and whom you are eating. If you do not give me some, I shall go and tell Bear what you are doing with the body." "Go ahead and tell all you know. We shall not give you any meat." Bird flew away, and Fox became frightened. He hid all the meat, cut the fur off his children, and covered himself with ashes. He began to mourn for Bear. Soon the other Bear appeared, and looked long and carefully at Fox, who was wailing loudly over the death of his Bear friend. {view image of page 192} 192 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Bear spoke: "Bird flew over and told me that you were eating the flesh of my brother. I came to see if that were true, but I can see that Bird was spiteful and lying." Bear went away, and after he was out of sight, Fox dug up the meat and they renewed the feast. The Man and the Fox One day as a man was walking down the trail with a load of meat, he saw Fox lying by the roadside. He asked, "What is the matter, brother Fox?" " I am dying of hunger, and am too weak to get up and get anything to eat." The man took pity on him, giving him a large bite of the meat he was carrying. Fox thanked him and told him which path to take, adding that there were others as hungry as himself on the road. When the man was out of sight, Fox jumped up and circled around, coming in on the trail again ahead of the man, where he stretched out as before. Soon the man came up and gave him meat to eat, taking pity on his starved condition. Fox played the trick again successfully; but the fourth time, when the man held out the meat for him to bite, he saw particles of food clinging to the teeth of Fox and suspected a trick. The man ran away. Fox chased him to eat him as well as the remaining meat, but the man jumped in the river and swam away to safety. Fox and Opossum Opossum once went along the bank of a stream, digging up wild onions with his tail. Fox saw him and wondered how Opossum could do it. He asked Opossum how he managed it; if he would give him the magic so that he too could dig the root. Opossum replied, " I might tell you the secret, but if I did so you would not keep it long and you would do it all wrong." "No, I should not do it wrong, for I have watched you and I should do just as you are doing." "Well, this is the secret: You must put your tail in the ground just this far and no farther. If you dig your tail in deeper, you will get caught." "I shall do just as you say and we shall travel about together." "Whatever you do, do not stick your tail in the ground over that mark. We shall travel together." Opossum also told the rest of his secrets. The two went along together, and the first time Fox put in his tail just the right distance he brought up a wild onion. He had learned the method, so that he thought he knew all about it. He thought to himself: " I know how to do this, so I do not need to travel with Opossum any longer. I shall go by myself." Opossum said, "You can go by yourself, but be very careful and never put your tail in too far." After a time Fox thought: " I think that Opossum must have been fooling me. I shall try just once and put my tail in beyond the mark and get a lot of onions. Opossum just wanted to get more than I." So Fox stuck his tail all the way into the ground, but when he tried to draw it out he found that he could not. He went round and round, but his tail was stuck fast. Finally he died there. Opossum came along and said, "You can just lie there; you know what I told you!" Coyote and Polecat Once Polecat and Coyote met on the plain. Said Coyote, "What are you looking for?" " I am very hungry and am looking for something to eat." " If you will do as I say, I know where there is a prairiedog town where we can get all the food we want." "I shall do as you say, brother. How are we going to get something to eat?" asked Polecat. Coyote answered: "Early in the morning we shall go to the town. There you will go to the middle of the village and pretend that you are dead. I shall go around crying to the Prairiedogs that their worst enemy is dead. The rest will be easy." Polecat did as instructed, and Coyote called out all the Prairiedogs. He said, "Close up your holes tight and come and look over your worst enemy!" They all circled around Polecat, and Coyote sang a song for their dance over the enemy. {view image of facing page 192} A Comanche child [photogravure plate] {view image of page 193} THE COMANCHE I93 At last he said: "We are going to have one last dance over Polecat, and this time I want you all to shut your eyes and not make a sound." All the Prairiedogs danced around Polecat with their eyes closed. As they passed Coyote, he hit the fat ones over the head with a club, but at last one Prairiedog opened his eyes and squealed the alarm to the others. This one Polecat shot dead, but the Prairiedogs ran to their homes. Many of the homes were so tightly closed, by the order of Coyote, that the two killed a great number of Prairiedogs before they could dive underground to safety. These two gathered outside the village and divided their spoils. Coyote took his share to the woods, where he built a fire to cook the meat in the hot ashes. As he was cooking, another Coyote, badly crippled in the shoulder, came along and asked for something to eat. Coyote did not want to give him any, and thought of a way out of the difficulty, seeing that this one was crippled. He said, " I shall give you some if you can beat me in a race." "I cannot run, for I am crippled." "Well, I shall get a stone and tie it on my foot to even things up, then we shall run around that hill yonder. Whoever comes back here first is the winner." They started, and the crippled Coyote held back, while Coyote ran ahead easily. He ran all the faster, thinking of the meal that was awaiting him. He ran ahead out of sight and around the hill, but the crippled Coyote cut through a deep ravine and back to the fire, where he stole all the meat. The Woman Who Betrayed Her Husband In a camp there lived a woman with her husband and four brothers. One night a hostile tribe raided the camp and stole the woman. The husband and brothers took up the trail with the intention of rescuing her, following until they reached the hostile camp. Once there, the husband posted the brothers in a cottonwood grove, while he hid himself near the water-hole, for he knew that his wife would come there sooner or later. After many had come and gone, and when his patience was nearly at an end, the wife came to the hole for water. When he had signalled her to where he lay in hiding, she appeared glad to see him. After they had finished their talk, she said that she would take the water to her captor and then return to go home with him. The wife went up to her captor, whom she had married in the meanwhile, and told him of a dream that she had had. She said that she dreamed of four enemies hidden in a grove of cottonwoods near the creek, and of another hidden near the water-hole. She said that this man was her former husband, and she described how he was dressed. She begged that if her dream was true, they would not hurt the husband. The captor and some warriors surrounded the grove and killed the four brothers, while they captured the husband. That night they treated him roughly, playing many tricks on him, while his wife urged them on in their language. Then they set up two poles and hung him from them by his wrists. In the morning the camp broke up, leaving the husband to die suspended from the poles. When all were leaving, one old woman hung back, apparently looking around the camp for anything of value that might have been left behind. She came to where the man was hanging, and said: " I have a son who looks just like you. For his sake, I shall cut you loose." She cut him down and gave him a horse to enable him to get back home. The Woman Who Married a Horse Once there was a woman who became lost from the camp, and although they searched everywhere, they could not find her. It happened that two years later they returned to this camp-site and there found a number of wild horses grazing. As the horses ran off, they saw the woman running behind them. Some of the band mounted on their fastest horses and gave chase, surrounding the wild herd and roping the woman, whom they took back to camp. Because she was as wild as a horse, she fought so hard that her people had to tie her. In the course of time she became normal again and lived peaceably with her family. She had married a horse. VOL. XIX-25 {view image of page 194} I94 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The Boy Who Was Stolen by a Water Lizard The tribe one day made camp by a river. In this tribe lived a man, his wife, and small son. The next day when the man started out on a hunt, he told his wife not to let the boy out of her sight; but as she was tanning a deer-hide, she forgot to look after him. When she had finished the hide, she looked all over for her son, but was unable to find him. Late in the evening the husband appeared and asked where the boy was. " I forgot all about him while I was working. I have looked all about and I can not find him anywhere," she answered. It was then dark, so they had to wait until morning before they could pick up the boy's trail, which led to a deep pool. They saw where he had taken a drink of water, but there were no tracks leading away from the water. Then they thought that some water animal had dragged him down, and they sat and cried as if he were dead. At last the father declared, " I am going to find the body!" He cut a long pole and poked about in the pool until he found a hole under the bank. Then he told his wife that he was going to dive in and find out what was under there. He took his knife, so that if any animal lived there he could kill it, saying before he dived in, " If I do not come out by noon, go back to the camp, for I shall be dead." He dived in the pool and crawled along the hole. Far in the distance he could see a light, and when he came to it he saw his boy sitting there, crying. A large Water Lizard spoke to him then: "My own son has brought this little boy in here, but you may take him back with you. My son had no business bringing him here." He gave the glad father four pebbles, with instructions to throw the first one when he came to water so that it would part for him, and when the waves came back to throw in the second one, doing the same with all four. The father did as he was told by Water Lizard, and soon, with his son, came out on the banks of the river. How the People Obtained Buffalo There was once a Coyote, who lived with his wife and son off by themselves. The Coyote had the buffalo corralled in a large cave. The people were very hungry, for they had no buffalo. They wanted to obtain these animals, but they did not know how to go about it, because Coyote kept them very well guarded. After much talking they planned to leave a little dog somewhere near the home of Coyote where the son could easily find it. They thought that the boy would take the dog home for a pet, and once there he could easily stampede the herd out of the corral. They told the little dog just what he was to do and left him near the home of Coyote. When Coyote boy was out at play, he found him, and was happy because now he had some one to play with. When he brought his pet home, Coyote voiced his suspicions: "I do not like the looks of that dog. I think I shall kill him." The boy cried and begged to keep his pet, until finally Coyote consented, but told his son, "You must not take that dog near the buffalo corral." One day when Coyote and his wife were busy, little Coyote said to his pet, "Let us go and see the fat buffalo." The little dog remembered what he had been told, and as soon as they came to the corral he ran in among the animals, barking and snapping at their heels. The buffalo ran round and round the corral, then broke through and scattered all over the plains. That is how the buffalo came to the prairie. The Boy Who Escaped from the Giant One day a small boy was playing alone at quite a distance from the camp. A Giant came by, picked him up, and put him in a bag which he carried on his shoulders. The boy tried in every way to get out, but the mouth of the bag was drawn tightly, and it was too strong to tear. After trying many times to escape, he had to give up. As the Giant walked along, a little Bird came and perched on the bag. When the boy heard the Bird, hope returned, and he asked his feathered friend for help. The Bird flew away and returned with a fire-drill, which he gave to the boy, saying, "Set the bag on fire and burn up the Giant!" The boy set fire to the bag, and when a hole had been burned through, he jumped out. While the Giant was fighting the fire, the boy escaped. {view image of facing page 194} A Comanche girl [photogravure plate] {view image of page 195} THE COMANCHE I95 The Skeptical Comanche As a party of men were returning from the warpath, they came to a creek where was supposed to dwell a Water Monster. To appease this Monster and to insure a safe crossing, it was the custom to sacrifice a horse, accompanied by many prayers. One of the members of this party expressed his disbelief in the existence of the Monster, and laughed at the others as they prepared to make the offering. The rest went ahead with their sacrifice of horse and offering of prayers, but asked that the skeptic remain behind until they had crossed first, so that they might reach the other side in safety, even if he was taken by the Monster. After the others were across, the skeptic entered the water and the Monster gave chase to him. The men saw him disappear in a swirl of foam, and waited a long time before he reappeared. When he came to the surface, he called out: "See how foolish you were! I have killed the Monster! I do not have to kill a horse to cross this river!" The Ant Whoe Went Up in the Sky There was once a person who lived in a beautiful lodge in the sky, who had a handsome daughter, but if any one came to his home after the daughter, the father ate him. Ant heard about the beautiful girl, and decided to go up into the sky after her, although all tried to keep him from going, especially Coyote, who was jealous of Ant. Coyote said: " If you go up there, you will lose your life. You are small, and the father will eat you up." But Ant replied: " I am small and I shall get in some way. He will not be able to find me, even if I am with his daughter." Ant went up into the skies and crawled into the lodge through a crack, thus avoiding the father. He was so successful that he married the daughter and lived with her. After a while the father heard that some one had married his daughter, but although he tried hard to learn, he never could find out who it was. One time when the father looked about for the husband of his daughter, Ant was beside him and was not seen. Ant bit the father on the hand so that he swelled up and died. Then Ant took possession of the house and the other daughter. The Magic Arrows There was once a man who was returning from the warpath, over a hilly area of country. As he walked along, he heard a voice calling out as if in distress, but he was unable to locate the owner of it. It kept calling: "I need help if anybody is around! Something is after me!" Still the man could see no one; but he went toward where he last heard the voice, and at his approach a hawk flew into the air. Then he heard the voice again, and looked down. There at his feet was a tiny Dwarf. The hawk had been hunting the Dwarf, who shot at it with his tiny arrows, but always missed because the sun was in his eyes. The man and the Dwarf stayed in that place overnight, and in a dream the Dwarf told the man: "You have saved me, and I am going to give you a power. I am going to give you my bow and arrows - you must throw away yours. If you ever see a hawk, do not try to kill it, for you can never kill the hawk. Throw away your war gear and take mine. Whenever you want to kill game, use the two arrows without the flint heads, but always remember never to try to kill a hawk. You will always be able to kill game with my arrows, no matter how far off it may be. Just aim at the animal and the arrows will reach their mark." The Woman and the Dwarf There was once a woman who was returning home through the hills. Her husband had accompanied her, but he had been killed on the way. It was fast growing dark, and as she went along, she heard some one calling to her, but she saw nobody whichever way she looked. Finally she looked down at her feet and saw a Dwarf standing in the doorway of his house. He had a quiver full of arrows over his shoulder. He said to her: "You get in this house and stay there. {view image of page 196} I96 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN It is growing dark, and there is a Giant who is on your trail. If he ever finds you, he will eat you. The woman hid, and soon a Giant came along. He asked the Dwarf: "Have you seen any one come along this trail? I am following a woman, and I want something to eat." "No, I have seen no one tonight." "Her tracks lead up to your door." "There is no one here. If you do not believe me, lift up the house and look in. There is no one around." The Giant lifted up the house and looked in. As he bent over, the Dwarf cut his head off and threw it away. He called the woman out, and told her: "The Giant is dead. Start home now, because your camp is a long way off. You would have been eaten that time, but I saved you." The Woman Who Married a Giant 1 One day a young mother went down to the creek to bathe, taking her little son with her. When they were about ready to go home, a handsome young man came by who asked the woman to go home with him. She agreed at last, and they started; but as it was a long way, they married first. After much travelling they reached his home, late in the evening, and by moonlight she saw that it was made of silver. When she awoke in the morning, she found that her husband beside her had become a Giant, which frightened her greatly. She thought over many plans to escape and make her way back to her own camp, but none seemed suitable. After several days the thought came to her to go down to the creek, so she said to him, " I am going down to the creek to wash clothes for my boy." The Giant saw nothing wrong with this plan, and let her go. Once there, she saw a large Bullfrog on the bank, to which she spoke: "Brother Bullfrog, the Giant will call us in a little while, and I am afraid of him. When he calls, say that we are still washing." Frog said: "Sister, I shall help you," and he gave them a bag of medicine to aid in their escape - a downy feather and a piece of buffalo cow's stomach - saying, "The Giant will pursue you, and when he does, throw down these things." After they had fled, every time Giant called, Frog answered, "We are still washing." Finally Giant became suspicious and went down to the creek to see why they were staying there so long, but he found no one. In a rage he pursued, gaining rapidly upon them. When they looked back they could see him coming up fast, and the woman in alarm threw down what Frog had first given her, the downy feather. Immediately a dense fog rose behind her, in which Giant became lost and groped about for a long time. Finally he emerged and picked up the trail again. When he came near a second time, the woman threw behind her the stomach of the buffalo cow, which turned into canions and draws behind her. The Giant became entangled in this rough country and found his way out with great difficulty, but at last he followed the trail again and began to overtake them. They reached a river, with no means of getting across, and followed along the bank until they came to where Crane was standing, of whom they begged: "Brother Crane, the Giant is following us to eat us! Help us!" "Here is a louse from my head; crack it in your teeth on your way across," Crane instructed. He planted his long legs on both banks, and they crossed in safety over his body. Soon Giant came long; he could see that his victims had crossed safely. He angrily ordered Crane: "Put me across! If you do not, I shall kill you!" Crane stretched out his legs for Giant, but when he reached midway, Crane folded his legs and Giant fell in the water. The last the woman saw of him he was floundering about in the stream. 1 Compare Old Woman in the Moon, pages I89-I90. {view image of facing page 196} Wilbur Peebo - Comanche [photogravure plate] {view image of page } The Peyote Cult, the "Stomp" Dance, and the Forty-nine Dance {view image of page 198} {view image of page 199} THE PEYOTE CULT T HE Peyote cult as it exists today can be considered in many ways as the most interesting religious organization among the North American Indians. The cult is predicated upon the use of peyote - a variety of cactus growing in Texas and northern Mexico. An important feature of the ceremony is the eating of the peyote "button," the small core at the centre of the plant.1 The members of the society are referred to sometimes as Peyote-eaters. At a meeting of the fraternity, the members eat from four to two or three dozen of these buttons. The effect of the peyote is stimulating, perhaps more to the brain than the body, and in no way resembles alcoholic stimulation. The use of this cactus bulb by the priesthoods among the Indians of northern Mexico and the southwestern states is no doubt of considerable antiquity. It was a part of their ceremonial paraphernalia. In gathering ethnologic data from Indians of the Southwest, many fragments of information have been revealed to indicate the use of peyote by medicine-men as a stimulant. As an organized cult, Peyote in the United States is of introduction later than the first contact with the white race. According to the best information obtainable, the White Mountain Apache of Arizona were the first to establish the Peyote ceremony.2 The next tribe to acquire it was the Jicarilla Apache of northern New Mexico. From them it was adopted by the Comanche. From the Comanche the Peyote cult spread rapidly through many of the tribes of the Southwest, beginning about the year I886. Now it 1 Analysis as given by Dr. Frederick V. Coville, United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C. Peyote: Lophophora Williamsii, of which Anhalonium Williamsii and A. Lewinii are synonyms, contains at least four alkaloids, anhalonine (C12H5sNO3), anhalonidine (C12H15NO3), mescaline (C17H17NO3), and lophophorine (Cl3H17NO3), occurring in mescal buttons in the following percentages: anhalonine, 0.46; anhalonidine, I.I6; mescaline, I.I6; and lophophorine, 0.14. Some investigators report two other alkaloids, anhalamine and pellotine (Cl3H,1NO3). 2 It is not improbable that the cult had its inception among the Apache of Arizona through the frequent visits of war-parties to the mountainous country of Chihuahua, where the Tarahumare have practised it for a very long time. The last historical raid into that region was by a band of Chiricahua under Nachi and Ger6nimo, who surrendered in August, I886. 199 {view image of page 200} 200 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN is the most highly organized religious movement among tribes of that region, and it extends northward to the Indians of Idaho, Montana, and the Dakotas. Wherever the Peyote cult has been introduced, the majority of tribesmen are adherents of its teachings. It is claimed by Peyote leaders that in Oklahoma, aside from members of the Five Civilized Tribes, all Indians of stability are members, while those who have not come under its influence are of the dissolute class. Occasionally, however, one finds an individual whose Christian beliefs are so firmly established that he refuses to join the order. The formula of the ritual, if it may be so termed, is a blending of Christianity and Indian ceremony which varies in minor details according to the religious bent of the particular leader. Among Peyote leaders may be found devout Catholics, Mormons, Mennonites, Baptists, and Methodists. In fact, among its members are representatives of every Christian denomination in the tribe in which the cult is practised; indeed the majority of its members are adherents also of some Christian church. Among the Southern Cheyenne, one of the foremost exponents of the Peyote cult, and a full-blood, is an ordained minister. He has been a member of the cult for forty years, joining shortly after the organization took root among his people and while the membership was small. So far as can be learned, the cult is not antagonistic to Christianity. There may, however, at times be opposition to individual missionaries who are overzealous in their antagonism to it. The Mormon church seemingly is not opposed, and the Catholic church makes little protest. All other Christian organizations, however, are unanimous in their opposition, notwithstanding the fact that the teachings of Peyotism are designed to promote moral living and sobriety, and its foremost tenet is to do good to one's fellow men. Indian religion, that is, instinctive worship of the divine ones, or the Infinite, does not of itself necessarily embody a moral code, and in this respect the Peyote formula differs from other Indian cults. No dancing or levity forms a part of the Peyote meeting; rather, it is a night of song, prayer, and meditation, preceded in most cases by a sweat-bath in order that the body may be freed from earthly contamination. So far as can be learned, the formula of songs is the same wherever the Peyote order exists. Notwithstanding the fact that the Indians claim that the White Mountain Apache of Arizona were the first to establish the ceremony as it exists in the United States today, the ritual is obviously copied from Wichita ceremonial form. Most of the words of the songs and prayers are Comanche. The type of drum used is {view image of facing page 200} The story-teller - Ponca [photogravure plate] {view image of page 201} THE PEYOTE CULT 201 always the same - a small iron kettle partly filled with water and having a rawhide head. The beating of the drum is continuous throughout the rite, and its rhythmic vibration undoubtedly affects the emotions of the participants. A well-informed leader stated that the exhilaration of the worshippers is the combined effect of the drumbeat and the peyote. The order of the prayers is the same, but their wording varies according to the fluency and sect of the leader. At all meetings a fine selected specimen of peyote is placed upon the crescent altar, and if the leader should be a Catholic, there rests across the peyote a crucifix. Prayers include the divine ones of the Indians, as well as God and the Son of God. The code of the cult demands upright living to an extent that should be satisfactory to any church, and it takes a positive stand against the use of intoxicants. In fact, the Peyote men claim that they have no desire for liquor, even though they may once have been drunkards. An important feature of Peyotism is the healing of disease. Many remarkable cures are cited, but to what extent they may be credited to the medicinal properties of peyote is an open question. The cures are so many and so well authenticated that even the skeptic must accept the facts; and unless the plant possesses unique curative properties, Peyotism is far in advance of other mental-healing cults. To snatch countless people from the graves of consumptives is no mean achievement, even if it requires a combination of medicine and mental healing. The teaching of the cult is not to regard peyote as a medicine in the literal sense, but rather that through the use of this one of"God's plants" the believer may receive aid from divine sources. Notwithstanding this dogma, it is the opinion of the writer that the Peyote-cult teachers depend more on the literal than the spiritual. The strength of this hybrid cult no doubt may be attributed to the belief that it is something that comes from within, God-given to the Red Race. Its ritualistic form is the Indians' own, slightly colored by Christian contact. A Caucasian spectator at one of these meetings could well imagine himself to be listening to the incantations of primitive priests, unless by chance he should catch the words "Jesus Christ, the Son of God," from a chant. The cult has not gained its present foothold without opposition from medicine-men and the priesthood of the tribes among which it thrives. In fact, in many of the pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico the opposition of the Indian priests has been strong enough to prevent it from becoming established except at Taos.' See Volume XVI. VOL. XIX-26 {view image of page 202} 202 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The symbol of the organization is the crescent, and the writer well remembers the early years of the order of the crescent on the White Mountain Apache reservation. Peyote at that time was not mentioned in connection with the society, and the fight against the crescent group was a bitter one. The old-time Apache medicine-men were a power among their people, and, jealous of their position, they united in a bitter fight against the new cult, which at that time was shrouded by the greatest possible secrecy. The medicine-man who led the new order claimed that he had received the songs in a vision. Among these people, as elsewhere, Peyotism has swept all before it, and it is doubtful if there is now a medicine-man among the Apache of Arizona who is not a member of the order. The Peyote organization is the only one in which the most devout adherent of Christianity and the most conservative medicine-men work side by side. Opposition by the white race to the use of peyote has dragged through all the years of its existence. Worshippers have been arrested, indicted, and tried in state courts. Failing of conviction there, they have been taken before the Federal courts, again without conviction. In Oklahoma an attempt was made to enact a law to make the use of peyote a crime, but in that state the situation has been somewhat cleared by the securing of a charter for the cult, under which the organization is legally called the " Native American Church." A partially effective blow to the use of peyote is a ruling against its interstate shipment; but this does not prevent an Indian of any state from driving to Texas and returning with a supply if he so desires. Opposition has so stimulated the Peyote cult movement that its membership is steadily increasing. The limit of its diffusion is seemingly racial only. To appreciate the hold that Peyotism now has on the Indian, one needs an intimate knowledge of his metamorphic religious state - a more comprehensive term would be his muddled religious state. It must be borne in mind that the greater number of the cult members are under the influence of Christian teachings, but with only a vague idea of what is in the minds of their teachers. Yet many of the Indians who are so far advanced that they are preachers in the respective church organizations of which they are members, still cling to the primitive beliefs of their fathers without a qualm. At the beginning of Christian teaching the Indian seemingly thought the white man was trying to tell him of a new God, which rather upset him. Then his mind caught the thought that God is God, regardless of creed, language, or race. To quote one of them: {view image of facing page 202} White Deer - Ponca [photogravure plate] {view image of page 203} THE PEYOTE CULT 203 "When I listened to the white teacher, he told us of a new God; said there was but one God and that he was in his church and not anywhere else. Then my heart was sad. For a long time I thought about that white man's God. Then my heart told me that it was not a new God all in one church, but, as our fathers taught us, the Universal Spirit was everywhere, and that what the preacher was telling us of his God was only the all-present Spirit which we knew so well. When I tried to tell the preacher that my heart was glad, that I now understood his God was the same as ours, then my friend the missionary became angry and told me not to think of the Spirit Over All but to pray to God." Thus was the Indian's reasoning met by arbitrary theological argument. To his confused, primitive mind, with his instinctive reaching out to the Infinite, Peyotism offers that which he has been groping for blindly - a definite form of worship which includes his inherent beliefs and the white man's teachings in so far as he can grasp them. Peyote Ritual As an illustration of the ritualistic form of the Peyote cult, the following is given. The informant was an Oto of fair education and a preacher in one of the churches on the Oto reservation. The ceremony was initiated on this reservation in 1891 by one of the headmen of the tribe who learned the ritual from the Tonkawa. At the outset, the ceremony was held only four times a year; it is now conducted every week, usually on Saturday night. It is necessary to enter the sweat-lodge by noon, before the ceremony takes place. The customary form of sweat-lodge songs and prayers is followed, that is, the sweat-lodge ceremony is a distinctive one of preparatory purification and is always the same regardless of the rite which follows. The Peyote lodge is approximately sixteen feet in diameter, with the opening facing the east. The altar is an earthen embankment, six inches high, in the form of a crescent, the horns being approximately four inches apart. At the apex of the crescent altar is placed a selected specimen of dried peyote. The leader's or teacher's position is at the rear of the lodge, where, when seated, he faces the east. Just before him is the altar bearing its palladium, the sacred peyote. At the left of the leader is the position of the incense priest; at his right the position of the drummer. The firekeeper's station is at the right side of the entrance. Participants sit at the north and south sides of the lodge, and must continue in the ceremony during the entire {view image of page 204} 204 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN night. None but reasons of the utmost importance would cause the leader to excuse them. 'he place of the sacred fire is within the crescent altar and near its apex. It is the duty of the firekeeper to keep the fire burning during the entire ceremony. The first act in the rite is the kindling of the altar fire. Following this, the firekeeper announces that all is ready. Then, led by the leader, all march around the lodge in clockwise movement. At the entrance, the leader offers a prayer in which he asks the favor of Wakonda, the supreme power, to look with favor upon those present and to bless the lodge. He then enters, marches to his position, again in a clockwise direction, while others file in to take their places. Now the leader in prayerlike recital tells the story of peyote. "We are assembled in a sacred lodge for the worship of the Divine Ones; we know that Wakonda created all things, animal and plant. We know that He Himself created Peyote. Believing this, we know that He created it for our use, for our good. We know that we should not look upon Peyote as a medicine, nor worship it as an idol, but rather regard it as a symbol of Wakonda, our Creator. We know the ceremony was given to us by the Divine Ones. We know that our minds, our thoughts, should be upon spiritual things while worshipping in this lodge." The leader then takes up the altar peyote, holds it toward the sky, and prays to Wakonda that the symbol be sanctified, the ceremony blessed. Following this, he passes four peyote buttons to each member present, who in turn rises, goes to the crescent which is lined with sage, takes up some of the sage and rubs it over his head, body, and limbs. The purpose of the sage is that of purification, since sage, or the color of it, symbolizes purity. While this act of purification is in progress, the incense priest burns cedar on the fire, the odor permeating the lodge. Cedar has the function of driving away evil spirits as well as of being symbolic of immortality, and is always burned before prayers are offered. The members now chew tips of the cedar in order that its pleasant taste will counteract the bitterness of the peyote. Then, at the command of the leader, all eat their allotted portion. After this is finished, the leader once more addresses the members in words of admonition: "Remember the sacred nature of the meeting. Remember that we are worshipping Wakonda as instructed by him." The leader, accompanied by the drummer, next chants the four sacred songs, meanwhile holding a staff and a wisp of sage in his left {view image of facing page 204} Oscar Makes Cry - Ponca [photogravure plate] {view image of page 205} THE PEYOTE CULT20 205 hand, and, in his right hand, a rattle with which he accompanies the chant., OPENING SONG - YUn-we-pa'-gran Bepeat 4 times A A A A AA_ =~=:: A A A A - - V ~ ~- V A AA A A ~ _A A V VV V io -~ -ofP4 - - - -~~~~~zz~~- - - -T= vH + ~ ~ * Drums are in exact pitch. All slurs are exaggerated. Opening Song Ni-he-ye-ne-h ai-yo-wl-hil-ni-we-no Ni-he-ye-ne-hai-yo-wi-fhi-ni-we-no Ni-he-ne-hii-yo-wi-6h1-ni-we-no A-he-ne-hii-yo-wl-h1-rni-we-na, A-he-ne-hii-yo-wi-6hl-na A-he-n-haii-yo-wi-du-na Ni-he-ne-hii-vo-wl-di-ni-wc-na H6-ye-yo-wa' A-he-ne-hii-yo-wi-6hI-no A-he-ne-hii-yo-wfi-6h1-na H6-ye-yo-wi 1The Peyote rattle is a small gourd usually bearing upon its surface the crescent and other symbolic characters. The handle is decorated with beadwork. {view image of page 206} 206 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The music of the Peyote songs is similar in all tribes in which the cult is practised. The words are vocables, differing slightly in their diffusion from the original among the Comanche, since they are taught by aural method only. Hence they are sung or pronounced as the singer has received them from his teacher, although song leaders invariably render them according to their own conception of how they should be sung. In this instance the words, or vocables, are taken from the Oto, while the music is from the Cheyenne; hence the seeming inconsistency. MIDNIGHT SONG - Han-he-ki-na'-the* A A A A AA A A A A_ > {_ ---Tt -- {'i^^^^"^^^^^^^^^^^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r {view image of facing page 206} Frame of peyote sweat-lodge [photogravure plate] {view image of page 207} THE PEYOTE CULT 207 Izas___ -A ____A..... m if _- I I- | I I |..| nguttural silent A j-~, ~1 _~-_ —__- - -- --— " — - _-_ __~~_____=~ -~-i —[l-,-=,-Ji-. - ' - '-= A V A V ( 2>-a... -_- Ad * Repeat about four times. Midnight Song Na-hi-ya-na h'yo-we-ne Na-hi-ya-no-hi-ya-na-h'yo-we-ne Na-hi-ya-na-hi-ya-na-h'y6-we-ne-h6 Na-hi-ya-na-y6-we-hi-ya-na At the close of the Water song, the leader steps out of the lodge and blows his eagle-bone whistle to the east, the south, the west, and the north to ward off evil spirits. A water-bearer is appointed, or perhaps a chief's wife or daughter will act in this capacity. The water-jar is placed between the points of the crescent. The incense priest places cedar on the fire for the purification of the water-bearer, who extends his arms above the incense and draws the smoke to his body four times. Then he stretches his arms above the water, praying that Wakonda will bless the water and sanctify it for worship. With the closing words of the prayer he sprinkles water upon the earth, "Our Mother." He then passes the vessel to the first man opposite the firekeeper, from whom it passes clockwise around the circle, each participant drinking a large quantity.1 When all have finished drinking, the water-bearer walks around the altar, takes up the jar, and carries it outside. Now the leader passes around the circle, handing out the peyote. Each participant takes as many buttons as he desires. There is no limit at this time. 1 It is apparent that the full stimulating effect of the peyote is aided by the drinking of water. The quantity drunk during this ceremony is so great that it could well be termed a water-drinking rite. {view image of page 208} 208 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The purification rite is repeated, followed by the song of the worshippers. At dawn the leader prays to the approaching day, the day soon to be born, including in his invocation the thought of the creation of day. At the close of this prayer he sings four songs. At the end of the first, he stops to blow his whistle to each of the four cardinal points. Again the water is brought in, with the same rites as before, WATER SONG- Ni'-gi-wa:,\A,u~~~~ ii ~ A -r o a A A - =: = A A / I ^7 — S -l —I 7_1 — - ji... 1.1 7. IA r I J I- I=r- -r — i -,_-_ --- L A _ — '"> ' - A - = ti __ _ S=F ~~~~~~_ _ _ t ii9~ - + =- _ _ _ _._ _ I_ _ _ _ I Water Song He-ye-ye-na He-ye-ye-na-h -we-ho Ya-na-ha-we-no Ya-na-ha-we-no Wa-k'ho-wa-k'ho Ya-na-h'we-no Yi-na-h'we-no Wa-k'ho-wi-k'ho A-a-a He-ya-na He-yo-wa {view image of facing page 208} Altar peyote with rattle - Osage [photogravure plate] {view image of page 209} THE PEYOTE CULT 209 followed by the three final songs of the series. The songs ended, the leader speaks, telling his followers of Wak6oda's creation of day, the coming of the sun; that through the spirit of water they have life. With the closing words he places the staff and rattle on the altar. Once more the water-bearer brings water, and there is a repetition of that portion of the ceremony. The leader now announces that the night of worship is drawing to a close; that food is being prepared. Again the water ritual is repeated, and food is brought in. With its coming the leader thanks all for their participation in the ceremony, and announces that food comes to them through the beneficence of the spirits. Again the water rite, after which comes the singing of the four final songs, headed by the Quitting song. With each song the leader offers a short prayer with arms outstretched toward the sky, then takes the peyote from the altar and passes it around the circle from hand to hand. He then asks Wakonda to sanctify the food, after which the viands are passed around the lodge MORNING A A A OR QUITTING SONG - Lu-stan'-yan-we A => r:,ll. 4I n-, o u,, I VOL. XIX-27 I Di AP r,b-e-~_ 1- I I I VOL. xx ---27 {view image of page 210} 210 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN, il. =- A A f%4 A A A: TII i _ I ~1 I ~ ~ I ~~ I,,L _, A A A A {12tZ7 FINE ~L;~~- l- l _ _ _.....PP — ' --- - = I -- -' -.,J I,: - - I (l^^^^^^^=g^E^^;~~~~~~~~;oo (gg|^ij;^l^i^^i^3 Morning or Quitting Song He-yo-wi-na He-yo-wi-na-na-we-no He-yo-wi-na Hi-ku-yu-chi Ha-ku-yu-chi-na-we-no in the same manner as the water. When all have finished eating, a prayer of thanks is offered and incense burned. All purify themselves in the smoke, and file from the lodge. The firekeeper, with help, takes down the lodge and gathers up the sage and cedar. The altar is destroyed, the firepit filled, and all traces of the ceremony removed. The foregoing is a description of the Peyote ceremony as it is performed by the Oto and as related by an Oto who is a member of a Christian church. In fact, he described the ceremony as he teaches it, and indicated the concepts he has endeavored to convey to his followers. Evidence of Christian teaching is reflected throughout the rite. {view image of facing page 210} A Cheyenne peyote leader [photogravure plate] {view image of page 211} THE PEYOTE CULT 21 I The reference to idolatry is clearly Christian; in fact, it is in a measure a defense of the ceremony. Certain Christian opponents of the Peyote rite have termed the peyote an idol and the worship idolatry. The Catholic followers of the cult have cleverly vitiated the charge of idolatry by placing a crucifix on the altar with the peyote. In the Oto account of the ceremony there is seemingly contradiction, in that the informant, after stating that the Oto learned the ceremony from the Tonkawa, asserted that they received it from the Divine Ones. The informant, however, explains the contradiction by stating that the original group to possess the rite received it in a revelation from the spirits, and that, following divine instruction, they passed it on to other tribes. The avoidance of all ceremony is the practice with many of the tribes. It is probable that this omission originated through the need of secrecy during the more stormy years of the cult's existence; but owing to failure in obtaining convictions and the granting of the charter to the cult by the State of Oklahoma, this need has passed. The Osage adherents, instead of a temporary lodge, have well constructed buildings, circular in form, with concrete floors and altars, and the accompanying sweat-lodges are provided with similar floors. Such permanent buildings for the performance of the ceremony are invariably termed Peyote churches. While descriptions of the Peyote ritual were secured from several tribes, space cannot be given to more than one. Differences are minor. Apparently there has been but slight change in the ritual since the inception of the cult. The description of the ceremony as given by a missionary who witnessed it among the Comanche forty years ago would serve for the ceremony as it is practised today. His description of and comment on the rite were naturally antagonistic, as it was characterized as "devil worship," "idolatry," "drug-eating debauchery," and the like. An interesting story bearing on the early distribution of the Peyote ceremony is given by the Comanche. A member of their tribe was lost in the mountains. He had been wandering about, and was absent from his people for a year or more. One night he heard a drum beating, a long way off. Its monotonous continuation puzzled him; he could not determine what it was, since it did not sound like dance music. He decided to proceed in the direction of the sound and to learn for himself. After travelling some distance, he came to the bank of a creek {view image of page 212} 212 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN where there was a camp of the Jicarilla Apache -called Woods Apache by the Comanche. He was undecided whether to enter the camp, so he remained for a while on the outskirts. All the camp was silent and dark, except for one tipi which showed a light. It was from this tipi that the drum music came. The Comanche decided to leave his weapons by a tree and enter. It was possible that he would be killed, but rather than stay in the mountains and wander alone, he chose to take the chance for hospitality and information. Creeping up to the tipi, he lifted the door-flap and peeped in. There he saw an earthen altar with a priest behind it and people sitting in a circle. He slipped in and sat down. The priest motioned for him to roll tobacco in a leaf and smoke it, and when finished to throw the butt in the fire. Then the priest gave him some peyote and signed for him to eat. The Comanche by signs asked how to eat it, so the priest motioned for him to roll it in his hands and swallow it, and to ask for more when he wanted it. The Comanche listened attentively to the songs and prayers. Toward morning water and food were brought in, and all feasted. The priest motioned the Comanche to come and sit by him. In the language of signs the priest indicated that he was about to bestow a gift of great value. He told the Comanche to open his mouth. The priest then breathed deeply and exhaled, when his breath took the form of a spotted butterfly which entered the mouth of the Comanche. The butterfly thus signified that he would soon find some spotted and roan horses. The priest indicated that the Comanche was a good man, hence the gift, which was a peculiar medicine of his. He indicated that he was about to bestow another valuable gift, the peyote, which he gave in large quantity, showing that it would soon take the Comanche home. He left the Jicarillas and after travelling some days slept on the open prairie. When he awoke, he saw a band of spotted and roan horses. He caught one and drove the rest before him. During the night he had dreamed that he saw a form riding very fast until it came up to him, when it lay down beside him. He awoke, but nothing was there. He thought a while; then it occurred to him that it was his shadow which had been to his home camp and returned to him while he slept. He arose and caught his horses, and after a month's journey arrived in the Comanche camp. He told his people that he had learned something of great value, and taught them the Peyote ceremony. {view image of page 213} THE PEYOTE CULT 213 Peyote Experiences A Cheyenne, forty-eight years of age, educated at Carlisle, worked in the hospital there. After leaving school he was employed in other Indian hospitals. Becoming a confirmed drunkard, according to his own statements, his chief object in life was to obtain whiskey; he would do anything for a drink. He so neglected his wife and children that others had to clothe and feed them, until his wife was finally compelled to leave him. He had no interest in his tribesmen; even should they be in distress, he was quite indifferent to their suffering. Once a man of fine physique, he became so emaciated that he weighed only one hundred and forty-five pounds. Once after a drinking debauch he was run over by a wagon and his chest crushed. While still an invalid, friends persuaded him to join the Peyote organization. After becoming a member, he not only drank no intoxicants, but claims that the craving completely left him and that at no time does he desire to drink. Within a few years he has become one of the most substantial men of the tribe, living in a good home, with his children well cared for. He cultivates his own farm and proudly boasts that no member of his tribe can grow more wheat to the acre than he; and with greater pride asserts that if any member of his tribe is in trouble or distress, " I shall always do everything I can to help him, and that makes me happy." A Ponca man of sixty years relates: "I was just like a skeleton; I had tuberculosis; I was almost dead, and weighed but ninety-five pounds. I went to see some white doctors. They looked at me and said: 'You are the same as dead; you should go home and die. Do not spend money to talk with doctors; save your money to buy a coffin.' "Then my friend said, 'You had better join the Peyote; perhaps that will make you well.' I became a member of the Peyote society and took peyote all the time. Soon I grew stronger. In three months I was almost a strong man. In a year I was like a young man and had nearly doubled my weight. Before I joined the Peyote I did not care how other people lived. They might be hungry, but that did not concern me. Now I always think about other people, and all the Indians know that if they are hungry they can come to me." Many other experiences might be related, but these are typical. There are many who, having once been confirmed drunkards, now claim that since becoming members of the Peyote order they have lost all desire to drink. {view image of page 214} 214 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The "Stomp Dance and the Forty-nine Dance To the student of the Indians it is of exceeding interest to note the diffusion that is in process at the present time. This is all the more striking in the face of the controversy among investigators concerning diffusion, spread of culture traits, environmental influence, independent development, et cetera. There are at least two instances of diffusion of major importance taking place among the Southwestern Indians today: one, the Peyote cult; the other, the "Stomp dance." A lesser instance is the Forty-nine dance. The " Stomp" dance, it is claimed, originated among the Seminole; yet a study of the music of the dance would seem to indicate an African origin, as the rhythm and the minor wail appear to be quite foreign to Indian musical concept. Nevertheless, the words, or vocables, are Indian. It may consequently be inferred that, although the spread of this performance was through the Seminole and the Creeks, these groups received its music, if not the dance itself, from negro sources, but applied their own interpretation to it. The Stomp dance prevails today chiefly among the Indians of northeastern Oklahoma, especially the Quapaw, and along the northern border among the Osage, Oto, and Ponca. Our principal informant, Henry Snake, a Ponca living with the Osage, has made it his mission to introduce the dance among the various tribes. He it was who brought it from the Quapaw to the Osage, Oto, and Ponca; and the writer was present when he made it known to the Cheyenne. Later he proceeded on a mission to the Kansa and Iowa, that they too might be enthralled by the weird refrain. Though extremely popular with the "younger set," the elders regard the Stomp dance with disfavor. Asked why they object, the answers are nearly always the same - "It is not ours; it is not of our tribe. We paid no horses or blankets for it; therefore it is not our right to use it." A few old men, chiefly members of the Peyote cult, give as a reason for their opposition that while the Stomp dance is unobjectionable, it leads up to the Forty-nine dance. When the crier announces the Stomp dance, all participants, men and women, perhaps more than a hundred in number, form a long curved line about a central fire. Two leaders are required, one at the head of the line, the other about the middle to lead the responses. Then all follow the leader at the head of the line, single-file, round and round the fire. This part is accompanied by a peculiar rhythmic chant, the leader in the middle of the line chanting and the followers {view image of page 215} THE PEYOTE CULT 2I5 repeating in unison after him. The song is accentuated by the stamping, or "stomping," of feet, whence the name of the dance. A crouched, swaying posture of the body and the stamping of the feet in time with the song are preliminary to the second movement. The song now changes. The dancers face the fire and clasp hands, while the leader circles them around the fire several times. He guides them so that many concentric circles are formed, which ever grow smaller until finally the dancers are a milling mob. As skilfully the leader works his way out until the circles dissolve and the line of participants again becomes a single ring about the fire. This movement is repeated several times, or until the song ends. No drum is used. By this time the tempo of the music has become faster and the dancers break into a half run. Sweat pours down their faces and dust rises in clouds beneath their feet. Now the minor African wail is heard, a melody that stirs the emotions. The weird music, the steady stamp-stamp of feet, the swaying bodies, the brilliant moonlight, the flickering flames, the long shadows cast by the fire, all have such an hypnotic effect on the participants that they may dance for hours, although to them it seems but minutes. A Stomp dance, performed after other dances are ended, may last until dawn. The spread of the Forty-nine dance has been the reverse of that of the Stomp dance. Informants say that it came from the Southwest through the Apache, Kiowa, and Comanche, and that its trend has been northward and eastward. There is reason to believe that the performance had its origin in fertility ceremonies of the Pueblo Indians and that the Oklahoma form is a gross perversion of the original sacred rite. Although the account varies among different tribes, the name of the dance is derived from the fact that, after one such performance, forty-nine infants of doubtful parentage were born. Among some of the Indians the performance is given openly, while with others it is held secretly at a distance from camp. In all cases, however, the dance is conducted late at night, after all other dances are finished. Unless one should be familiar with the dance, it might be performed under the very eyes of white observers who would be none the wiser. In form the Forty-nine is what the Oklahoma Indians term a "social" dance; that is, drums and songs accompany it as in most dances, although the beat is slower; both men and women participate, the steps being those of a typical Indian woman dance. While dancing, the men select agreeable and willing partners with whom they go later to some secluded spot. When the dance is held secretly, the {view image of page 216} 2i6 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN women usually cover their heads with blankets that they may be known only to their partners. Among the tribes which have been accustomed to the Forty-nine, there is little secrecy; but among those with which it is still more or less of a novelty, the performance is well hidden. From any point of view such a dance may be regarded only as demoralizing, especially to a people still on the road to civilization. Many distressing incidents have resulted from the Forty-nine - murders and suicides, in addition to illegitimacy. The Indian elders, especially the members of the Peyote cult, are opposing the dance so vigorously that among some of the tribes it has nearly died out. The Stomp dance and the Forty-nine, originating in widely different localities, have met, especially in northern Oklahoma. Often the former precedes the latter, for which reason, say the elders, the Stomp dance leads naturally into the Forty-nine. FIRST STOMP DANCE SONG* Slow n A. Yell _ _ __ 88 va............................................ -*- -0- a A if - - ] '. ' * '.'- -— T- " —'H' -"~- - =l — *-3-m ' r' i Broad slur E E E E E E E E z _ X -t -,-r-' a ' - accel. E E:> Spoken E -,, = SokE E --—, -. mP =..... [ Yell 8va P............. a tempof '. 8va, E E E i^ --- ~ ~ —raw-., ~?., —E IE: E, E 8c rit.Br d sl Broad slur accel. {view image of page 217} THE PEYOTE CULT 217 Spoken 5 -- - -E Brito.:Recit. rit 1 t Broad slur ect t Broad slur F ' E Echo............... a tempo primo Echo................ Echo....... E, ^ F ^ ^ W ^ ^. r- IF Ir iI" ' '"' 1- ' ] F, L~ —' ir - LF (,i'F [-1 Spoken S 1 Echo... Echo....Echo —' Echo...... Echo..... Echo..." Echo ".. Echo "". Echo."" Echo""" —. Echo"-. Echo...... Echo..... Echo.... Echo........ Echo."""' Presto $ E over a note indicates an echo. Vocables of the First Stomp Dance Song Leader Hi-o Hi-o A-hi A-hi Hi-o Hi-o E-he E-he ~-hi-o C-hi-o 6-hi-ya O-hi-ya O-hi-ya O-hi-ya-a-hi-ya O-hi-ya-a-hi-ya O-hi-ya-a-hi-yo Response or Echo Hi-o Hi-o A-hi A-hi Hi-o Hi-o E-he E-he t-hi-o C-hi-o 6-hi-ya O-hi-ya O-hi-ya O-hi-ya-a-hi-ya O-hi-ya-a-hi-ya Hi-yo 1 The vocables are in two sections - those chanted by the leader and those given in response by the dancers, the latter marked as "echo" in the musical score. Various lines may be repeated at will, or shifted about in any order, according to the momentary whim of the chant leader. The Stomp Dance songs are repeated over and over until the leader brings the dance to a close. Two versions of the songs are presented. VOL. XIX-28 {view image of page 218} 218 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Leader 6-hi-ya-a-hi-yo 6-hi-ya-a-hii-yo 6-hi-ya-a-hii-yo 6-hi-ya-a-hii-yo 6-hi-ya-a-hii-yo Y6-hi-a-wa-hiiyo Y6-hi-o-wa-he'ya Hd-we-hi-hii-le Hti-we-me-hd-le He-ye-h6-we He-ye-h6-we Hi-le-o Hi-le-o Wfi-Ii-wa-ha-l'i-o Y6-l-w-hia-io Y6-hi-a Y6-hi-a &khi-a Response or Echo Hi-yo H~ii-YO H~ii-yo Hii-yo Wii-yo FHii-yo H~ii-yo Hii-yo H~ii-yo E-yo-wa'-hi-ya E-yo-wi-hi-va H6-we-hi-h6n-ge H6-we-me-hdn-ge He-ye-h6-we H'i-a H~i-Ie-o H~i-le-o Hi-le-o Hi-le-o Y6-hi-a Y6-hi-a Y6-hi-o t-hi-a SECOND STOMP DANCE SONG* Marcia E E E E E ~~ nt. ~~~~a tempo rit. a tempo rit. slow Nf~x I F F E E F4 10~~~~ U- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - {view image of page 219} THE PEYOTE CULT29 2ig E E r I~~~~II~ V I- I L LJtt K4 E~~~~~~ EEE E~~~~~ F~~t~r+P r LI F H F I H I' LIiM10- F *B over notes signifies echo. Vocables to the Second Stomp Dance Song Leader Ga-wa-n6-hi-a Ga-wa-n6-hi-a Ga-wa-n6-hi-a Yo-wa-le'-he Yo.-wa-16'-he Yo-wa-le'-he A-hi-ya-wa-he'-ya A-hi-ya-wa-he'-ya A-hi-ya-wa-h6-ya Yo-ha-l'i-ya We-yo-ha-n'i-ya We-yo-ha-ni-yo Yo-ha-ni-yo Yo-ha-ni-yo Yo-ha-ni-yo Yo-ha-ni-yo Yo-ha-nf-yo Yo-ha-n'i-yo Yo-ha-ni-yo Yo-ha-ni-yo Y6-he-yo Y6-he-yo Response or Echo Ga-wa-n6-hi-a Ga-wa-n6-hi-a Ga-wa-n6'-hi-a Yi-ya-we Yai-ya-we Yai-ya-we E-yo-wai-hi-ya E-yo-wai-hi-ya E-yo-wi-hi-ya Yo-hil-ni-yo W6-ha W6-ha We'ha W6-ha Yo-ha-nii-yo Yo-ha-nii-yo Yo-ha-ni-yo Yo-ha-nii-yo Yo-ha-nii-yo Yo-ha-ni-yo H~ii-yo H~ii-yo H~ii-yo Haii-yo Hi-yo Hii-yo {view image of page 220} 220 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Leader 6-hi-yo-hi-y-ai-ya Y6-hi-ya-nahi- na -y Y0-hi-ya-nahfi-y a - Ya-hi-ya-na-hi-na-yo Response or Echo. Hii-ya H~ii-ya Hii-ya - H~ii-ya Haii-ya H~ii-ya Y~i-ha Y~i-ha Yi-ha Hi-no Hi-no H'i-no - Hi-ni Hi-ni Hi-ni {view image of page 221} Appendix {view image of page 222} {view image of page 223} APPENDIX Tribal Summary Wichita LANGUAGE - Caddoan. POPULATION - 1272, including Caddo and affiliated bands. DRESS - In olden times the style of dress was not elaborate. Men wore breech-cloth and moccasins; women wore a short skirt and sometimes a deerskin shirt. In winter both sexes used buffalo-skin robes, dressed with the hair on. Men tattooed their chests, the symbols representing war deeds. Complete circles were tattooed about the eyes, from which the tribe derived its name Kidiktdesh ("Raccoon Eyes"). The women bore highly elaborate tattooed designs on face, neck, chest, and breasts. The purpose of tattoo marks for the women, aside from the benefits of health, long life, and beauty, was to distinguish them from women of other tribes and from slaves. DWELLINGS - As an agricultural people and village-dwellers, the Wichita erected substantial, conical, grass-thatched dwellings which served also as ceremonial lodges. An elaborate ritual accompanied their erection. For summer use rectangular arbors were built, the roof thatched in a manner similar to that of the grass-house, but the sides were left open. Maidens slept in a thatched hut built on a platform reached by a ladder which was removed at night when the girls retired. PRIMITIVE FOODS -The Wichita raised corn, beans, melons, squashes, and pumpkins; the last two were dried, cut into long strips, and braided and hung away for winter use. Game, such as deer, antelope, and buffalo, was eaten as fresh meat or was stored for the winter. Wild vegetables such as sweet-potatoes and pond-lily bulbs, as well as nuts, berries, and fruits, were gathered. ARTS AND INDUSTRIES - So far as can now be learned, the handicraft was not extensive. Household utensils, such as wooden bowls, mortars, pestles, horn spoons, and metate-like grinding stones, were common. The building of shelters, however, was intricate. In early times, pottery vessels were made. The plaiting of squash and pumpkin strips, the drying and storing of meats, and the preparation of other winter foods, while not intricate, was long and tedious work. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION -The Wichita recall four bands: the Wichita proper, Weeko (Waco), Tawaikdi (Tawakoni), and Isils. Each band, and consequently each village, had a chief and a sub-chief. In council one of these was elected as head-chief to preside over the meeting. Chieftainship was not hereditary, but was passed down from a retiring chief to any man of worth and ability. There were fourteen known dance societies, but their functions, legends, and rituals have largely been lost, with the exception of those of the Surround-the-fire and Deer Dance societies. MARRIAGE - Marriage was arranged usually between families, although it might be effected through the mutual consent of the couple concerned. A feast, given to the family of the bride by the family of the man and accompanied with gifts of wearing apparel for the bride, constituted the marriage ceremony. Marriage took place both within and without the bands, but in the case of an exogamous marriage the man went to the band of his wife, hence in this respect the social organization was loosely matrilineal. There was no mother-in-law taboo, but the son-in-law must fulfill the slightest wish of his parents-in-law. Divorce was easily effected, though attempts would be made by the parents of both parties to effect reconciliation. Adultery resulted in divorce, with no tribal punishment for either person, although private revenge was often inflicted. MORTUARY CUSTOMS - After a body had been painted, dressed, and adorned with various 223 {view image of page 224} 224 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN ornaments, it was kept in the grass-house for a mourning period of from two to four days, then placed in a grave, with the head toward the east, after a prayer to Mother Earth by the person in charge of the burial. The grave was covered with small logs, placed conically, about four feet in height. The relatives of the deceased purified themselves by bathing in a stream four times a day for a period of four days. RELIGION —The Wichita have an extensive pantheon, of whom Kinnikasiis ("Spirit Over All") is foremost and who is included in all prayers. The others consist of the Sky Gods and Earth Gods. Chief among the former are Moon, Spirit of the Water, Sun, Morning Star, South Star, and North Star. The Earth Gods include Earth Mother and the spirits of most animate and inanimate objects. There is a belief in immortality in a spirit world somewhere in the sky; in an afterlife of happiness and freedom from earthly discomfort. The spirits of suicides may not enter this spirit land, but are doomed to hover near on the outside. CEREMONIES AND LEGENDS - Wichita legends are replete with religious ceremonies which are broadly similar in ritualistic form. The most notable are Surround-the-fire, Buffalo Bundle, Deer, and Rain ceremonies, each having its particular function, dealing chiefly with propagation and tribal welfare. Other legends convey teachings of the spirits; teachings of guidance by the spirits and of right and wrong thinking; of upright living; of the exercise of spiritgiven powers; of faith and spiritual thought; and of instruction regarding religious precepts and practice. These, though not inherently religious but rather moral lessons, are best illustrated in the legends of The Morning Star, Bear Broken Leg, The Man Who Married A Fish, The Girl In The Moon, and The Water Spirit. NAMES FOR INDIAN TRIBESApache Kinds Arapaho Saritika Cherokee Sinaki * Cheyenne SayAdi Chickasaw Chikas * Comanche Natua Creeks Wask6gi * Delawares SawiCra Kiowa Kaiwa * Osage Wasas * Oto Wisohra Pawnee Uwahei Ponca Nihit Sauk and Foxes Sakiwa * Seminole Siwilod6 * Wichita Kidikidesh Southern Cheyenne LANGUAGE - Algonquian. POPULATION - 1835. DRESS -The Cheyenne wore clothing common to the tribes of the plains: for men, hipleggings of deer- or buffalo-skin (for which in recent times cloth has been substituted); breechcloth; moccasins of deer-, elk-, or buffalo-skin with rawhide soles. Women wore beaded knee-length leggings and a dress of two hides sewn together. DWELLINGS - The earth lodge was the typical dwelling at a time when they were a semisedentary people, although these are not mentioned in tradition. In historic times they have used the skin tipi. PRIMITIVE FOODS - As typical Plains Indians, the Cheyenne depended on the buffalo for most of their food supply. The flesh of other animals, deer and antelope chiefly, as well as native fruits, roots, berries, and wild vegetables, were used. (See Vocabulary, pages 230-233.) ARTS AND INDUSTRIES - Household utensils consisted chiefly of bone scrapers, horn spoons, wooden bowls and dishes, and vessels made of the inner lining of the buffalo paunch. * Adopted names. {view image of page 225} APPENDIX 225 These latter were suspended from a hoop supported by sticks thrust in the ground, the water in such vessels being heated with stones. Combs were made from the tails of porcupines in which sticks were inserted to lend stiffness. Transportation in later days was by means of the horse and travois; formerly the dog was the only beast of burden. After hides were fleshed, a mixture of brains, liver, and soapweed-root was rubbed into them, when they were staked out in the sun. This compound, under the sun's rays, soaked into the hides and softened them. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION - The Cheyenne were governed by a council, an electorate body of forty-four chiefs, represented by forty-four chief-sticks. The first four were chosen from the respective bands at the cardinal points of the camp-circle. A fifth chief was then elected who could decide for or against any question discussed in the council. The remaining chiefs of the council were elected regardless of band. The last four of the forty-four chief-sticks represented any other chiefs who happened to be in camp with the Cheyenne chiefs. Warrior societies existed, but they were not age-societies. There was an organized camp-circle, but the positions of the bands as given by present-day informants varied. The following figures show the positions as given respectively by a Sitai and a Cheyenne. SUTAI CHEYENNE N N 44~8 2 W 3 E W7 E 2S S S I. HotaimItfnyl (Dog band) or Masiskuta I. Masiskuta 2. HIvihnlhp6ih 2. Hotimltanye 3. Ovimana (Scab band) 3. Ohtoonyt 4. OmiShish (Eaters) 4. Hivihhnihpoli 5. W6tapi (Eating band) 6. Ovimana 7. Isiometany (Ridge Hill band) 8. Hefatinyfl (Hairy band) MARRIAGE - Marriage was usually arranged by friends of the suitor, who negotiated for the marriage with the woman's family. Adultery resulted in divorce, and in the case of a woman offender the guilty one might suffer the loss of her nose at the hands of her wrathful spouse, while her paramour might be killed by him. Polygyny was practised. MORTUARY CUSTOMS - Immediately after death, the body was washed, dressed, and painted, though not necessarily in the dress and paint of the band or society. Property was disposed of immediately by giving away, throwing away, or burning. The body was placed, head directed westward, in a tree, on a platform, or in the ground. A favorite horse was often killed at the place of burial in order that the deceased might travel more easily in the afterworld. It is believed that the spirit must go on a four-day journey, visiting all places where it had been when on earth. When a medicine-man died, his sacred objects were often given to his fellow medicine-men. The preparation of a body for burial was under the supervision of a medicineman, who, following the ceremonies, must purify his medicines in the sweat-lodge by rubbing them four times with sage and water. He did not sing the usual sweat-lodge songs. The cere VOL. XIX-29 {view image of page 226} 226 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN mony was performed four times before the medicine might be used again. As a sign of mourning the family of the deceased cut their hair and gashed their arms and legs. RELIGION AND CEREMONIES - The principal religious ceremony of the Southern Cheyenne is that of the Sacred Arrows. The four arrows used in the rite, according to mythology, were received from divine sources by Mofseiy6iv, a prophet who gave instructions as to their use. The ceremony is held only when necessity arises, such as to remove contamination of the arrows through some unfortunate incident occurring within the tribe, or because of a vow in consequence of a dream. The benefits of the ceremony were not only extended to purification of the arrows or to the individual votary, but to the tribe as a whole. The Sun dance, probably brought to the Cheyenne by the Sutai, is an annual institution, and, in a manner similar to the Arrow ceremony, is given in consequence of a vow. Another rite is the Buffalo ceremony, again given in the performance of a vow. This rite is a dramatization of two S6tai legends, a dramatized prayer for the reanimation of all living things and the healing of the physically afflicted. MYTHOLOGY -The stories are of several types: religious and ceremonial myths, legendary origins of bands and societies, obstacle stories, and tales of a practical nature including methods of craftsmanship in various arts and industries: Apparently Cheyenne folktales are extended accounts of incidents and happenings occurring and recurring according to the mystic number four, carried to an extreme. They often lack the brevity and point common to the tales of other Plains tribes. SEASONS - Autumn - Donoff, Leaves turn yellow. Winter - Anif, It is getting colder. Spring - Mafsiomff, Grass is becoming green. Summer - Miamif, Hot weather. Oto LANGUAGE - Siouan. POPULATION -The combined population of the Oto and the Missouri is 637. DWELLINGS -The earth-lodge, of heavy wooden timbers covered with sod, was the typical dwelling of the permanent villages. The skin tipi was used during the hunting season. Ceremonial lodges, larger than but otherwise similar to the earth-lodges, were erected. Menstrual houses were kept well apart from other lodges. Hemispherical sudatory huts were made of arched sticks thrust into the ground and covered with hides. PRIMITIVE FOODS -The Oto raised corn, pumpkins, and beans, and gathered nuts, berries, and the products of such other wild growths as the turnip and sweet-potato. The buffalo was the most important meat-producing animal. ARTS AND INDUSTRIES - Buffalo and deer furnished hides which were tanned for tipicovers, costumes, robes, etc. Hide was also used for ceremonial bundle coverings and parfleche cases, while rawhide bags served for the storage of clothing, weapons, and food supplies. These bags were kept in bottle-shape caches six feet deep, with smoothly plastered walls, beneath the floors of the earth-lodges. On the march the Oto made use of the travois, formerly with dogs, later with horses. Household utensils consisted chiefly of cooking-pots, wooden bowls, buffalo-horn spoons, stone knives, and bone scrapers. Fire was made formerly with the hand drill; punk was obtained by splitting a log in halves, which, placed one above the other but separated by a small space, were left undisturbed for a period of two to six months, during which time a fungus growth appeared, about half an inch thick, which when dried made excellent tinder. Meat was broiled on a green willow framework, semi-cylindrical in shape, placed over the fire. GAMES -The hoop-and-pole game and archery contests were the chief amusements. There were several kinds of archery. Sometimes a wooden target was buried on a hillside at which each marksman loosed four arrows wherever in the plot he might think the target was hidden. The arrow closest to the hidden mark won, and in case the target was actually hit by more than one arrow, that nearest the centre won. The archers wagered arrows against one another, while the spectators bet on the contestants. The moccasin game (naweuje) is a guessing game wherein a marker is hidden in one of a number of moccasins, a simple system of counters being used to keep score for the contestants who guess where the marker is hidden. A winter game (madufhrudata) is played on hard ground. Players use tapered pliant sticks {view image of page 227} APPENDIX 227 of hardwood, which they whirl around their heads and release in such manner as to bound off the frozen earth. The farthest cast wins. In the hand gambling game (nawida), twenty sticks, each painted half-white, half-colored, are bunched in a player's hand, with the ends resting on the ground. After bets have been placed, the hand is opened and the sticks let fall. The greatest number of any one color showing wins. The game most commonly played by both sexes is the hand guessing game. The players are divided into two sides. An umpire, who has two piles of six counters each, chooses one woman from each side. While men are represented on the sides, the women do the guessing. To one of these he gives two small bone markers which she conceals in one hand, making passes to confuse her opponent, who tries to guess in which hand they are concealed. If the opponent guesses correctly, she in her turn takes the markers; but, if she loses, she must continue to guess until she wins, though with each wrong guess the umpire places a counter from her pile on that of her opponent. After each has guessed from the other, the first player gives one marker each to two of her side, while the second player guesses in which hand they are concealed. If she loses on both markers, she loses two counters; if but one guess is wrong, one counter; if she wins, it is her turn to take the markers to any two of her side, while her opponent guesses in turn. Each side has its own drum and corps of drummers who drum and chant while their side possesses the markers. When the umpire has all the counters in one pile, that side wins and dances around its drum. The second game follows in the same manner. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION - Chieftainship is usually hereditary, the office passing, in terms of kinship, to eldest son, son of eldest son, second son, or sister's son, provided these are worthy of the position. Should there be no descendants, or should they be unworthy, election is held by the council. The council (sama) is composed of chiefs of the seven original clans who hold position by heredity or election in a manner similar to the chieftainship. Their duty is to discuss all matters of importance to the tribe. The tribe is divided into two groups of clans: first, Bear and subsidiaries, Elk, Eagle, and Beaver; second, Owl and subsidiaries, Buffalo, Snake, and Pigeon. There are two societies of political importance, the Buffalo and the Otter. Since each clan chief belongs to one or the other, these societies become the power behind the council. The main object of the societies is to promote men of worth, with qualities of leadership; hence only persons of recognized standing in the tribe may be eligible to membership. Besides the various dance societies, there is one purely social in nature, the Red Bean (Mankans6je). The women have the Drinking Water society (Palata), charitable in nature, especially toward old women and to widows recently bereft. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION - Although there was no organized camp-circle, and clans and families had no fixed position, the camp was circular in shape, with the council and sanctuary lodges in the centre. Clans were composed of family groups and were strictly exogamous. Descent was matrilineal, children belonging to the clan of the mother, though the father owed allegiance to his own clan. Tattooing of girls when they had reached marriageable age signified that they were virgins and of Oto descent. MARRIAGE - Courtship necessitated the exercise of cunning, as the sexes, especially at the age of puberty, were kept strictly apart. When the families of the couple had consented to their marriage (consent was necessary and elopement punished), a feast was given by the girl's parents and a payment equivalent to her supposed worth was made to her father or uncle. This formal feast constituted the marriage rite. Monogamy was the rule, though polygyny was practised by chiefs and headmen. Marriage of one daughter conveyed a prior claim on her maturing sisters for the economic purpose of keeping wealth in the family, or, in the case of chiefs, to keep the blood relationship in the family. There was no taboo of the mother-in-law, but marked respect was paid to her by sons-in-law. Divorce was effected by the consent of the respective parents of the couple involved, in which case the woman returned to her family and the man lost his original payment. Adultery was punished, in the case of the man, through the council, which, on finding him guilty, ordered a severe whipping. A woman, so found, became an outcast, and consequently a prostitute. An outraged husband sometimes took the law in his own hands, killing the guilty man and beating his wife or cutting off her nose. MORTUARY CUSTOMS -The body, after being dressed in its best, with food and weapons at the head, and face painted according to clan design, was placed on the branches of a tree or on a framework built on four upright poles, the head directed northward. Purification rites were practised for those who had touched the body, and the lodge likewise was purified. Per {view image of page 228} 228 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN sonal property was burned or given away; other property descended to wife and children, though the last wishes of the deceased in the disposal of his belongings were respected. The soul departed to the land of spirits if the departed had led a good life, otherwise it would remain on earth and know no rest. RELIGION - Few religious ceremonies now exist. In their summer encampments "social" and "good-time" dances are the vogue, interspersed with exhibitions of the more contortionate dances of the white man rather than the old tribal rites. The most complete ceremony today is perhaps that for girls entering puberty. MYTHOLOGY - While each clan possesses its own genesis story, the Bear Band, the dominating band, is keeper of the tribal legend of origin. The Oto have a fund of myths, tales with moral preachments, children's stories, and myths for general entertainment. The trickster appears to have been the coyote. NAMES FOR INDIAN TRIBES Arapaho Aripihu * Cheyenne Sihi Chippewa Lekiahi Comanche Pad6nk1 Creeks Nistigi Crows Kihe Iowa Bah6ge Kansa Kifnhe Missouri Nutachi Osage Wilay6 Oto Chiwere Potawatomi W6laha Quapaw qpapa Sauk and Foxes Thige Wichita Pafhegrehe Winnebago Hotinge MONTHS- January - Minjitinwe, The little young bear comes down the tree. February - MikFkilihe, Raccoon's rutting season. March - Biuoninge, Big clouds. April - Peskebietawe, Little frogs croak. May - Mekinye, To get ready for plowing and planting. June - Mela6nyo, Hoeing corn. July - Chekiluhe, Buffalo rutting season. August - Humayochina, All the elk call. September - Tominnaihmala, Spider-web on the ground at dawn. October - Takilihe, Deer rutting season. November - Tahewahson, Every buck loses his horns. December - Thrin, Cold month. Comanche LANGUAGE - Shoshonean. POPULATION - I790. DRESS - Men dressed in deerskin shirts, leggings, and moccasins, while the clothing of the women was a one-piece deerskin dress and knee boots beautifully decorated with beads. They used many ornaments of silver or shell bartered by traders, from whom they also procured vermilion, verdigris, and indigo for paints. DWELLINGS - As the Comanche were largely nomadic, wandering over a vast territory, they made use of the skin tipi almost exclusively. PRIMITIVE FOOD- Nothing was raised agriculturally. The buffalo furnished the main food supply. * An adopted term. {view image of page 229} APPENDIX 229 ARTS AND INDUSTRIES- Not only did the buffalo furnish the food supply, but it afforded also the material for household utensils, bones for scrapers, horn for spoons, the paunch for cooking utensils, sinew for thread, skin for tents and clothing, in fact almost everything needed from the cradle to the grave. Outside of the bare necessities for existence, there was little art or. craftsmanship. GAMES - The Comanche played the familiar hoop-and-pole game and stick dice, and held archery contests. The women played a form of lacrosse. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION- There were twelve or more bands or divisions when the tribe was at its climax, but today this organization is almost lost. The following bands are still recalled by the old men: Defsanayuka or Nokoni Penateka or Penande Yipa or Yimparika Tan6m6 Kefset6ka or Qihadi Qasiner Mefsai Ketate, a branch of some other band Pagafsu, the same as Yapa Muvinavore, some other tribe. Each band had a chief and a sub-chief chosen in council. The qualifications for chieftainship were bravery and success in warfare, skill and daring. The Comanche did not have soldier societies. MARRIAGE- There was no restraint to marriage except the one prohibiting the union of blood relatives. Polygyny was practised widely through the custom of taking women captives, which ranked next in importance to killing in warfare. There was no actual marriage ceremony. The mother-in-law taboo common to many tribes was not recognized. Adultery was punished, in the case of a married woman, by cutting off her nose. MORTUARY CUSTOMS - The legs were drawn up, the body wrapped in a buffalo-robe and buried in the ground or laid away in a cave. RELIGION AND CEREMONIES- Outside of belief in good and bad spirits, and that knowledge came from the spirits after long periods of fasting, especially knowledge of healing and of the few ceremonies held, the religious life of the Comanche was meagre. In prayer they addressed "Father Above" and "Mother Earth." The golden eagle symbolized the sun, which in turn was indefinably related to Father Above. The few ceremonies performed partook of the nature of healing rites, such as the Big Tail medicine ceremony, the Deer dance, and sweatlodge healing. The Sun dance was held in a large extended tipi, rather than in the customary lodge, and its songs were borrowed from other tribes. In the Sun dance the participants went to extremes of self-torture. MYTHOLOGY - There is a notable lack of religious legends, and legends of culture and of moral teachings. Narratives of the chase and of war, as well as brief folktales, abound. The trickster heroes are the coyote and the fox. NAMES FOR INDIAN TRIBESArapaho Siditfka Caddo Karro * Cheyenne Siennavo * Comanche Num Crows Aa Kiowa Kaiwuna * Osage Wisasi * Pawnee Qitarai * Pueblo tribes Pimiksi Sioux Papichimina Wichita Tokunai * An adopted term. {view image of page 230} Vocabularies ANATOMICAL TERMS English ankle ankle-joint arm blood bone chest chin ear elbow elbow-joint eye face finger finger-nail foot hair hand head heart knee leg lips lung mouth neck nose nostrils toe Oto fhe'kon fhe-ka's-o-ke i-glai-j'e wa-bai-ge wi-hii man-ye i-kd' na- dwa i-d6-ge Cheyenne j'ih-o-na-ot ma-ah-ji mah hih miaje-ihi-yo i-ihti-yo ma-to-waih-ji ma-ah-jl-6-na-ot na-we-dwi'-dhe mo-ik na-we-Ahi-ge mi-to-hif fhi hil-high nan-du myk na-we ma-at-fl nnm-fhu mik ni-shj mak-jis'-A 1e6-ge ma-jfk la-hd' hip-p6-nit-ju 1 natj ta-9b' hj6u ma-if p6n-a-he-je ji-o-ta-sin-u (hli-pa na-ma-hi'-I-mu Wichita as-k'i-j6 wet wa-skit-sa gf-gha kek gi-ta-weks o-f8 gin-o6t-sa gid-dik it-ska Ygh-kit-sa lih-qi(g osk di-6t-sa wu-lk sy-kff& gi-ilihk-wa ga-' ha h6-ka gl-tit-sa d'i-sa hi-di-ka osk48f hit-sa a-ak Comanche nafi-sl-mni-na pi-da bu-p' &h6=ni ni-nap par-ruck nak kip p6-i mi-sit nap pap mo pap pi-hi tt~-nap Om tup som tup t6i-yop muv mu-vi-ti-ra-rup ti-si-wur-ki ta-sit ek tam toe-nail tongue tooth 1l&fhe hi ik mi-to-hif wl-ta-n6f wi-6-ta antelope * badger * bat ANIMALS1I ti-to 2d6h-do-e-wo-ka h6-ge ma-haih-go pin-ghii-hi mo-sils-ka-sin-6 -na-hi-yo nd-tuns qi- ha-di hun hd-na-vi-po-ka 1 The names of animals used as food are indicated by stars. 2 The prefix ta is probably a generic term for most homed animals. It appears as a component part of the terms for antelope, deer, and mountain-sheep.:230 {view image of page 231} VOCABULARIES English bear, black* bear, grizzly* beaver * buffalo * buffalo bull * buffalo cow * buzzard coyote crow deer* deer, blacktail* deer, white-tail* dog * duck* eagle, bald eagle, black eagle, golden eel * elk * fish (generic)* fox * frog goose* horse* lizard meadow-lark mink mountain-lion mountain-sheep* muskrat opossum* otter* owl pelican* pheasant* pigeon * porcupine* prairie-chicken* quail * rabbit., cottontail* rabbit, jack-* raccoon* raven skunk snake (generic) snake, black Oto mdn-je ma'3-t6 6he' dhe~d6-ge 6he~m~n-y6 he-g6 man-yi-ka'-fhe ka'-he ta~fh 'We 2 ta~hon gh6n-ke-nye hrai=pa-fhe hra hii-ma 3 ho mi-fihe-ke mi-hra wa-g'ni-d6-we po-ltin-la tik-sin-6 wa-pah-k6-we ta-ki-i-nye u-dwa-gbin-ye Cheyenne ma-sta-nah-k6'ye h6-mat i-si-won1 mo-dihi-no i-si-won=mlh h6-6 6-ka-ml 6-kok wa-6t-&ii-va h6-tam wid-ah-ha d6-to-hi mo-e nu-mat wiih-gis o-o-nah hi-na mo-ilh-no ni-nil-u-yas p6h-ke na-nil-si-hom Wichita wi-da-ghad-is gk-t!h tah I tah=ndd-hfta tah~n'ad-hu-6ski-h~t a-w6-ya, gI-son go'h ta! kit-si-ya sut-si-kilt-sa go-re-ft-sko hif-kaf6 fif-ki-ye gag~ kiit-di-ka 231 Comanche tu=wa-sa-pi o-tu=wa-sa-pi pit-sulk ne-ma-k6'-a-6ho1 ne-ma-k6'-a-6ho= pi-a-bi-ap ne-ma-k6-a-6ho= pi-a-kom ti-ma-i-nap di6-na t6-wi-ka a-du-ka si- di pu-ya pi-si-ya ta-vi-qi-nai pa-tu-yd1 p6-i-qi wa-ni ga-wA-ra tii-hu-ya h'i-ta pa-pi-w~n-ta-matefg to-ya-rr6-ko man-ki'n-ye ni'-in lui-j'e pi- hi gho-h6 nj migh-ti'=hfin-je mi-kt ki-he-hiln-je m6n-ka wa- kan wi-ka e-hwe wa-ho-y6-si-yiti yo-si-tai-yo a-ni-wiik-ko-hi mafg-k6m ihi-ihi-no-wot it-si-di-ki-da, i-hi-i-i kih-ki-l1 g6-kis wag~ ki-di-sta-rane-we-'i( pIa-ai pi-ah-qa-si hi-ni m6-pIf6 yun pi-ko-ko-ko tu-e-ta-vo-ki-na pi-a-ti'-vo-ki-na pi-ro-ko pi-su-ni IGeneric term for buffalo, but it forms a component part of specific terms in the discrimination between sex and age of buffalo. 2 The prefix ta is probably a generic term for most horned animals. It appears as a component part of the terms for antelope,-deer, and mountain-sheep. 3 See page i0z. {view image of page 232} 232 English snake, bullsnake, moccasin THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Oto wa-kain=fhi Cheyenne Wichita Comanche snake, rattle spider squirrel, gray * squirrel, red * turkey * turtle * weasel, summer weasel, winter wilIdcat wolf woodcock * wa-g'li-ha-ha-je he'fh-je-in-ya h6-du-fiha u-dwa-bi-sihe ghiin-ta nl-u d6h-do"4hil-ghino-wot wi-hu ma-in-i~n fi(-igh wifa-a-as-qafg kik-is kii-yu-ni td-se-na mi~h-ka-wili wi-yo-sk6ks h6h-n6-hi-ya~ md-si-kat go-le-gil-ta-ha east north bfi'-wa-hu U-me-dh CARDINAL POINTS ski-di qi-n6-ve-tut ("ctoward the winter ") yi-a'-mi-e ka-pi-na'-pe-tut south west u-le-k6-li bii-w-dfli nom-ha-s4t6 f-di-kufg black blue brown gray green red white fhe'we to h6-je ha-t6-je Ahii-je ska COLORS ji-muh-s'6f gai-is ji-u-ta-t6f mi-as-kit jil-poh ji1-mah ji1-wa-kom tu-h-'p~ 6-flift ki-d-pt -sipt pa-ti-wi'-a-kit 6-ka-wit t6-sa-vit ga-wafg qafg k tit PRIMITIVE FOODS1I acorn blackberry chokecherry corn cranberry currant elderberry gooseberry grapes hackberry haw, black hazel hickory huckleberry bii-je le'to-hile-ge nim-pa ii-afih-gu-su-je ha-fihe-fihi-in-ye dii-uh-u mi-ke-li-b'nisk6 hi-fihe g6-hu ni-4ha-me gua-yi -ye gr6-nyi ha-fih6to 6-om-ghi-6h-si- h U-w afi8 yon high-s'a-ji-min- ga'-ha h6h-pa-il-mln-aaf slai 6-ha-si-6h-si-yon pa-sa-pui-ni tu-na-ni-6ha-ya to-nip nat-sa-mo-qe 1 See also under the head of Animals. {view image of page 233} VOCABULARIES English meat, dried mushroom onion pecan plum potato, wild prickly-pear raspberry, black sage strawberry sunflower sunflower-root sunflower-stalk walnut Oto ma-o-s~te ghi-h6n-je wa-ta-fhr6-6he kin-je pi-pa-hi le-to-hhl6-ge ha-h6h-j'e hi-ghj~e wa-hla-fhi-hiini'hje wa-hla-fihi-hun ti-ge Cheyenne h6-no-wuh h3-ma-ta'-hi-om hih-kon-yi-yo6h-si-yon Wi~chita ge-as hi-ifi~ 233 Comanche kuk~ su-hikfhhi-6hT-na wl-k6-si pg-h6-vi d oh-do-mi-him h6-in-us ku'd-di-kis-tag ask-in-ti-o6 gi-to -wa-liks hi-Sp ofg-ktiha arrow arrow feathers arrow-point basket (generic) basket, berrybasket., medicinebasket, storagebasket,, waterblanket boat bow bowl, wooden breech-cloth cap, skin costume, man's costume, woman's deerskin dress fire-drill house, summer house, winter legging matting moccasin mortar ni-a m6-la-ta-ge nim-pa-fhe wafh-kii-u-gu pi-fhna wafh-i-hai-u-gu ni-la-gu mi bi-je HANDICRAFT ma-hi ma-h=jik-ho-howo ma-hl=ho-noah horn (dugout) na-wifh-ka ka-mih-hoh-jim nik-wat-sa hi-ki-yas i-si-It-sa ha-waf~-ka-edi-wa d ih-sa-wat-sa ga-big-wit-ni-igo-ha ki-ti-is (tipi) i-gu-tan ki-na-ge-ki-gl&i hi-je ta-hi wi-li-ki-gla-ni na-If-hu-kA wu-'ka-ho-ef h6n-ye-o palk sa-ni-wias wa-na pa-w6-vi-pok hu-6 6hi-ni-kil te-ne-piih-a-ri-kaiqa-su wa-i-pdh-a-ri-kaiqa-su a-ri-ki-puh ta-t6-piit-sii-ki-&6 na-kun nu-mflk (tipi) kus n6-mti-nap ni-lu-ma (bark covered) rni-ni-ki-6hi (earth-lodge) i-gu-tun i-fhi-hu i-gu-je h6-ni-pa wi-I (ti pi) hi-ihi-kdn-hai-yo a-kg (grass(earth-lodge) lodge) mih-to-hon dih-i-go-hat mu-kin-hut-Shfi d ih-a-si wi-ki-fo-y6 hih-gri VOL. XIX-30 {view image of page 234} 234. English pestle shirt snowshoes spear, fishspear, warspoon, wooden sweat-lodge THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Oto h6-ni w6-na-i bai-gu-tall h6i-ya mi-tu-gl~ nan-tu-ge u-gde-6hi Cheyenne t6-o na-Iiihji Wich ita haih-kiln-tas dih-sa-wat-nil-igo-ha Comanche sa-qe qi-su tdf&-su-wai na-s6- ko-i ha-ni-hd-yu h6-mo g~in-nik-sas ka-mah-ha'-miih- hag-igi-a-riku gifg-a i-main giut-sa(~kj NATURAL PHENOMENA ashes charcoal cloud darkness day earth fire fog ice lake light lightning moon moonlight mountain night rain rainbow river rock sky smoke snow star star., shooting sun thunder water wind wind., east ha-h6'-je u-hu-in-ye ma-h6-we u-hin-fhe hi-we ma-ydn-je= lo-miln-je 2 pe-je ma-ki-qi'-(he nd-he j6-gi-he dai-kan lIi-gli bi 4 bi-di'-we a-h6 hin-fihe ni-yu wa-gd-nye nai-o-we i-b0 ma-hd-we s6-je ba bi-ki-he hi ko ni ti-je (generic) bd"-wa-hu 8 he-6sj woh l-4hi-if h6-1 h o-isSt ma-in-un 3 wa-em ni-i-hon ji-wu-hu-kas h6-it-a da-i-ghi hagi-g&lk g&ld d6-kas &hId-ki-wig kin-ia-kif~h-di-ya Ihwi ji-ma-h6-ho-na-if di'-if i-ho-6-k6' ji-ho-6-ko'-n6-n6 -no-o 6h-he ho-ho-nih woh-ji-ii-ta-t5f hi-s-tagh ho-t6h 1-9hi no-n6-ma. map hi-ha-igh wl-a i-skit ta-h i-di-ask a-ski-ai-ko-a ha-hi-da-kd as-kat i&i-qa-Ak he-qld-ik di-hi-wi-di-ki-as sa-kit-a gin-niks gig~ n6-At 6 nd-sak-a-ski-di= no-At 9 ku-to'b to-mg-bi tua-ki-ni-kat ti- ben'1 so-kS-vi wt-hat pa-ku-nii-i-kllt ti-ka-vi pi-ka-rert ti-ben mud-a t6-ya-vl tid-kan ud-mad pi-si-mi'-ro-ko hid-nu-wi tu-ap t6-mo-vi qip ti-ka-vi ti-6lhi-nup ti-ben to-m6-ya-kit pa nid-1t7 mu-ye-naii=nu-Tt 1 Generic term for day, light, and sun. 2 Literal meaning, "as an island." I Except in accent, the term for fog is identical with that for turtle. 4 Full moon, hokie. See page 172. f, Bi is the term for both sun and moon, and it forms also a component part of the words for moonlight and star. 6 Generic term and also an affix of the terms for the four winds. 7 Generic term and an affix of the terms for east, north, and west winds. 8 The terms for the four winds and for the respective four cardinal points are identical. 9 Literally, "where the sun comes up." {view image of page 235} VOCABULARIES English wind, north wind, south wind, west Oto u-me-dli u-le-ku-li bu-we-dli Cheyenne nom-tim-jI-hist nom-ha-jI-hIst i-shI-j-sta-'fshti 't Wichita na-i-6hI-di-a-skidi=no-At ' f-di-kufi=no-at ni-sa-ki-si-sil-di= no=at 2 235 Comanche qi-ne-mii=nu-It yu-a-mi-e ka-pi-nai-nu=It one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve thirteen fourteen fifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen nineteen twenty twenty-nine thirty thirty-nine forty forty-nine fifty fifty-nine i-yin-ki nu-w6 di-nyi d6-we fhi-tun ghi-gue sahi-ma gle-li-b'ni shfin-ke gle-b'na gle'-b'na= i-g'ni=yun-ki gle-b'na= i-g'ni=nu-wi gle-b'na= i-g'ni=da-nyi gle-b'na= i-g'ni=do-we gle-b'na= i-g'ni=fha-tun gle'-b'na= a-g'ni=sha-gue gle-b'na. i-g'ni=-shi-ma gle-b'na= i-g'ni=li-b'ni gle-b'na= i-g'ni=ihdn-ke NUMERALS noh nih ni-ha ne-if n6-hon no-s6t nl-s6t no-not so-ot ma-tot hot=n6h hot=nih hot=na-ha hot=ne'-if hot=n6-hon hot=n6-sot hot=nf-sot hot=n6-not hot=s6-ot ahi-as su-mtls wits wa-hat ta pa-hit ta-qifs hai-ye'r-o-qlt Is-qi-ffs m6-o-vlt ki-e-hes na-vait ki-o-whtif ta-ho-It ki-a-ta na-mi-wa-&ho-Xt dhi-as-kfn-ti su-ma-nu-wimnnat is-kl-di-a-wa-as su-man-It 6hi-as-ti-ki-tilk su-mu-mato-i-qtt wit=tis-a-ras wi-hat-td-mato-i-qtlt ta=tiff-a-ras pa-hit-tfi-maa t6-i-qtlt ta-qifs= hai-yer-o-qtt-tfitifg-a-ras ma=t6-i-qut ks-qi-ff- m6-o-vlt-ti-ma= tifs-a-rls t6-i-qtt ki-6-hs= - na-vait-ttu-matiff-a-ras t6-i-qtt ki-o-whlfsg ta-c&ho-it-ttl-ma= tiaf-a-ras to-i-qtlt ki-a-ta= na-mi-wia-ho-ittffs-a-ris tu-ma=t6-i-qat &hi-as-kIn-ti= su-mi-nu-wfimtffi-a-r/s nat-tu-ma-t6-iqdt as-tefs-k'si wa-ha-man pi-hi-man-u-wfmnat as-tef-k'si= pi-hi-man ti-kifs gle-b'na=nd-wF ni-s6-o gle-b'na=da-nyi na-nuh gle-b'na=do-we gle-b'na=fhi-tun ni-voh wifs-tefs-k'si-a ku-ya-r6k=su-manu-wum-nat wai-ya-r6k=su-man mo-o-ve-ka=suman-u-wuim-nat m6-o-ve-ka= su-u-man na-va=su-u-manu-wum-nat no-h6n-noh is-qes=ti-is-qidl-a-wa-sti 1 Literally, "where the cold wind comes from." 2 Literally, "where the sun goes down." {view image of page 236} 236 English sixty THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Oto Cheyenne gl6-b'na=~$hi-gue na-sudt-noh gl6-b'na=i~hima ni-so-t6-noh sixty-nine seventy seventy-nine eighty eighty-nine ninety gle'b'na= gle-li-b'ni nah-noh-t6-noh XJi~chi~ta ki-a-ts~ti-Is-qfdi-a-wa-s6 6hi-as-kin-ti= ti-ls-qi-dT-awa-sc k'si-a Comanche ni-va=su-u-m an ta-6ho=su-u-minu-wium-nat ti-6ho-sd-u-man na-mi-wi-c6hu-wili= su-u-m an-uwtim-nat na-me-wa= su-u-man wum-na=su-uman-u-wum-nat wu m-na~su-u-man pi-a=su-u-man-uwuim-nat su-mi~it gle'b'na:ihd'n-ke s6fih-nohgle'b'na~hdn-ya noh-ma-t6(fh-noh ninety-nine one hundred PERSONAL TERMS aunt, maternal aunt, paternal baby boy brother brother, elder brother, younger chief daughter, first daughter, second daughter, third and others enemy father girl husband man medicine-man mother people, Indian people, white person sister sister, elder in-tu-mi in-in 6hin-thi-inye i-nun-i i-in-a i-fihin-ya win-ye-ge-hi hi-nu-yi-gfl mi-ha-iri-gil hin-ka 6hin-nu-in-ye wi -s~i-ge 2 hi-ni ge mna-un-k6 win-8hi-ge wa-his't-ye hi-yii-na ni-hu-e-i-yih-ashim naih-hu-e-i-yiha-6~im mi-Thi-of-ji hi-ta-ni-ka-ihgon ni-sis n6-6hi-yu ni-hu-e-i hi-i-ka-ih-g6n hi-tin ma-hil-yo~hl-tan nih-hu-e-i ni-ta-ha-mna-w6 -ist-an nfi-ta-wi-hyo kas nih-ka-him ni-ya's wi-a-suks q-wifa ta-ta 6hi-a-6ks w&ifa i-ki-wi-la at-si-y 6 i-s'ia-he e-ti-si-sa bi'-ha bil-a I h6-na tu-i-ni'-pvi pi-vi ti-mi pa-dii-bo wa-ha nai-ve t~n-ni-pI bi-a e-kav-ti-ti-ku-kat tai- bo Pit-Si IThe same term is employed for mother and for paternal aunt. 2 Also person or people. 3 A generic term. To designate sex the term for man or woman is affixed. {view image of page 237} VOCABULARIES23 237 English sister, younger son, first son., second son, third son, fourth and others uncle uncle, maternal uncle, paternal wife woman Oto hin-tin-ye hin-g'nu ha'-gtiinhi'in-je-ka hin-ka i-in-ye i-ta-me i-na-kU Cheyenne na'h-hon nib-hue-e-izhis'ta-ta-nim nil-hue-e-sghi Wichita Comr ni-mi wat-si-I (generic) wit-si-I ai-da wat-si-I i-ptl 1 uanche wa-i-pbs hi-i ga-hig TREES ash birch, red birch, white box-elder cedar cherry cottonwood elm hickory maple mesquite mulberry oak peach pecan persimmon pine red osier thorn walnut wi'llow ta-stun-ye hu-i~h-kd-su-je hin~h-kd-ska pi-fhi bih-e 6-hu i-fha-gl6-hu ta-li-g'na nan-to-fhai-fh6 bi-tu wi-ta-fhro-sffe nim-pu-bra nim-pi-hu ti-ku li-hi min-hoh-jI-ji ha-ma-h6h-jI-ji h6-mi-mik 6-ha-sih se-yi-ki wap sl-h6-bi pi-stl-hi ts-y6 wa-sl t6-18i d6-sI-mp-nu b6-yo-om~h I-ska-ti-i mi-u-wa-wih-imi-nu 6h-si-o-nu ha-if6-ha-ka nih-u-ya-wi-imi ta-to pi-sa-pu-ni na-kit-a-va-i mg-kg-vi m6-vi-tai si1-ha1-vi MISCELLANEOUS curse food cha! 2 6i1-e hIi-''6-Tn-of-j6 wi-sap forest i-fho na-tii-In-hiin ghost si-yo-6h-ji i-rd-kaf&-ha ghost, animal wa-nih-hi large h6n-je jl-mnih-h5 dat-s'e-ya little yin-y6 small gbd-w6 ji-it-ski k —1 spirit, animal wa-nd-6hi~u-nihi-le 1The same term is employed for father and for paternal uncle. 2 A very strong expletive expressing ridicule or contempt. ki-In hi-tai-it bu-e-ti-gai bii-ap ti-tat {view image of page 238} 238 English spirit, human spirit land sumach leaves tobacco (generic) tobacco, sacred tobacco, smoking THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN oto Cheyenne Wichita win-ghi-ge=u-nai- nl-ki-ki-yg-sa hi-le wa-na-hi-'if-na e-tan-of a-qT-tai-na-gis'ka'd-i-di nu-on-i-u-di-6h la-ni ji-nm-mo wi-e& Comanche pam la'-nimla'-po il-il {view image of page 239} Index {view image of page 240} . {view image of page 241} INDEX Abbott, John, portrait, folio pl. 680 Absentee Shawnee in Oklahoma, 21 Adoption of captives, i86, 229 Adultery, how regarded, 42, 157, I85-I86, 223, 225, 227, 229 African origin of Stomp dance songs, 214, 215 Afterworld, belief in, 46, I57, i86, 224, 225, 228 Agriculture foreign to Comanche, I88, 228 of Cheyenne, Io8 of Oto, 151 See CORN; FOOD; PLANTING Alabama, Creeks in, 11-12 Algonquian history, 13-23 tribes, 3 Allegheny region, Cherokee in, 5 Allegheny river, Delawares on, 22 Shawnee boundary, 21 Alphabet, Cherokee, 5, 6 Altar in legendary tipi, I32 of Peyote cult, 20I, 203, 204, 208 pi., 209, 2II, 212 of Sun dance, 124-125, 127 Aluqa. See BUFFALO CLAN Amathla, Charley, Seminole chief, 9 Anadarko, Wichita camp near, 58 Anatomical terms of various tribes, 230 Animal dance, Cheyenne, I09, I28 pi., 133 -I35, I40 pi., folio pls. 662, 663 Animals as beneficent spirits, 46 children named after, 40, 154-155 names for, 230-232 personated by children, 143 power derived from, 47, 75-76, 95, 96 spirits of, 119, 128 See ANTELOPE; BEAR; BEAVER; BOBCAT; BUFFALO; COYOTE; DEER; DOG; ELK; Fox; FROG; GOPHER; HORSES; LIZARD; MEAT; MINK; MONSTERS; OPOSSUM; OTTER; POLECAT; PORCUPINE; PRAIRIEDOGS; RABBITS; RACCOON; RATTLESNAKE; SKUNK; SNAKE; SQUIRREL; TOADS; TURTLE; WOLF Ant in myth, I95 Antelope in myth, 135 See GAME Apache and Tonkawa relations, 31 Forty-nine dance among, 215 Peyote cult among, I99-20I Wichita name for, 224 See CHIRICAHUA; JICARILLA; KIOWA APACHE; LIPAN APACHE; MESCALERO Appleton, Wis., Sauk and Foxes near, I8 Arapaho and Cheyenne relations, I37 and Kiowa strife, 29 Comanche name for, 229 culture and history, 14 linguistic relations, folio pl. 673 migration of, 107 Oto name for, 228 population, 32 portraits, 142 PI., 144 pl., folio pls. 673, 674 shield of, 146 pl. Wichita name for, 224 Arbors of the Cheyenne, 130 pl., 132 pi. of the Osage, i66 pl., I68 pi. of the Wichita, 38, 44 pl., 223 See DWELLINGS; LODGE Archery in legend, I20, 176 of the Comanche, 229 See GAMES VOL. XIX-31 241 {view image of page 242} 242 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Arikara and Cheyenne relations, 1O9 and Kiowa Apache trade, 30 ceremonies borrowed from, 1O9 earth-lodges of, 151 Arkansas, origin of name, folio pl. 68i tribes in, 5, 15, 22, 26, 27, 36, i82 Arkansas Band, an Osage division, 26 Arkansas Cherokee, alphabet used by, 6 Arkansas river, tribes on, 14, 26, 29, 35, folio pl. 653 Arrow ceremony, Cheyenne, 112-1 14 Arrows carried by clowns, 130, I31 in legend, 49, 55, I34, 137, I43-147, 172, 174, 176, 195 sacred, of the Cheyenne, 107, II6-121, 124, 226 See IMPLEMENTS; MEDICINE-ARROWS; WEAPONS Arts of the Cheyenne, 224-225 of the Comanche, 229 of the Oto, 226 of the Wichita, 223 of various tribes, 233-234 Ash, sacred pipe made of, 163 Asperging in Buffalo ceremony, 83 Assiniboin joined by Atsina, 14 Assi-yah lo, Osceola's native name, o1 Athapascan stock, tribes of, 3 tribes, account of, 30 Atsina, habitat, 14 Axes in myth, 134 See IMPLEMENTS Baby-carrier, Cheyenne, 80 pl. Comanche, 186 pi. Bags made of skin, 139, 226 Bald eagle in myth, I6o Ball in myth, I69-170 Ball-play in myth, 167, 176 Bands of the Cheyenne, I09, I I I-I2, 123, I35 of the Comanche, 187, 229 of the Wichita, 223 Bark. See COTTONWOOD-BARK; DOGWOODBARK; ELM-BARK Bathing during rain ceremony, 78, 79 for purification, 42, 224 in myth, 175, 196 of children, 94 Bathing. See PURIFICATION Beads in legend, 76, 145 Beadwork on Peyote rattle, 205 Beans, cultivation of, 223, 226 magically created, 68, 70 Bear imitated by wizard, 60 in myth, IIO, 143-144, 163, 170-17I, 173, 174, 191-192 medicine-bundle of, 71 Bear band, genesis legend of, 228 Bear Bow-string society, Cheyenne, 137-138 Bear Broken Leg, legend of, 48, 90-93 Bear butte, mythic origin of, 143 Bear clan, Oto, 153, 158-162, 227 Bear-claw, healing with, 9I-92 Bear Feast, Potawatomi, 63 Bear-hair in myth, 143 Bear-spirit in myth, 90-93 Beaver in Comanche rite, 184-185 in myth, 54, 55, 163, 167, 191 Beaver clan, Oto, 153, 158-I62, 227 Beds of the Wichita, 38 Berries used as food, 145, 223, 224, 226 See FOOD; FRUITS Betrayal in myth, 193 Betting. See GAMES Bible translated into Cherokee, 6 Big Belly, Cheyenne prophet, I6 mythic chief, 165-166 Big Dog dance of the Wichita, 44 Big Ghost, legendary character, 133-134 BigHeart, portrait, I64 pi. Big Owl in legend, I37, 138 Big Tail, the beaver, 191 Big Tail ceremony, Comanche, 184, 229 Big AYolf dance, origin of, 96-97 Billy Bowlegs, Seminole sub-chief, 8 Birds, children named after, 40 heads of, on clothing, 176 in myth, 53, 147, I63-164, I67, 191, I94 See BALD EAGLE; BLACKBIRDS; BUZZARD; CHICKEN-HAWK; CRANE; CROWS; DUCKS; EAGLE; GOLDEN EAGLE; HAWK; MAGPIE; MUDHEN; OWL; PELICAN; SPARROW-HAWKS; THUNDERBIRDS; WOODCOCK; YELLOW BIRD Black Belly, a Cheyenne, folio pl. 671 {view image of page 243} INDEX 243 Blackbirds in myth, 69, 146 Black Bob's Band of Shawnee, 21 Black drink of the Seminole, o1 Black Eagle in myth, 146 Blackfeet and Cheyenne relations, o17-Io8 Black Hawk War of I832, 19, 23 Black Hills relinquished by Cheyenne, IIo tribes in, 14, 26, 29, IO8-IO9, 112, 113, 137 Black Man, portrait, 142 pl., folio pl. 674 Black river, Hurons on, I6 Black Wfolf, portrait, 88 pl. Blankets given at puberty rite, 155 Boats in Oto myth, 167 Bobcat in myth, 176-I77 Body-painting in ceremony, 96, 115, I30 in legend, 120 See FACE-PAINTING; PAINTING Bone, fossil, used by medicine-men, 51 scrapers made of, 224, 229 See BUFFALO-BONE Boudinot, Elias, killed, 7 Bow, Bows, carried by clowns, 130, 131 in myth, 49, 55, I37, I44, 146, 172, 174, 176 of bundle-bearer, 67 See ARROWS; IMPLEMENTS; WEAPONS Bow-cases in myth, 146 See QUIVER Bowls in ceremony, 77-78 in legend, 76, 136 of Oto, 226 of Wichita, 74, 82, 83, 85, 223 Bow-string of intestine, 70 worn in legend, 117 See BEAR BOW-STRING SOCIETY Boys, how trained by Wichita, 43 See CHILDREN Brains used in tanning, 145, 225 Brazos river, Caddoan tribes on, 28, 36 Breath, beliefs regarding, 48, 6o, 142 Breech-cloth. See CLOTHING Bright Shining Woman in Wichita religion, 40, 45, 10I See MOON British and Indian relations, 3, II, 14, I7, 20, 21, 23 See ENGLISH Brooches. See ORNAMENTS Buffalo and the Wichita, 37 ceremony of, 8o-85 dependence on, 28-29, 15I, 182, 224, 226, 228-229, folio pl. 652 derived from spirits, 126 in Comanche range, I8I in myth, 75, I 0, I8, 133, I35, 136, 44 -145, 163, I7I-I73, 190, 194 symbolized in tattooing, 40 See GAME; HUNTING Buffalo Bear dance of Wichita, 44 Buffalo-bone for musical instruments, 76, 77, 83, 85 scrapers of, 229 Buffalo Breath, a personage, 85 Buffalo-bundle ceremony, 8o-85, 224 Buffalo ceremony, Cheyenne, Io9, I24 pl., 126 pl., 128-133, 226 Buffalo clan, Oto, 153, 162-163, 227 Buffalo-fat for purification, 85 Buffalo Ghost, legend of, 48, 85-87 Buffalo-hair used in magic, iI8 Buffalo-hide, clothing of, 223-224 drum of, 73, 126 in legend, 76, 83, 117 rattles made of, 95 sacred objects wrapped in, 113 sweat-lodge cover of, 140 tipis of, 139 uses for, 38, 226, 229 Buffalo-horn, receptacles of, 8i spoons of, 74, 226, 229 Buffalo-paunch, use of, in myth, I63, I96 vessels made of, 145, 224-225, 229 Buffalo plains illustrated, 60 pi. Buffalo products in legend, 120, 137 Buffalo-robes, dead wrapped in, I57, 229 in myth, 8I, 145-I46 of warrior spirits, 131 worn by Wichita, 39 worn in ceremony, II5 See ROBE Buffalo-sinew, thread of, 229 Buffalo-skull in Sun dance, 124-125 on sweat-lodge, 140 Buffalo Society, Cheyenne, I24 pl., 126 pl. Oto, 153-154, 227 {view image of page 244} 244 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Buffalo-spirit of Wichita belief, 71 Buffalo-tail for asperging, 83 Buffalo tracks symbolized, 127 Buisson, commandant at Detroit, i8 Bullfrog-skin, bag made of, 139 See FROG Bullroarer in Comanche rite, 185 Bundle covered with hide, 226 for sacred arrows, I 13 in rain ceremony, 77 of medicine-man, 92 of Oto societies, 154 of sorcerers, 139 See BUFFALO-BUNDLE CEREMONY; MEDICINE-BUNDLES; WAR-BUNDLE Burial. See MORTUARY CUSTOMS Burnet, D. G., on the Comanche, 183, 186 Butterfly produced by magic, 212 Buzzard in myth, 102, 171 Caches of the Oto, I51, 226 Cactus. See PEYOTE; PRICKLY-PEAR Caddo, affiliations, 35 assigned to reservation, 31 Comanche name for, 229 espouse Confederacy, 31 history, 28-29 population, 32, 223 Caddoan and Osage relations, 26 tribes, 3, 27-29, 55 Caddo Sorcerer, a legend, 6I Cahokia and Illinois tribes, 15 California, Modoc in, 31-32 Camp-circle, Cheyenne, 114, 225 in Cheyenne legend, I I9 orientation of, 128 Oto, 227 Camp Moultrie, treaty of, 8 See FORT MOULTRIE Canada, Indians in, 22-24 Canadian river, Indians on, 21, 26, 29, 35 origin of name, folio pl. 659 Cannibalism attributed to Tonkawa, 31 enforced, in revenge, I40 Caiions magically created, 196 Canville, treaty of, 26 Captain Jack, Modoc chief, 32 Captives among Comanche, I86, 229 Captives among Oto, 154 in myth, 173 Cardinal points and chief-sticks, 112 and Sun dance, 125-126 and sweat-lodge, 140-142 and wind, 46 chiefs elected from, I II, 225 colors for, 124 in ceremony, 69, 185, 207, 208 in legend, II7, 132, I43, I62 native names for, 232 pipe-offering to, 132-133 spirits of, 65 when observed, 41 See ORIENTATION Carolina tea used by Seminole, IO Catawba, enemies of, 13, 20 Catfish in myth, I90 Catholics in Peyote cult, 200, 201, 211 Cavallo, John, Seminole warrior, IO Caves, Comanche dead placed in, 229 mythically occupied, 148 Cayuga, Seneca joined by, 24 Cedar in house-building, 38, 65 in legend, 137 requested by spirit, 94 used for incense, 157, 204, 207 used in sweat-lodge, I41 Cedar Grove in myth, I35, I44, 145, I47 Cedar mountain, Cheyenne at, IO8-o09, 119, '37 See NUWAWUS Centre-pole of Sun-dance lodge, 122-124 Ceremonial lodge, Oto, 152 Wichita, 46 pl. Ceremonies at house-building, 37, 223 Cheyenne, 112-135, 226 Comanche, 184, 229 Oto, by whom controlled, 162 Wichita, 64-85, 224 Chaquamegon bay, Ottawa on, 16 Chariton river, Iowa tribe on, 25 Charity of Oto society, 154 Chastity of women, I86 Chatham, Ont., Tecumseh killed near, 21 Cherokee and Shawnee relations, 20, 21 and Yuchi enmity, 13 Delawares with, 22 {view image of page 245} INDEX 245 Cherokee established as a nation, 7 expelled from North, 20 history, 4-8 population, 32 Wichita name for, 224 Cherokee Phaenix, a newspaper, 6 Cheyenne, account of, 107-148, 224-226 and Arapaho alliance, 14 ceremonies, folio pls. 661-663 Comanche name for, 229 costume, 76 pi., 78 pi., 82 pi., 86 pi., 88 pi., 90 pi., 92 pi., 96 pl., 126 pi., 128 pi., 134 pl., 136 pi., 138 pi., 140 pi., folio pls. 664-672 culture, 14 hostilities, 27, 29 linguistic relations, folio pl. 664 on Arkansas river, 14 Oto name for, 228 Peyote cult among, 200, 213 population, 32, 224 portraits, 2IO pi., folio pls. 659, 664 -672 sacred mountain of, I08-I09, II9, 137 songs in Peyote rite, 206 Stomp dance among, 214 vocabulary of, 230-238 Wichita name for, 224 Chicago, Potawatomi at, 17 Chickasaw and Shawnee enmity, 20 history, I2-I3 population, 32 Wichita name for, 224 Chicken-hawk in myth, I47, I63 Chiefs of the Cheyenne, o19-IIO, IIO pl. of the Comanche, I86-i88, 229 of the Oto, 152, 156, I61-162, 227 of the Wichita, 43, 223 power of, in myth, 171-172 Chiefship, why offered, in myth, 93 Chief's Son and Daughter, a myth, 103 Chief-sticks of the Cheyenne, IO-II2 See STICKS Childbirth among Wichita, 40 associated with moon, 101 in legend, 48-49, 54, 55, I73 Children, animals personated by, 143 bathing of, 94 Children, Cheyenne, 78 pl. Comanche, I86 pi., I88 pl., I92 pi., 194 pl. eaten in myth, I32 invocation for, 41 naming of, 154-155, i86 Oto, 162 pl. Wichita customs regarding, 45 Chippewa and Fox hostility, I7-I8 Oto name for, 228 tribal relations, 16 Chiricahua, population, 32 raid in Mexico, I99 See APACHE Chittenden and Richardson cited, 62, I52 Chiwere, linguistic group, 24-25 Oto tribal name, 228 Choctaw, history, 12-13 population, 32 Chokecherries as food, I45 See BERRIES Christianity and Peyote cult, 200, 202, 210-211 how regarded by Indians, 202-203 influence of, on Wichita, 48 Civilization of Cherokee, 6-7 of Choctaw and Chickasaw, 13 Civil War, Cherokee in, 7 effect of, on Indians, 5, I4, 29 Tonkawa in, 31 Clans, Oto, I53, I54, 156, 158-163, 227 Clear Lake, Modoc on, 31 Clothing, Cheyenne, 224 Comanche, I88, 228 for society degrees, 153 given to bride, 223 in myth, I48, 173, 176 offered at Sun dance, I24 of the dead, I57, 223, 225, 227 of warrior spirits, I31 ornamented with scalps, 138 Oto, 226, 227 Wichita, 39, 223 See COSTUME Clowns, Cheyenne, II9, 129-131, 134 pl. Clubs in myth, I34, I90 used in hunting, I63-I64 See WAR-CLUBS Coacochee, Seminole warrior, Io Cockburn island, Ottawa on, 16 {view image of page 246} 246 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Cold, concept regarding, 158 Colorado, Indians in, 29, I8 Colorado river, Texas, Caddo on, 28 San Saba on, 35 Tonkawa boundary, 3I Colors, Cheyenne symbolism of, 120, I24 in Wichita legend, 49 native names for, 232 See DYES; PAINT; PAINTING; PIGMENTS Comanche, account of, 18I-I96, 228-229 and Kiowa relations, 29 and Tonkawa relations, 31 character and habitat, folio pl. 682 Forty-nine dance among, 215 hostilities, 29, 30, 35 Oto name for, 228 Peyote rite among, 199, 200, 206, 211 population, 32, 228 portraits, I82 pl.-I88 pi., 192 pl.-I96 pi., folio pls. 682-686 vocabulary of, 230-238 Wichita name for, 224 Comb in Oto myth, I65, I66 of the Cheyenne, 146, 225 Conestoga, remnant of, with Seneca, 24 Confederacy, tribes allied with, 7, 3I Wichita not allies of, 36 Conoy and Delaware affinity, 22 Constitution of the Cherokee, 7 Contest in myth, I47, 176 marriage by, 144 See ARCHERY; GAMES; RACING Cooking by the Cheyenne, 225 by the Oto, 226 mythic origin of, 56, I60 See FOOD Cooking-pots of hide, 145 of the Oto, 226 See BUFFALO-PAUNCH Corn given to rainmaker, 80 in legend, 49, 51-52, 56, 82, 87, 136, IS5, I63 raised by Oto, 226 raised by Wichita, 223 the "mother food," 77 Cornmeal eaten by ghost, 87 food of hunters, 86, 90 Coronado, F. V. de, at Quivira, 35 Cosmology, Oto, 158-163 Costume, Arapaho, I42 pi., 144 pl. Cheyenne, 76 pl., 78 pl., 82 pl., 86 pl., 88 pl., 90 pi., 92 pl., 96 pl., I26 pl., 128 pl., I34 pi., 136 pl., 138 pl., 140 pi., folio pls. 659, 664-672 dance, of Pawnee, 70 pl., 74 pl. dance, of Wichita, 64-70 pl. of Sun-dancers, I26 Oto, 152 pl., I60 pi., 162 pl. Ponca, 170 pi. See CLOTHING Cottonwood for ceremonial tipi, 129 raft of, in myth, 50 Cottonwood-bark in myth, 144 Council of the Cheyenne, 225 of the Comanche, 187-I88, 229 of the Oto, 152-153, I57, 227 Oto, mythic origin of, I60, 162-163 Council Bluffs, Potawatomi at, 62 Council Grove, Kansa at, 27 Coup symbolized, 123, 141 Coup-sticks not used by Wichita, 39 Courtship, Oto, I56 Wichita, 41 See MARRIAGE Coville, F. V., quoted, I99 Coyote in legend, 119, 146, 171, 173-I75, I92 -195, 228, 229 personated in ceremony, 129-13I Cradles, Wichita, 40-41 Crane in myth, 133, I89-I90, I96 Crazy dance, Cheyenne, I34 Crazy Mad Bull. See MAD BULL Creator in Wichita religion, 44, 45 See SPIRITS Creeks, Cherokee among, II history of the, 11-12 Oto name for, 228 population, 32 Seminole descent from, 8 Shawnee alliance with, 21 Tecumseh among, 21 Wichita name for, 224 Yuchi associated with, 13 Crescent, Peyote cult symbol, 201-205 See MOON Cross marked for errors, 121 {view image of page 247} INDEX 247 Crow-feathers in myth, 147 Crow Indians, Comanche name for, 229 Kiowa alliance with, 29 Oto name for, 228 Crows in myth, 146, i6o, 163 Crucifix on Peyote altar, 201, 211 Culture of Caddoan tribes, 36 Cumberland river, Shawnee on, 13, 20 Custer, Gen. George A., in Washita fight, folio pl. 678 Cyclone mark on sacred arrows, 121 Dade, Maj. Francis L., ambushed, 9 Dahlonega, Ga., gold found near, 6 Dakota, Atsina in, 14 Dakota Indians, habitat of the, 24 See SIoux Dance at initiation, 153 children named after, 40 in house-building rite, 68 in myth, 96, 117, 138, 171, 174-175, I92 -193 not in Peyote cult, 200 Oto, 228 Ponca, I70 pl. Wichita, 64-70 pl. See ANIMAL DANCE; BUFFALO BEAR DANCE; BUFFALO-DANCE; BIG DOG DANCE; BIG WOLF DANCE; CEREMONIES; DEER DANCE; DOCTOR DANCE; FANCY WOMAN DANCE; FIRE-DANCE; FLAT DANCE; FORTYNINE DANCE; GIFT DANCE; HORN DANCE; MANY DOGS DANCE; MEDICINE-MEN DANCE; SCALP DANCE; STOMP DANCE; SUN DANCE; TURKEY DANCE; WAR-DANCE Dance societies, Wichita, 43-44 Dangerous Man, a Cherokee, 5 Dawn, a Potawatomi, 63 Day symbolized by shell, i6 Dead, clothing of, 157, 223, 225, 227 myth regarding, 56 Deadfall in Oto myth, 167 Death brought by North Star, 46 simulated in myth, 170-171, I92 See MORTUARY CUSTOMS Decapitation in myth, 172 Decoration of mythic shields, 119 See BODY-PAINTING; FACE-PAINTING; ORNAMENTS; PAINTING; TATTOOING Deer in ceremony, 68, I28 in myth, 49, 135, 164, 168-169 See GAME Deer dance, Comanche, 229 Wichita, 37, 44, 48, 64-72, 223 Deerskin, clothing of, 170, 188, 223 in myth, 194 rattles of, 95 uses for, 226 war-bundle wrapped in, I6o Deer society of the Cheyenne, I29, 130, 138 pl., 140 pi. Dfgadtga. See STAND WATIE Deities. See GOD; KINNfKASUiS; SPIRITS; WAKAN-TANKA; WAK6NDA Delaware, Delaware Indians in, 14, 22 Delaware Indians espouse Confederacy, 31 habitat, 13, 21-22 history, 21-22 in Indiana, 2I population, 22, 32 Shawnee relations with, 20 Wichita name for, 224 Delaware river, Delawares on, 21 Deluge, Wichita legend of, 50-56 Descent among Oto, 154, 227 of chiefs, 152, 156, 223, 227 See INHERITANCE De Smet, Pere P.-J., quoted, 62, 152 Des Moines river, Iowa tribe on, 25 De Soto, Hernando, visits Cherokee, 5 Des Plaines river, Potawatomi on, 62 Detroit, hostilities at, 16, 18 Hurons at, 23 Dtfianayuka, Comanche band, 187, 229 Dewclaws as rattles in myth, 95 Dhegiha, tribes composing, 24 Dice game of Comanche, 229 Directions. See CARDINAL POINTS; ORIENTATION Disease among the Caddo, 28 introduced among Pawnee, 28 spirit of, in legend, 119 Disfigurement. See MUTILATION Divorce among Cheyenne, 225 {view image of page 248} 248 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Divorce among Oto, I56-157, 227 among Wichita, 41, 223 Doctor dance of the Wichita, 44, 6i Dog, Dogs, escaped captive trailed by, Iio in Comanche myth, I89 of the Cheyenne, 225 of the Oto, 226 personated by witches, 58 See BIG DOG DANCE Dog band of Cheyenne, 225 Dog Woman, a Cheyenne, folio pl. 668 Dogwood in myth, 56, 76, 83, 95, I45 legendary weapons of, 49, 55 sacred use of, 72-73 Dogwood-bark, magic of, 6I Dorsey, G. A., on Wichita tattooing, 39-40 Dorsey, J. 0., cited, 24, 52 Dost6nye. See OTTER SOCIETY Down used in Sun dance, 125 See FEATHERS Drama and ceremony, 128, 131 Dreams, children named after, 40 in myth, 193 names given after, 155 rites suggested by, I 4, 128 Dress. See CLOTHING; COSTUME Drill. See FIRE-DRILL Drinking Water society, Oto, 227 Drought in legend, 77 Drum in myth, 94, I37 in Peyote cult, 200-201, folio pl. 687 of buffalo-hide, 73 of the Potawatomi, 62, 63 used in dance, 96, 97, 125, I26, 215 used in gaming, 227 Drunkenness cured with peyote, 213 See INTOXICANTS Ducks in myth, 69, 166-168, 174-I75 Durango, Indian raids in, 29 See MEXICO Dwarfs in myth, I95-196 Dwellings of the Cheyenne, 224 of the Oto, 226 of the Wichita, 223 See ARBORS; EARTH-LODGE; GRASSHOUSE; HOUSES; LODGE; TIPI Dyes of the Comanche, 188 See PAINT; PIGMENTS Eagle impersonated in ceremony, 68 in myth, 119, I33-I34, I46, I6o Oto named after, 155 See BALD EAGLE; BLACK EAGLE; GOLDEN EAGLE Eagle-bone, whistles of, I25, I26, I29, 207, 208 Eagle clan of Oto, I53, 158-162, 227 Eagle-feathers in myth, 88, 137, 144, I64 of clowns, I30 used by Comanche, I88 Earth, pipe-offering to, I33, I4I prayers to, 128 symbolism of, 112, 140 See EARTH MOTHER; MOTHER EARTH Earth gods of the Wichita, 224 power derived from, 80 prayers to, 78 Earth-lodge, Cheyenne, 224 Oto, 151-I52, 226 Earth Mother in Oto myth, I6o in Peyote rite, 207 in Wichita belief, 46 See MOTHER EARTH Eastern Shawnee in Oklahoma, 21 Eaters, a Cheyenne band, 225 Eemathla, Seminole chief, I0 Effigy mound in Comanche rite, I85 Election. See CHIEFS Elk in myth, 135, I66 Elk clan, Oto, 153, 158-I62, 227 Elk-man in Oto ceremony, I55, I6o See FIREKEEPER Elk-skin, moccasins of, 224 Elk-teeth, dress decorated with, folio pl. 668 Elm-bark for lodge-building, 66 Elopement, punishment for, 156, 227 Enemy, how symbolized, I23, 141 See WARFARE English and Shawnee warfare, 21 See BRITISH Erie, remnant of, with Seneca, 24 Esipermi, a Comanche, folio pl. 682 Etiquette, Comanche, I86 Evil Spirit cult. See WITCHCRAFT Eye, magic, in myth, I90 Face-painting by healer, 92 by the Oto, 157 {view image of page 249} INDEX 249 Face-painting in ceremony, 76 in mourning, 63 in myth, II7, I43-I44 of the dead, 227 Fan, feather, in ceremony, 69, 70 Fancy Woman dance, Wichita, 44 Fasting by Comanche votary, I84 by Sun dancers, 125-I27 in Buffalo ceremony, 83 knowledge gained through, I87, 229 names given after, I55 Fat, buffalo, eaten in myth, 148 food of eagles, I33-I34 offered to fire, 95, 97 Father Above, prayers to, 229 Feast at initiation, 153 at marriage, 41, I56, 223, 227 at name-giving, 40, 155 at puberty rite, 156 Cheyenne customs as to, 140 for new chief, 43 in ceremony, 70, 73-74 in myth, I60, I66 in Peyote rite, 2I0 of Potawatomi, 62-63 of Sun-dance votary, 122 Feather In The Head in myth, 136, 144-145 Feathers for arrows in myth, 144 in myth, 144, 196 in ornamentation, 137 of sacred arrows, 114 of warrior spirits, 131-132 spear decorated with, 147 symbol of fire, 6I used by Comanche, I88 wands of, in Sun dance, 126 See CROW-FEATHERS; DOWN; EAGLEFEATHERS; HAWK-FEATHERS; MAGPIE-FEATHERS Fingers, dried, used by wizards, I39 Fire, fat offered to, 95, 97 how made by Oto, 226 mythic creation of, I59-161 of sweat-lodge, 141 sacred character of, 162 sacred, of Arrow ceremony, 115 sacred, of Peyote rite, 204 symbolized by feather, 6i VOL. XIX-32 Firearms among Chippewa, 17 See GUN Fire-dance in legend, 137, I38 Fire-drill in myth, I59-I60, I94 Firekeeper in Peyote rite, 203-204 of the Oto, I55-I56 See ELK-MAN Firemaker, Oto, functions of, 162 Oto, mythic origin of, 161 Fire-making in legend, 56 in new lodge, 66 First Walker, portrait, 176 pl. Fish in legend, 76 See CATFISH; MINNOWS Fish spirit in myth, 98-IOO Five Civilized Tribes, history, 4-I3 population, 32 See CHEROKEE; CHICKASAW; CHOCTAW; CREEKS; SEMINOLE Flat dance of Wichita women, 44 Flogging for adultery, 157 See WHIPPING Flood. See DELUGE Florida, Seminole in, 8-11 Flute of the Potawatomi, 62, 63 Fog created in myth, I96 Following the Dawn, the Morning Star, 88-90 Food, buffalo, for medicine-man, 85 Comanche, how partaken, I86 deposited with dead, 157, 227 given in puberty rite, I55 given to bereaved, 157 given to healer, 92 in ceremony, 67-68, 78, 83, 132-133 mythic origin of, I59, I67 of buffalo in myth, 87 of the Cheyenne, 145, 146, 224 of the Oto, 151, 226 of the Wichita, 37, 223 of various tribes, 230-233 preparation of, in myth, 49, 51, 82, 148 provided in myth, I36 sacred, in Buffalo rite, 130 significance of, 82 Wichita, preparation of, 38-39, 223 See ANIMALS; BEANS; BERRIES; CORN; FEAST; FISH; FRUITS; GAME; HERB; LIVER; MARROW; MEAT; {view image of page 250} 250 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN MELONS; NUTS; PEMMICAN; PONDLILY BULBS; PUMPKIN; ROOTS; SQUASH; SWEET-POTATO; TURNIPS Food-offering to spirits, 74,90, 125-126, I32, 156 Footwear, Cheyenne, 82 pl. Comanche, 190 pl. See CLOTHING; MOCCASINS Fort Belknap, Atsina at, 14 Fort Brooke, 9, 10 Fort Gibson, treaty of, 9, 26 Fort Griffin, Tonkawa at, 31 Fort King, 9, 10 Fort Mellon, I I Fort Moultrie, I I See CAMP MOULTRIE Fort Peyton, IO Forty-nine dance, features of, I86, 214-220 Four, Cheyenne sacred number, IO9, I I-I 6, 119-128, 130-132, I34-I38, I40-I42, 225, 226 Oto sacred number, I53-155, 165-167, 169-170 Wichita sacred number, 42, 43, 66-71, 73, 74, 78, 80, 8i, 83, 84, 86, 87, 94, 96, 97, I00, 224 Fox in myth, 146, I90-192, 229 Fox Indians at war with Sauk, I8 history of the, 17-19 Illinois lands seized by, 17 Illinois relations with, 15 Kickapoo affinity with, 22 population, 32 Fox river, Indians on, 17, I8, 22 French among Illinois tribes, 15 among the Osage, 26 among the Sauk, 17, 18 and Delaware contact, 22 and Huron alliance, 23 and Indian mixture, 4, 13 and Indian wars, 14, 20, 22, 23 and Iroquois treaty, 23 and Potawatomi alliance, 17 and Shawnee relations, 20 effect on the Caddo, 28 hated by Foxes, 17-18 Ottawa protected by, 16 Frog in myth, 189-190, I96 See BULLFROG-SKIN Frost, concept regarding, 158 Fruits eaten by Cheyenne, 224 eaten by Wichita, 223 See BERRIES; FOOD Fungus used for punk, 226 Fur. See OTTER-FUR; SKINS Future forecast by Oto, 155 Gadsden, James, treaty negotiated by, 8 Gaines, General, in Seminole war, 10 Gambling in Oto myth, 169-I70 See GAMES Game magically created, 120-121 mythic reason for eating, 148 See ANIMALS; FOOD Games, children named after, 40 of the Comanche, 229 of the Oto, 226-227 See BALL-PLAY; LACROSSE; SHINNY; WHEEL GAME Genesis, Comanche, 183-184 Oto, 158-163, 228 Wichita, 48-52 Georgia, Indians in, I 1-13 Georgian bay, Ottawa on, 16 Germantown, a Delaware site, 22 Geronimo, Apache raider, 199 Ghost in ceremony, 71 See BUFFALO GHOST Giant in myth, 194, 196 See MONSTERS Giant Owl in myth, I89-I90 Gift dance of the Wichita, 44 Gifts at betrothal, 41 at marriage, 41, 223, 227 at name-giving, 155 at puberty ceremony, 155 at Sun dance, 123, 127 before divorce, 41 in ceremony, 70 made by new chiefs, 112 of property of dead, 158 to medicine-man, I84, I85 to rainmaker, 80 to tattooer, 156 to those bereaved, 157 Girl in the Moon, legend of, 47, II01 Girls, Wichita, houses of, 38, 223 {view image of page 251} INDEX 251 Girls. See CHILDREN; PUBERTY RITE Gist, George. See SEQUOYA Glass, ornaments made of, IO9, II6 God, Indian conception of, 203 See KiNNIKASUS; SPIRITS; WAKANTANKA; WAKONDA Gold in Cherokee country, 6 Golden eagle in Oto myth, 160 symbolic of sun, I87, 229 Gopher in myth, 146 Gourd in legend, 132 of bundle-bearer, 67 Peyote rattle made of, 205 symbolism on, 138 See RATTLE Grand river, Iowa tribe on, 25 Potawatomi boundary, 17 Grass for lodge-building, 66 spirits of, I 19 Grasshopper symbolized on tipi, 129 Grass-house, ceremonial building of, 48, 64-72 doors of, 76 in myth, 81-83, 96 of the Wichita, 35, 37-38, 40 pi., 42 pi., 46 pi., 223, folio pls. 654, 655 owned by divorced wife, 42 Grass-house People, the Wichita, 35 Great Britain. See BRITISH; ENGLISH Great Lakes, Indians on, 13, 15, I6, 23 Great Mystery. See WAKAN-TANKA Great Osage, an Osage band, 26 Great South Wind, a Potawatomi, 62 Great Spirit, misconception as to, 158 See GOD; KiNNIKXSUS; WAKAN-TANKA Green Bay, Fox village near, I8 Green bay, Ottawa and Hurons on, I6 Potawatomi on, I6-17 Sauk on, I8 Winnebago on, 24 Greenville, treaty of, 17, 21, 22 Gros Ventres, the Atsina, 14 Gros Ventres of the Missouri, the Hidatsa, 14 Guess, George. See SEQUOYA Gun, Siouan name for, 158 See FIREARMS Habitat, Algonquian, 13 Arapaho, 14 Habitat, Caddo, 28 Caddoan, 35-36 Cherokee, 5 Cheyenne, io8, 112 Choctaw and Chickasaw, 12 Comanche, 181, folio pl. 682 Creek, II Delaware, 13 Huron, 23 Illinois, 5I Kaskaskia, 15 Kickapoo, 22-23 Kiowa, 29 Modoc, 31 Osage, 26 Oto, 152 Ottawa, 16 Pawnee, 27 Potawatomi, 16 Quapaw, folio pi. 659 Sauk, 17, I8 Shawnee, 20 Siouan, 24 Tonkawa, 30, 36 Waco, 36 Wichita, 35-36, folio pl. 653 Yuchi, 13 Hainai, Caddoan tribe, 35 Hair used in witchcraft, 58, I38-140 See BUFFALO-HAIR; HUMAN HAIR Hair-cutting in mourning, 226 Hairdress, Cheyenne, 210 pi. in myth, 135 of clowns, I30 Ponca, I70 pl.-176 pi., 200 pl.-204 pl. Wichita, 36 pl., 38 pl. Hairy band of Cheyenne, 225 Halpatter Micco, Seminole sub-chief, 8 Hammer, stone, in myth, 145 Hand game. See GAMES Handicraft. See ARTS; INDUSTRIES Harrington, J. P., cited, 3 Harrison, William Henry, at Tippecanoe, 21 Harvesting, how conducted by Oto, 163 See CORN; FOOD; PLANTING Hasinai and Tonkawa relations, 31 Hawk in myth, I35, I60, 195 See CHICKEN-HAWK; SPARROW-HAWKS {view image of page 252} 252 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Hawk-feathers used by Comanche, I88 Head-dress in Buffalo ceremony, 129, 130 in myth, I68 Oto, folio pl. 679 See COSTUME Healing by Oto society, I54 by sucking, in myth, 171 in ceremony, I28-129, 140 pl., I84, 226, 229 in Peyote cult, 201 in sweat-lodge, 142 source of, I87, 229 with bear-claw, 91 Heat, concept regarding, 158 Hefataiyau society, Cheyenne, II4 pi., 137, 225 HelimoYyo6, spear of the, 119 Henry, a Wichita, folio pl. 656 Heralds of the Wichita, 43 Herb for alleviating thirst; 74-75 used by sorcerers, 60, 62 Hernandez, General, in Seminole war, Io Hidatsa and Cheyenne warfare, o09 names for the, 14 Hide. See BUFFALO-HIDE; DEERSKIN; RAWHIDE; SKIN-DRESSING; TANNING; WOLF-SKIN Hrmatai nohiTh, Cheyenne society, 137 Hymoy6hhYs, Cheyenne band, II9 History of Oklahoma tribes, 3-32 Hitchiti, Seminole descent from, 8 HtvylhhnYhpoih, Cheyenne band, 123, 225 HrvrihnYhpoai society, Cheyenne, 112 pi. H6hnuhka, Thunderbird dancers, I34 Hokele, the moon, 17 I-172 Hoop-and-pole. See GAMES Hopi, culture of, 183 Horn, spoons made of, 136, 224 See BUFFALO-HORN; MOOSE-HORN Horn dance of the Wichita, 44 Horse, Siouan name for, I58 Horses among the Cheyenne, 225 Comanche quest for, I81-I82 given in puberty rite, I55 given to bereaved, 157 in myth, 190, 193, 195 killed for dead, I86, 225 Kiowa Apache trade in, 30 of the Oto, i68, 226 Horses stolen by Comanche, I86 Hospitality, Comanche, I86 HotamYti"ye, Cheyenne band, II9, 123, 225 HotamYta"ye society, Cheyenne, folio pl. 66I Houses of Wichita maidens, IO2 purification of, after death, 227 See ARBORS; DWELLINGS; EARTHLODGE; GRASS-HOUSE; LODGE; TIPI Howling Wolf, Cheyenne informant, II6, 119 wife of, go pl. Hra. See EAGLE CLAN Huzma. See ELK CLAN Human hair, legging fringe of, 88 Human sacrifice in tradition, 11O Hunger appeased by ceremony, 82, 85 See STARVATION Huznta Wakuinta. See QUAPAW, JOHN Hunting by Comanche, i86 in myth, 49, 87-88, 95, 104, 136, 137, 145-I46, I63-I64, 166-170, 173-174, 194 methods of, 85-86 Hurons, destruction of, I6 friendly with Delawares, 22 history of, 23 Sauk alliance with, I8 treaty with, 14 See WYANDOT Hypnotism in ceremony, 71 Idaho, Peyote cult in, 200 Ilex cassine used by Seminole, IO Illegitimacy resulting from Forty-nine dance, 216 Illinois, tribes in, I5-17, 20, 23, 25 Illinois Confederacy, enemies of, I8, 22, 26 history, 15 population, 32 Illinois river, Indians on, 15 Immortality in Wichita belief, 46 symbolized, 204 See AFTERWORLD Implements, hunting, in myth, 88, 89, 95 hunting, of Wichita, 85 placed with dead, 157, i86 See ARROWS; ARTS; BOWLS; Bows; HAMMER; INDUSTRIES; METATES; MORTAR; PESTLE; WEAPONS {view image of page 253} INDEX 253 Incense in Arrow ceremony, 115-116 in Peyote rite, 203, 204, 207, 210 in sweat-lodge, 141 See SMOKE Indiana, Indians in, 17, 21, 22 Indian Springs, treaty of, 12 Indian Territory after Civil War, 7-8 Algonquians removed to, 14 Arapaho removed to, 15 Caddo removed to, 29 Cherokee removed to, 6 Choctaw and Chickasaw removal to, 13 Creeks removed to, 12 Delawares moved to, 22 Hurons removed to, 24 Illinois tribes removed to, 15 Iowa tribe removed to, 25 -Kansa removed to, 27 Kickapoo settled in, 23 Kiowa and Comanche removed to, 29 Missouri tribe removed to, 25 Modoc removed to, 32 Ottawa removed to, I6 Pawnee removed to, 28 Ponca removed to, 26 Potawatomi removed to, 17 Quapaw assigned to, 27 Sauk and Foxes removed to, 19 Seneca removed to, 24 Shawnee removed to, 21 Siouan tribes removed to, 25 Tonkawa removed to, 31 Yuchi removed to, 13 Industries, Cheyenne, 224-225 Comanche, 229 of various tribes, 233-234 Oto, 226 Wichita, 223 Infants. See CHILDBIRTH Infidelity. See ADULTERY Infinite, Indian conception of the, 44, 46-47, 200 the, symbolized, 187 Inheritance of property, 158, 228 Initiation into societies, 153 Insanity and sorcery, 60 Insects. See ANT; GRASSHOPPER; JUNEBUG; LICE Intermarriage proscribed in myth, 56 Intestine, bow-string of, 70 Intoxicants, effect of, 15 See DRUNKENNESS Invitation-sticks, Oto, I55, I56 Potawatomi, 62 Invocation to stars, 46 to willow, 41 See OFFERING; PRAYER Ioni, the Hainai, 35 Iowa, tribes in, 14, 15, 17-19, 25 Iowa tribe, history of, 25 joined by the Missouri, 25 linguistic relations, 24 Oto name for, 228 population, 32 Stomp dance among, 2I4 Irish and Cherokee blood, 4 See SCOTCH-IRISH Iroquoian stock, tribes of, 3, 23-24 Iroquois and Delaware relations, 22 and Fox alliance, I7-18 and Huron hostility, 23 and Illinois relations, 15 and Ottawa enmity, 16 and Shawnee peace, 20 isfWhnke, mythic character, 173-176 Isirs, Wichita band, 36, 223 Isiometa"ye, Cheyenne band, I35, 225 Iq6/fhufs. See TAYLOR, REUBEN ]fhrnniydr, a mountain, go Ifzkawddolts, a Wichita, 40 Jackson, Andrew, in Creek war, I I treaty demanded by, 8, 9 Jesuits among Illinois tribes, 15 Jesup, Gen. T. S., in Seminole war, 10 Jicarilla and Lipan enmity, 30 Peyote cult among, I99, 212 June-bug symbolized, 127 Kankakee river, Potawatomi on, 62 Kansa, history, 27 joined by Missouri tribe, 25 linguistic relations, 24, 26 Oto name for, 228 population, 32 Stomp dance among, 214 {view image of page 254} 254 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Kansas, Algonquian tribes in, 14 Caddo flee to, 29 Delawares removed to, 22 Hurons removed to, 24 Iowa tribe removed to, 25 Kansa tribe in, 27 Kickapoo removed to, 23 Ottawa removed to, 16 Peoria and Kaskaskia in, 15 Potawatomi removed to, 17 Sauk and Foxes removed to, 19 Seneca in, 24 Shawnee in, 21 Wichita in, 35-36 Karisses, Comanche forays against, I82 Kaskaskia, a place of refuge, 15 Kaskaskia tribe of Illinois, I5 treaty with, 14 Kdfikukatilk, Wichita village, 90 Kentucky, Shawnee in, 13, 20 Keokuk, dissensions due to, 19 Keres, a Pueblo stock, 182 Ketate, Comanche band, 187, 229 KfIeteka, Comanche band, I87, 229 Keweenaw bay, Indians on, I6 Kicha, portrait, I82 pl. Kichai and Wichita affinity, 36, 52 assigned to reservation, 31 Kickapoo and Illinois enmity, 15 culture of, 14 driven into Mexico, 30 history, 22-23 Illinois lands seized by, 17 population, 32 KfdYkydefh, Wichita tribal name, 39, 223, 224 Kidnapping in myth, I03 Kynnykidsas, Wichita spirit, 40-41, 44-45, 48, 64, 65, 67, 71, 85, 225 See SPIRIT ABOVE Kiowa and Comanche peace, 182-183 and Kiowa Apache affinity, 30 Comanche name for, 229 Forty-nine dance among, 215 history, 29 population, 32 treaty with, 30, i88 Wichita name for, 224 Kiowa Apache, history, 30 Kiowa Apache, hostilities, 29 population, 32 Kiowan-Tanoan stock determined, 3, 29 Kitchechaonissi, a Potawatomi, 62-64 Klamath and Modoc affinity, 31 Klamath reservation, Modoc on, 32 Knives of the Oto, 226 Knowledge, how obtained, 229 See POWER Kwakiutl, sorcery customs of, 140 Lacrosse played by Comanche, 229 La Harpe, B. de, among the Wichita, 35, 36 Lake Erie, a Potawatomi boundary, 17 Cherokee on, 5 LakeHuron, Ottawa on, 16 Lake Michigan, Ottawa on, I6 Winnebago on, 25 Lake Pepin, Indians near, 16 Lake St. Clair, Ottawa on, 16 Potawatomi on, 17 Lake Superior, Sauk and Foxes on, 17 Lake Winnebago, Sauk and Foxes near, 17 Winnebago on, 24 Lakota. See Sioux Lamb, Henry, informant, 52 Lances in legend, 137 Land cessions by Algonquians, 14 by Caddo, 28 by Cayuga, 24 by Cherokee, 7, 8 by Cheyenne, I I by Choctaw and Chickasaw, I2-13 by Creeks, I by Kansa, 27 by Kickapoo, 23 by Modoc and Klamath, 31 by Omaha, 26-27 by Osage, 26 by Ottawa, I6 by Pawnee, 28 by Sauk and Foxes, 19 by Seminole, 8 Lands of the Wichita, 37 Language of the Cherokee, 4-5 See VOCABULARIES L'Arbre Croche, Ottawa at, 16 Lawe. See BEAVER CLAN {view image of page 255} INDEX 255 Lefthand, portrait, folio pl. 683 Legend of Buffalo-dance, 131-133 of sacred arrows, 116-121 Legends, band and society, 135 of the Wichita, 46-56, 224 See MYTHOLOGY Leggings, Cheyenne, 82 pl. See CLOTHING Lenape. See DELAWARE INDIANS Lewis and Clark on Osage habitat, 26 Lice in myth, 189-I90, 196 Life, how symbolized, I16 Light, mythic creation of, 49 Light In The South, a spirit, 73 Lightning symbolized in myth, 135 Thunderbird medicine on, I34 Lightning-struck tree, concept regarding, 158 Lipan Apache assigned reservation, 31 history, 30 population, 30, 32 Little Butte des Morts, battle near, I8 Little Klamath lake, Modoc on, 31 Little Osage, an Osage band, 26 Little Platte river, Iowa tribe on, 25 Liver, human, eaten by sorcerers, 58 used in tanning, 145, 225 Lizard, Water, in legend, 75 See WATER LIZARD Lodge built for naming children, I54 built for puberty rite, 155, I56 pl. ceremonial, of the Oto, I54, 226 ceremonial, oriented, 129 of Peyote cult, 203 Sun-dance, Cheyenne, I 6 pl.-I22 pi., 122-124 See ARBOR; DWELLINGS; EARTH-LODGE; GRASS-HOUSE; HOUSES; PUBERTY LODGE; SUN-DANCE LODGE; SWEATLODGE Lone Chief, portrait, folio pl. 676 Lost Cherokee, why so named, 5 Lost River valley, Modoc on, 31, 32 Louisiana Purchase and the Cherokee, 5 Loup river, Pawnee on, 28 Luck derived from spirits, 86, 87 in myth, 93-94, 137 of medicine-men, 98 on warpath, 141, 142 Luck. See POWER Lutje. See PIGEON CLAN Lutuamian, a stock, 3, 31 McIntosh, William, activities, 12 Mackinaw, tribal separation at, I6 Mad Bull, story of, I45-I48 Magic, buffalo produced by, 132 by medicine-man, 92-93 by Peyote priest, 212 food produced by, 167 in ceremony, 68-69 in myth, I17-118, 120, 190-192, I94, 196 of Buffalo Ghost, 86 performed by Indians, 71-72 tree grown by, 147 See TRANSFORMATION; WITCHCRAFT Magic arrows in myth, I95 Magpie, portrait of, 96 pl. Magpie in myth, 148 Magpie-feathers in myth, 147 Mahaoivas in myth, 119 Mahican and Delaware affinity, 22 joined by Shawnee, 20 move to Ohio, 22 Man Above, a spirit, 95 Mandan and Cheyenne warfare, IO9 and Kiowa Apache trade, 30 ceremony of, borrowed, 128 earth-lodges of, 151 glass ornaments made by, I6 Manitoulin island, Ottawa on, I6 Ma nkache. See OWL CLAN Mankansuije, Oto society, 227 Mankanye. See OTTER SOCIETY Man Never Known On Earth, Wichita deity, 44-45 Man On The Cloud, portrait of, 94 pl. Man Reflecting Light, the Sun spirit, 45 Many Dogs dance of the Wichita, 44 Manyikafhe, the Coyote, 171, I73-175 Marriage among Cheyenne, 225, 229 among Comanche, I85-I86 among Oto, 154, 156, 227 among Wichita, 41, 223 by contest, 144 of woman and giant, 196 of woman and horse, 193 {view image of page 256} 256 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Marriage with a star, I02 See POLYGYNY Marrow eaten in myth, 145 Maryland, Shawnee in, 20 Masiskuta, Cheyenne band, 225 Maskokalgi, the Creeks, II Meat, origin of, as food, 56 preparation of, Io8 pl. See BUFFALO; FOOD Meat-drying in legend, 49 Medals given to Indians, folio pl. 679 of the Comanche, I88 Medicine, arrow, in myth, I34 feature of Peyote cult, 201 on arrow-points, in legend, 49 See HEALING Medicine-arrows in Oto myth, I66-I68 Medicine-bag for sacred pipe, 141 in sweat-lodge, 142 Medicine-bundles at house-building, 66-68 in Deer dance, 71 in legend, 8I Medicine-men aided by North Star, 46 as sorcerers, 138 fossil bone used by, 51 in myth, 171 mortuary customs for, 225 of Oto societies, I54 oppose Peyote cult, 201-202 power of, 92, 98 transformation by, 145 See PRIESTHOOD Medicine-men dance, the Deer dance, 71 Medicine people in Cheyenne legend, I 17 Medicine Root, Cheyenne prophet, I 17 Medicine-root in legend, 137-138 in sweat-lodge, 142 Medicine spirits in Cheyenne legend, 119 Melons raised by Wichita, 223 Menomini and Fox enmity, i8 in Black Hawk War, 19 Menstrual houses, Oto, 226 Mescalero and Lipan friendship, 30 Metates, Wichita, 39, 223 Meteor in myth, 90 in Wichita belief, 46 Methodist Mission, treaty of, 27 Me'fai, Comanche band, I87, 229 Mexican Kickapoo in Chihuahua, 23 Mexico, Comanche and Kiowa raids in, 29, 181-182 Kickapoo driven into, 30 Lipan Apache driven into, 30 Lipan Apache raids in, 30 peyote cactus in, I99 Seminole seek lands in, I I tribes migrate to, 23 Mezieres, A. de, on the Wichita, 35-36 Miami, Delawares settle with, 22 habitat of, 17 treaty with, 14 Micanopy, Seminole chief, 8, 10 Michigamea, an Illinois tribe, 15 Michigan, tribes in, 17, 18, 23 Michilimackinac, Hurons removed to, 23 Migration in Oto myth, 162-163 of Siouan tribes, 24-26 of the Cherokee, 5 of the Cheyenne, 107-Io8, I 112-I13, 136 -I37 of the Comanche, 183-I84 of the Iowa, 25 of the Kansa, 27 of the Kiowa Apache, 30 of the Missouri, 25 of the Oto, 25 of the Quapaw, 27 of the Shawnee, 20 See HABITAT; HISTORY Mikasuki in Seminole war, 9 Mille Lacs, a Dakota boundary, 24 Milwaukee river, Potawatomi on, 17 Mink in myth, 176-177 Minnesota, Indians in, 13, 14, I6, 24-26 Minnesota river, a Cheyenne boundary, Io8 Minnetarees of the Prairie, the Atsina, 14 Minnows in myth, 191 Mirror used in courtship, 156 Missionaries among Cherokee, 5-6 Missionary at Quivira, 35 Mississippi, Indians in, 12, 24 Mississippi river, Indians forced beyond, 5-6, 14, i6 Quapaw on, 27 Siouan tribes on, 24-25 Missouri, Indians in, I5, 21-26 {view image of page 257} INDEX 257 Missouri, Kansa land claims in, 27 Shawnee remove from, 21 Missouri river, Atsina on, 14 crossed by Cheyenne, Io8, II3, 136-137 Iowa tribe on, 25 Kiowa on, 29 Oto and Missouri on, 25 Siouan tribes on, 26 Missouri tribe, history of, 25 linguistic relations, 24 Oto name for, 228 population, 32, 226 Mixed-bloods among Indians, 4, 5, 7, I3 Moccasin game. See GAMES Moccasins in myth, 87, 137, 145, 173 See CLOTHING; FOOTWEAR Modesty of candidate for chiefship, 43 Modoc, history of, 31-32 population, 32 Modoc lake, Modoc on, 31 Moingwena, an Illinois tribe, 15 Monsters in myth, 51, 53, 104, I33 of the water, 75-76 See DWARFS; GIANT; WATER LIZARD; WATER MONSTER Montana, Atsina in, 14 Peyote cult in, 200 Months, Oto names for, 228 Moon in Comanche myth, 189-I90 journey to, in myth, 171-172 marked on sacred arrows, I21 myth of the, 10I-102 painted on warrior spirit, 131 symbolism, 66, 121, 126, I27, 129 See CRESCENT Moon spirit of Wichita, 40, 41, 45-47, 224 Mooney, James, cited, 6 Moose-horn, legendary bow of, 55 Moravian Delawares in Canada, 22 Mormons unopposed to Peyote cult, 200 Morning Star in Wichita religion, 45-48, 56, 73, 87-90, 224 Mortar in Oto myth, 165, 166 of the Wichita, 39, 48 pl., 223 Mortuary customs, Cheyenne, 225-226 Comanche, I86, 229 Oto, I57, 227-228 Wichita, 42, 223-224 VOL. XIX-33 Mortuary customs. See SCAFFOLD-BURIAL; TREE-BURIAL Mother of creation in Wichita belief, 45 Mother Earth, prayers to, 42, 124, 224, 229 Mother-in-law taboo absent, 41, 223, 227, 229 Mofseiyi'v, Cheyenne prophet, 113, I17, 226 Mountain, sacred, of Cheyenne, I24 See CEDAR MOUNTAIN; NUWAWUS Mourning among Cheyenne, 226 by Comanche, I86 by Potawatomi, 63 by Wichita, 42 in myth, 19I Mudhen in myth, 147 Munsee, a Delaware division, 21 in Canada, 22 remove to Ohio, 22 Shawnee with, 20 Murder among Cheyenne, 114 by sorcerers, 59 for adultery, I57, i86, 225, 227 in myth, I03, 167, 169-170, 172, I75 of sorcerers, 58, 60 resulting from Forty-nine dance, 216 Music in legend, 76 Musical instruments. See BUFFALO-BONE; DEWCLAWS; DRUM; FLUTE; RATTLES; WHISTLE Muskhogean stock, tribes of, 3 Muskingum river, tribes on, 22 Mutilation for adultery, 157, 185-186, 225, 227, 229 See SCARIFICATION MufofYnta", spear of, II9 Muvinavore, alleged Comanche band, 187, 229 Mythic Animal of the Mountains, Wichita dance, 44 Mythology, Cheyenne, I43-I48, 226 Comanche, 189-196, 229 Oto, 164-177, 228 Wichita, 85-I04 See LEGENDS Nachi, Apache raider, I99 Naming of children, 40, 154-I55, I86 Nanticoke and Delaware affinity, 22 Shawnee relations with, 20 {view image of page 258} 258 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Native American Church in Oklahoma, 202 Naftkiwus, a Wichita, 40 Natural phenomena, terms for, 234-235 Navaho, magic performed by, 71 Neamathla, Seminole chief, IO Nebraska, Indians in, 25-27, 30, 35 Neches river, Caddoan tribes on, 28, 36 Necklaces of human fingers, I39 Negro and Cherokee blood, 5 origin of Stomp dance, 214 Negroes among Seminole, 8 Neighbors, R. S., on the Comanche, 184, 86-I88 Neosho river, Kansa on, 27 Neuters, remnant of, with Seneca, 24 New Echota, treaty of, 6 New Jersey, Delawares in, 14, 22 New Mexico, Comanche in, 182, I84 Kiowa Apache in, 30 Lipan Apache in, 30 New York, Delawares in, 13, 22 Noisy One, legendary character, 136 Nokoni, Comanche band, 187, 229 North Carolina, Siouan tribes in, 24 North Dakota, Peyote cult in, 200 Northern Arapaho, why so called, 14 Northern Cheyenne, origin of, IIo separation of, 137 See CHEYENNE North Star in Wichita belief, 46, 224 Nose mutilated for adultery, 157, I85-I86, 225, 227, 229 Num, Comanche tribal name, 229 Number, sacred. See FOUR Numerals, native names for, 235-236 Nunuma, the Thunderbird, 134 Nuts used as food, 223, 226 Nuwawus, Cheyenne sacred mountain, O09, 112, 121, 124, 128 See CEDAR MOUNTAIN 6ahanowin, Cheyenne band, 123 Ocala, Seminole murder near, 9 Oconostota, Cherokee leader, 5 Offering at name-giving, I55 of food to spirits, 125-126 to Sun-dance lodge, 124 See FOOD-OFFERING; PIPE-OFFERING; PRAYER; SMOKE-OFFERING Ohihnihk6 in myth, 119 Ohio, Ottawa removed from, 16 Shawnee sell lands in, 21 tribes move to, 22 Ohio river, tribes of, 20-23 Oht6onyu, Cheyenne band, 225 Okipe, Mandan ceremony, 128 Oklahoma. See INDIAN TERRITORY Old Buffalo Medicine-woman in legend, 132 Old Crow, Cheyenne informant, 84 pl., 119 wife of, 86 pi. Old Eagle, portrait, folio pl. 679 Old Settlers, the Arkansas Cherokee, 6 Omaha, history, 26 in Black Hawk War, 19 linguistic relations, 24 meaning of name, 24 Omih, the Thunder Spirit, 147 6miAhiAh, Cheyenne band, 123, 225 Opossum in myth, I9I Oration in puberty rite, 155 in Sun dance, 122-123 Ordeal in Sun dance, 127 of patients, 185 Oregon, Modoc in, 31-32 Orientation in ceremony, 72, 73, 77 in myth, 83, 85, 94 of camp-circle, 128 of ceremonial objects, 74 of Comanche shield, 183 of grass-lodge, 38, 65-66, 76 of musical instruments, 80 of Peyote lodge, 203 of pipe in ceremony, 67 of sweat-lodge, 140 of the dead, 42, 157, 224, 225, 227 See CARDINAL POINTS Ornamentation of clothing with scalps, 138 of legendary objects, I37, I38 See BEADWORK; BODY-PAINTING; FACEPAINTING; PORCUPINE-QUILLS; TATTOOING Ornaments made of glass, I 6 of the Comanche, 188, 228 of the dead, 42, 223-224 See BIRDS; GLASS; NECKLACES Osage and Cherokee conflict, 5 and Kansa affinity, 27 {view image of page 259} INDEX 259 Osage and Tonkawa enmity, 31 and Wichita enmity, 36 Comanche name for, 229 habitat, folio pl. 659 history, 26 joined by Missouri tribe, 25 joined by Quapaw, 27 linguistic relations, 24, folio pl. 680 origin of name, folio pl. 680 Oto name for, 228 Peyote rite among, 2II population, 32 portraits, 164 pi., folio pl. 680 status of women, 4 Stomp dance among, 214 wealth of, 4, 37 Wichita name for, 224 Osage river, Osage reside on, 26 Peoria and Kaskaskia on, 15 Osanano"hYth, spirit of disease, 119 Oscar Makes Cry, portrait, 204 Osceola, Seminole leader, 9-I I Osiers for lodge-building, 66 mythic raft bound with, 50 See WILLOW Oto, account of, 151-177, 226-228 and Missouri, population, 32, 226 history of, 25 joined by Missouri tribe, 25 linguistic relations, 24 Peyote cult among, 203, 206, 211 portraits, 152 pi., 154 pl., 158 pl., I60 pi., 162 pl., folio pls. 675-679 puberty lodge of, 156 pl. Stomp dance among, 2I4 vocabulary of, 230-238 Wichita name for, 224 Ottawa, history of, 16 population, 32 treaty with, 14 Otter in ceremony, 128 Otter-fur in legend, II9 Otter-skin in myth, 146 in ornamentation, 137 Otter society of Cheyenne, I29-I30 of Oto, 153-154, 227 Ousitas, the Wichita, 35 6vimana, Cheyenne band, 123, 225 Owl in myth, I89-I91 personated by witches, 58 wizard's song of, 61 See BIG OWL Owl clan, Oto, 153, I62-I63, 227 Owl Wizard, a legend, 62 Padilla, Juan de, missionary to Quivira, 35 Pagaflu, Comanche band, I87, 229 Paint, yellow, requested by Morning Star, 89 See PIGMENTS Painting by animals in myth, I47 by Comanche, I88 for society degrees, I53 in Buffalo ceremony, I29-I30 in myth, 135, 153, i6o, 163, 164, I75 in Sun dance, 125-I27 of gaming sticks, 227 of the dead, 157, 163, 223, 225 of warrior spirit, 131, 135 See BODY-PAINTING; FACE-PAINTING; PIGMENTS Paint-stone used by dancers, 96-97 Paiute, culture of, I83 Pakewa, portrait, I84 pl. Palata, Oto society, 227 Palm of wizard vulnerable, 60 Panis Piques, the Wichita, 39 Panther-skins in myth, 146 Parfieche cases, Oto, 226 Parrilla, Diego Ortiz, defeated, 35 Pafhiago, Comanche chief, I83 Paunch. See BUFFALO-PAUNCH Pawnee, a Caddoan tribe, 35 and Wichita affinity, 36 capture Cheyenne arrows, 114 Comanche name for, 229 dance borrowed from, 44, 6I dance costume, 74 pl. history, 27-28 Kansa attacked by, 27 population, 32 tribes incorporated with, 25 Wichita name for, 224 See SKIDI Payne's Landing, treaty of, 8, 9 Peace made in Oto myth, 162, I63 traditional, of Cheyenne, III {view image of page 260} 260 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Peace. See TREATY Pecos raided by Comanche, 182 Peebo, Wilbur, portrait, I96 pi. Pelican in myth, 19o-191 Pemmican made in myth, 145 Penande. See PENATEKA Penateka assigned to reservation, 31 Comanche band, I87, 229 Penn, William, treaties by, 20, 22 Pennsylvania, Indians in, 14, 20, 21 Peoria, an Illinois tribe, 15 treaty with the, 14 Peoria, Ill., Kickapoo at site of, 22 Personal terms of various tribes, 236-237 Pestle in Oto myth, I65 made by Wichita, 223 See MORTAR Pet in myth, I94 Peyote, extract from, 8I Peyote cult, altar of, 201, 203, 204, 208 pl., 209, 2II, 212 and Wichita rites compared, 74 described, 199-213 drummer of, folio pi. 687 leader of, 2Io pl. misunderstood, 200, 202, 203, folio pi. 687 sweat-lodge of, 206 pi. Philip, Seminole chief, io Physical characteristics of Wichita, 37 Piankashaw, Delawares settle with, 22 removal of, 15 treaty with, 14 Pigeon clan of Oto, 153, I62-163, 227 Pigments of the Comanche, i88, 228 Pimfksi, Comanche name of Pueblos, 182, 229 Pipe, ceremonial use of, 73, 12I, 141-142 in Arrow ceremony, I 6 in Buffalo ceremony, 132-133 in myth, 76, 88, 94, I20, 137, i6i in puberty rite, 155 in Sun dance, 122, 124-126 of sweat-lodge leader, 141 sacred, how regarded, 158 sacred, in healing rite, I85 sacred, mythic origin of, I60, I63 spiritual knowledge of, 72 used in council, 187 used in peacemaking, 162 Pipe. See SMOKING Pipe-men of Oto ceremony, I55-I56 Pipe-stem, portrait, folio pi. 678 Plains Indians, Wichita influenced by, 37 Planets in Wichita religion, 44-45 Planting, how conducted by Oto, I63 sacred pipe used at, I60 Plants, Oto named after, 154 Platform-burial by the Oto, 227 See MORTUARY CUSTOMS; SCAFFOLDBURIAL Platte river, Indians on, 14, 25, 27, 30, 152, I8I Pleiades, mythic origin of, 143-I44 Oto belief regarding, 152, I6o Plums in myth, 175 Poison in buzzards, 171 on arrows in legend, 49 used by Potawatomi, 62-64 used by witches, 58 Polecat in myth, I92-I93 See SKUNK Political organization, Cheyenne, 109, 225 Comanche, 187-188, 229 Oto, 152, 227 Wichita, 36, 43, 223 Polygyny among Caddo, 6I among Cheyenne, 225 among Comanche, 182, i85, 229 among Oto, 227 See MARRIAGE Ponca, history of the, 26 joined by the Oto, 25 linguistic relations, 24 peyote experience of, 213 population, 32 portraits, 172 pl.-I76 pi., 200 pl.-204 pl. Stomp dance among, 214 Wichita name for, 224 Pond-lily bulbs eaten by Wichita, 223 Pontiac, murder of, 15 Pontiac War of 1763, 6, 17, 23 Population, Caddo, 32, 223 Comanche, 32, 228 Delaware, 22, 32 Illinois, 15, 32 Indian, of United States, 32 Kaskaskia, 15 Lipan Apache, 30, 32 {view image of page 261} INDEX 26I Population, mythic increase of, 132 Oto and Missouri, 32, 226 Peoria and Michigamea, 15 Shawnee, 21, 32 Southern Cheyenne, 224 Wichita, 32, 37, 49, 56, 223 Porcupine-quills for tattooing, 156 in myth, I45, I46 on chief-sticks, III Porcupine tails, combs made of, 146, 225 Potawatomi and Fox enmity, 18 and Illinois enmity, 15 and Sauk alliance, 18 history of, 16-17 migrate to Texas, 23 Oto name for, 228 population, 32 sorcery among, 62-64 tribal relations of, 16 Pottery of the Wichita, 39, 49, 223 Power acquired by hunter, 86-87 acquired in ceremony, 69 derived from animals, 46, 75-76, 95, 96 derived from fish, 99 derived from spirits, 47, 64, 72, 80-85, 90 -95, 224 magic, in buffalo, 83 of Thunderbirds, 134 See LUCK Power Over All. See KINNIKASUS Prairie Band of Kickapoo, origin, 23 Prairiedogs in myth, I92-I93 Prayer and ceremony, 128 Cheyenne, for the tribe, 115 for children, I55 for Comanche healer, I85 for new-born child, 45 for new chief, 43 for Oto council, 152-I53 in ceremony, 78 in house-building, 65-66 in myth, I95 in Peyote cult, 200, 201, 204 in sweat-lodge, 142 of sorcerers, 139 songs of, in Sun dance, 125 taught in legend, 56 to Great Mystery, 67, I58 Prayer to Morning Star, 45 to Mother Earth, 42 to sacred pipes, I55 to spirits, 73, 74, 90, 94, 128, I32, I57, I59, 224, 229 to Sun-dance tree, 122, 124 to sweat-lodge willows, 140 Wichita belief regarding, 48 See INVOCATION; OFFERING Priber, Christian, missionary, 5 Prickly-pear spines in myth, 143 Priesthood, Comanche, 187-188 of Sun dance, 122 See MEDICINE-MEN Propagation promoted by ceremony, 224 symbolized in rite, 128, 130-131 Property of adulterer yielded, I86 of dead, 156, 158, 225, 227-228 placed with the dead, 157-158 Prophet of the Cheyenne, 116-121, I23 See MOTSEIY6iv Prostitution among Oto, 157, 227 Puberty in Oto myth, i60 Puberty lodge, Oto, I56 pl. Puberty rite, Oto, I54-I55, 227-228 Pueblos and Peyote cult, 201 Comanche name for, 182, 229 Forty-nine dance among, 215 raided by Comanche, 182 Pumpkin given to rainmaker, 80 how prepared, 38-39, 50 pl. mythic origin of, 163 raised by Oto, 226 raised by Wichita, 223 Punishment among Comanche, 187 during ceremony, 78, I15 for adultery, 42, 157, I85-I86, 223, 225, 227, 229 for elopement, 156, 227 for revealing secrets, 57, I54 of wizard in legend, 60 See STEALING Punk for fire, how obtained, 226 Purchase, marriage by, i86 Purification after touching dead, 42, 157, 227 by bathing, 72, 78, 224 by sweating, 122, 127 in ceremony, 73, 74, 226, folio pl. 662 {view image of page 262} 262 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Purification in house-building rite, 67 of sacred objects, 225 of the lodge, I57-I58 with buffalo-fat, 85 with sage, 204 See INCENSE; SAGE; SWEAT-BATH Purity symbolized, 204 Qahadi, Comanche band, I87, 229 Qasiner, Comanche band, I87, 229 Quapaw, habitat, folio pl. 659 history, 27 linguistic relations, 24, 26 meaning of name, 24 Oto name for, 228 population, 32 Stomp dance among, 214 wealth of, 37 Quapaw, John, portrait, folio pl. 68I Quapaw reservation, Modoc on, 32 Quiver for sacred arrows, 113 in myth, 146, I95 Quivira, situation of, 35, 39, folio pl. 653 Rabbits in myth, I65, 174 Rabbit-skins in Sun dance, I25, I27 Raccoon in myth, I90 Raccoon Eyes, the Wichita, 39, 223 Racing in Buffalo ceremony, 131 in myth, 138, 147-148, I66, I93 in Sun dance, 123 Raft in deluge myth, 50-52 Rain brought by water-monster, 75-76 concept regarding, I58 Rain ceremony, Wichita, 74-80, 224 Rattles, gourd, in ceremony, 78 gourd, of sorcerers, 63 in myth, 95, I37 used in dance, 96 used in Peyote rite, 205, 208 pi., 209 See GOURD Rattlesnake in myth, 171 Rawhide, arrows pointed with, I34, 135 objects made of, 226 See BUFFALO-HIDE Receptacles of the Oto, 226 See IMPLEMENTS Red Bean Man, a spirit, 64, 70, 71 Red Bean Society of the Oto, 227 Red Bird, portrait, 92 pl. Red river of Louisiana, tribes on, 28, 36 Red River valley, Indians of, 13, 14, 35 Red Shield, the Maha6ivas, 119 Religion, Cheyenne, 226 Comanche, I83-I84, 229 Oto, 158, 228 Wichita, 44-56 See CEREMONIES; MYTHOLOGY; PEYOTE CULT Resurrection in myth, 170, I91 Revelation, spiritual knowledge by, 38 Revolution, Cherokee and the, 5 Potawatomi in the, 17 Rice county, Kansas, remains in, 39 Richardson, A. T., cited, 62 Ridge, John, killed, 7 Ridge, Major, killed, 7 Ridge Hill band of Cheyenne, I35 Ridge party of the Cherokee, 7 Rio Grande, Comanche raids on, 182 Lipan Apache on, 30 Ritual of Peyote cult, 203-212 Robe, deerskin, in myth, 170 See BUFFALO-ROBES; CLOTHING Rock river, Iowa Indians on, 25 Rocks, spirits of, 119 Root-digging in Oto myth, i66 Roots, dyes made from, i88 eaten by Cheyenne, 224 See MEDICINE-ROOT; SOAPWEED-ROOT Ross, John, Cherokee chief, 4-7 Ross, Walter, portrait, 38 pl., folio pi. 657 Sabine river, tribes on, 21, 28, 36 Sacred arrows. See ARROW CEREMONY Sacrifice, human, in tradition, IIO of horse in myth, 195 of warrior's horses, I86 Saddle mountain in myth, 9I, 92 Sage in house-building ceremony, 68, 70 in myth, 148 in Peyote rite, 204 used in new lodge, 66 used in Sun dance, 126 used in sweat-lodge, 140-141 Saginaw bay, Sauk on, 18 {view image of page 263} INDEX 263 St. Croix falls, Foxes defeated at, 18 St. Joseph river, Potawatomi on, 17 St. Louis, Indian trade with, 25 Sauk near, 19 treaty of, 26 Salt river, Iowa tribe on, 25 Sand-burrs in myth, I43 Sandusky, Hurons at, 23 San Gabriel river, a Tonkawa boundary, 3I Sangamon river, Kickapoo on, 23 San Saba, mission in Texas, 35 Saparit, a trader, 183 Sauk and Illinois enmity, 15 and Kickapoo affinity, 22 history of, 17-19 Illinois lands seized by, 17 Sauk and Foxes joined by the Oto, 25 Missouri tribe conquered by, 25 Oto name for, 228 population, 32 Wichita name for, 224 Savannah, derivation of name, 20 Savannah river, tribes on, I3, 20 Scab band of Cheyenne, 225 Scaffold-burial by Cheyenne, 225 by Oto, I57 See MORTUARY CUSTOMS; PLATFORMBURIAL; TREE-BURIAL Scalp in woman's dance, 44 Scalp-dance in Oto myth, i66 Scalping by Comanche, i86 by Wichita, 43, 58 Scalps in Oto myth, 164-168 on clothing in legend, 138 Scarification for mourning, i86, 226 in Cheyenne legend, 117 See MUTILATION Schoolcraft, H. R., cited, I83, I84, I86-I88 Schuylkill river, a Shawnee boundary, 20 Scioto river, a Shawnee boundary, 21 Scotch-Irish and Indian infusion, 13 Scouts in Oto myth, 165 Pawnee serve as, 28 simulated in Sun dance, 122 Tonkawa employed as, 31 Scrapers in myth, 145 of the Cheyenne, 224 of the Comanche, 229 Scrapers of the Oto, 226 Seasons of the Cheyenne, 226 Sec'hire, Kiowa chief, 183 Seeing High, portrait, 152 pi. Seminole, history of, 8-11 population, 32 Stomp dance among, 2I4 Wichita name for, 224 Seminole Nation established, II Seneca of Oklahoma, 24 of Sandusky, of what composed, 24 population, 32 Shawnee with, 21 treaty with, 14 Sequoya, the Cherokee, 5, 6 Seven Star story, a myth, I43-144 Seymour, Samuel, drawing by, I52 Shackamaxon, a Delaware seat, 22 Shawnee and Delaware affinity, 22 espouse Confederate cause, 31 habitat of, 13 history of, 19-2I population, 32 Potawatomi settled with, 17 settle in Spanish territory, 22 Yuchi among the, 13 Shawnee Prophet, medicine-man, 21 Shell, Comanche ornaments of, 188, 228 day symbolized by, 116 Shield, Arapaho, 146 pl. Comanche, 183 Shinny in myth, 145 Shirts. See CLOTHING Shoshone and Comanche affinity, 181 Shoshonean, a stock, 3, 181, 183 Sickness. See HEALING Sign language of Jicarillas, 212 used by healer, 93 Sikwdy. See SEQUOYA Silver, Comanche ornaments of, I88, 228 house of, in myth, I96 Sinew, deer, requested by Morning Star, 89 for arrows in myth, 144 See BUFFALO-SINEW; INTESTINE Singing during tattooing, I56 in Buffalo rite, I30 in Comanche rite, 185 in house-building rite, 67, 68 {view image of page 264} 264 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Singing in myth, 117, I74, 192 in Sun dance, 123 in Wichita ceremonies, 44, 70, 97 See SONGS Siouan stock, history, 24 tribes of, 3 Sioux and Arapaho relations, 14 and Cheyenne relations, I o and Kiowa strife, 29 capture sacred arrow, 114 Comanche name for, 229 hostilities of, I6-19 Illinois relations with, 15 religious beliefs of, 158 warfare with related tribes, 26 Skidi and Wichita affinity, 36 dancers, 70 pl. See PAWNEE Skin-dressing by Cheyenne, 225 in myth, I45-146 See TANNING Skins, tipis of, 152 See BUFFALO-HIDE; BULLFROG-SKIN; DEERSKIN; ELK-SKIN; OTTER-SKIN; PANTHER-SKINS; PARFLECHE CASES, RABBIT-SKINS; WOLF-SKIN Skulls used by sorcerers, 63 Skunk in myth, I65-I66, 170-171 See POLECAT Sky, how symbolized, I I6 inhabited in myth, I95 pipe-offering to, 141 prayers to, 128 Sky disc of Arrow ceremony, 0og, I 6 Sky gods of Wichita, 78, 80, 224 Slaves among Cherokee, 5, 7, 8 among Seminole, 8 among Wichita, 223 Yuchi regarded as, 13 Sleight-of-hand. See MAGIC Smallpox among the Missouri, 25 among the Wichita, 36 Oto reduced by, 25 Smith, Lieut. Constantine, killed, 9 Smoke, cedar, purification with, 157 See INCENSE Smoke-maker in ceremony, 77-80 Smoke-offering to KinniksUs, 85 Smoke-offering to spirit, 73 to the sick, 93 Smoking in Deer dance, 73 in house-building rite, 67 in legend, 119 in Peyote rite, 212 in Sun dance, 125 See PIPE Snake in myth, 104 magically created, 68 personated by witches, 58 See RATTLESNAKE Snake clan, Oto, I53, 162-163, 227 Snake, Henry, Ponca informant, 214 Snake sorcerer, story of, 59-60 Snow, concept regarding, 158 Soapweed, rope of, in legend, 50, 102 used in fire-making, 56 Soapweed-root used in tanning, 225 Social customs of Oto, 154 Social organization, Cheyenne, 225 Oto, 227 Wichita, 41, 223 Societies, dance, of the Wichita, 223 of the Oto, I53-I54 See DANCE SOCIETIES Soldier society lacking among Comanche, 187, 229 of the Oto, 157 Songs derived from animals, 96 for society degrees, 153 in myth, 94, 95, I32, I36-I38, I76-177 in sweat-lodge, I42 of Buffalo ceremony, 83-84 of Deer dance, 73 of Forty-nine dance, 215 of Gift dance, 44 of Peyote cult, 200, 202, 204-210 of puberty rite, 155 of rain ceremony, 77, 79 of Stomp dance, 214-220 of Sun dance, 124-127, I84, 229 of war-dance, 44 used at gaming, 227 See SINGING Sorcery, influence of, on ceremony, 80 See WITCHCRAFT Soul in Wichita belief, 46, 48 {view image of page 265} INDEX 265 Soul. See SPIRITS South. See LIGHT IN THE SOUTH South Carolina, Siouan tribes in, 24 South Dakota, Indians in, 14, 26, Io8 Peyote cult in, 200 Southern Arapaho, why so called, 14 Southern Cheyenne, origin of, I I separation of, I37 See CHEYENNE South Star in Wichita belief, 46, 224 Spain, tribes in domain of, 5, 21, 22 Spaniards, effect of, on Caddo, 28 introduce horses, 181 Kiowa Apache trade with, 30 Seminole ruled by, 8 Tonkawa relations with, 31 Spanish and Indian infusion, 4, 13 Sparrow-hawks in myth, I47, I60, 163 Spear, decorated, in myth, I47 in legend, 138 of Cheyenne bands, 119 See LANCES Spirit Above in Cheyenne belief, 132 in Wichita belief, 76 See KINNIKAStS Spirit land. See AFTERWORLD Spirit of the Water of the Wichita, 224 Spirit Over All and lodge-building, 66 See KINNIKASUS; WAKAN-TANKA Spirits averse to light, 72 Comanche belief in, 184 evil, exorcised, 204, 207 food-offering to, 74, I25-126, I32, 156 how communicated with, 162 invoked by council, 187 knowledge imparted by, 72, 187-188, 229 luck received from, 142 offerings to, 124 of the dead, 158 of the Wichita, 45, 224 of warriors, 161 Peyote rite from, 211 power derived from, 47, 64, 90-95 prayers to, 9o, 94, 128, 132, I55, I57, 159 sacred arrows received from, II2 smoke-offering to, 73 warrior, in legend, I3I, 135-I36 when considered, 40 VOL. XIX-34 Spirits, wind the breath of, I42 Spleen used in magic, 86-87 Spoons, horn, made by Wichita, 74, 223 in legend, 136 of the Cheyenne, 224 of the Comanche, 229 of the Oto, 226 Spring, sacred, in myth, I3 I-132, 134-I36 Squash, how prepared, 52 pl., 54 pl. raised by Wichita, 223 Squirrel in Oto myth, I65, I66 Standing On The Earth, portrait, I54 pl. Standing Two, portrait, folio pl. 675 Stand Watie, Cherokee leader, 7 Star, marriage of, in myth, I02 symbolized on gourds, 138 tattooed in puberty rite, 154, I56 Stars in Wichita belief, 44-46 power derived from, 47 See SEVEN STAR STORY Starvation in legend, I31, 135-I36 See HUNGER Stealing in myth, 168, 171-175, I93, 194 Stick, worship, in legend, 120 Sticks, Cheyenne bands represented by, Io9 notched, for making music, 76, 77 See CHIEF-STICKS Stomp dance described, 214-220 Stone, Oto knives of, 226 Quivira implements of, 39 See IMPLEMENTS Storage, bags used for, 226 of food, 146 See CACHES Strength ceremonially promoted, 141 symbolically received, 121 See POWER Sucking, healing by, 129, 185 Sudatory. See SWEAT-LODGE Suicide among Cheyenne, 114 resulting from Forty-nine dance, 216 Wichita belief regarding, 46, 224 Sun, arrow directed at, 147 a Wichita spirit, 224 how symbolized, 65, 66, 126, 127, 129, 132-I33, 138, 140-141, I87, 229 invocation to, 60, 186-187 Sunbeam in deluge legend, 55 {view image of page 266} 266 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Sun dance, Cheyenne, 121-128, IIo pi.122 pi., 226 Comanche, 184, 229 Sun-dance lodge, Cheyenne, folio pl. 660 See LODGE Sun Spirit of the Wichita, 45 Superstition. See WITCHCRAFT Surround-the-fire, legend of, 48 Surround-the-fire ceremony, Wichita, 72, 224 Surround-the-fire society, Wichita, 223 Susquehanna river, Indians on, 20, 22 Suitai and Cheyenne relations, io8, 112, 113, 121 camp-circle of, 225 dance of, I34 legends of, I28 Sun dance of, 226 Sweating before Peyote rite, 200, 203 purification by, 127, 157 Sweat-lodge of Cheyenne, 140-142 of Comanche, 229 of Oto, 226 of Peyote rite, 206 pi., 2II of Sun dance, I22 Sweet-potato, wild, as food, 223, 226 Swinging in myth, 144 Symbolism in Arrow ceremony, I5-I I6 in tattooing, 40 mythic, of lightning, 135 of body-painting, 126-127 of cedar, 204 of color, 120 of enemy, 123, 141 of feather, 6i of sacred arrows, 121 of sage, 204 ofsun, 65,66, 26,127,I29,132-133,138, 140-141, 187, 229 of sweat-lodge, I40-141 of tattooing, 223 of war deeds, 39 of warrior spirit, 131 on ceremonial tipi, 129 on gourds, 138 See COLORS; CRESCENT Taboo during robe-making, 146 in Arrow ceremony, 113, 115-116 Taboo of buzzards, 102 of fish in myth, 99 of intoxicants in Peyote cult, 20I of mother-in-law absent, 41, 223, 227, 229 of sacred bundles, 154 Tallies made by tattooing, 39 Tama, Iowa, Foxes near, 19 Tamanend, Delaware chief, 22 Tamaroa, an Illinois tribe, 15 Tammany Society, derivation of name, 22 Tampa, site of Fort Brooke, 9 Tanning by Comanche women, 182 in myth, 164, I94 See SKIN-DRESSING Tanume, Comanche band, 187, 229 Taos, Comanche raids against, 182 Peyote cult at, 201 Tarahumare, Peyote cult among, 199 Tattooing by Oto, 154, I56, 162, 227 by Wichita, 39, 223 in Oto myth, 160 Tawakoni, a Caddoan tribe, 35, 36 assigned to reservation, 31 habitat, 36 joined by the Caddo, 29 treaty with the, 30 Tawaikady, the Tawakoni, 36, 223 Tawehash, a Caddoan tribe, 35 Taylor, Reuben, portrait, folio pl. 670 Tecumseh, Shawnee leader, 21, 23 Tennessee, Shawnee in, 13, 20 Tennessee river, Indians on, 5, 13 Texas, attitude of, toward Indians, 36 Caddoan tribes in, 28, 35 Comanche forays in, I82 Delawares in, 22 Kickapoo migrate to, 23 Lipan Apache in, 30 peyote cactus in, 199, 202 Shawnee in, 21, 22 Tonkawa relations with, 31 Thames, battle of the, 21 Thirst, how alleviated, 74-75 Thompson, Wiley, Indian agent, 9 Throwing A Breath And Drawing Some One, a legendary personage, 87 Thunderbirds in myth, 134-135 Thunder-maker. See BULLROARER {view image of page 267} INDEX 267 Thunder Spirit in myth, I47-I48 Tipi built for Prophet, 120 Cheyenne, III, 116 pl. for healing rite, 184 for sacred arrows, 114-116 in myth, 103, 132, 148 made of skins, 152, 226 of Buffalo ceremony, 128-129 of Comanche, 228 of Comanche Sun dance, 184 See DWELLINGS Tippecanoe, battle of, 21 Toads used in witchcraft, 58, 140 Tobacco, sacred, in myth, 136, I6o, 163 Tobacco-pouch, how regarded, 158 Tongues, dried, used by wizards, 139 Tonkawa and Lipan friendship, 30 history of the, 30-31 Peyote cult among, 203, 211 population, 32 Tonkawan, a stock, 3 Torture of Sun-dance votaries, I84, 229 Trade by Comanche, 188 in myth, I90 of Kiowa Apache, 30 of the Iowa, 25 Traders, Ottawa reputation as, 16 tribute exacted from, 18 Trance produced in ceremony, 69, 70 Transformation in myth, IO4, 118-119, 143 -146 See MAGIC Transportation. See TRAVOIS Travois of the Cheyenne, 225 used by Oto, 226 Treaty, Cheyenne, of 1825, 110 of Canville, 26 of 1837, 30 of Fort Gibson, 26 of French and Iroquois, 23 of Greenville, 17, 21, 22 of Methodist Mission, 27 of New Echota, 6 of St. Louis, 26 with Algonquians, 14 with Cherokee, 6-7 with Choctaw and Chickasaw, 13 with Comanche and Kiowa, 188 Treaty with Creeks, 11-12 with Omaha, 26 with Ottawa, 16 with Seminole, 8, 9 with Shawnee, 20 Tree grown by magic, 147 Tree-burial by Cheyenne, 139 by Oto, I57, 227 See MORTUARY CUSTOMS; PLATFORMBURIAL; SCAFFOLD-BURIAL Trees, native names of, 237 spirits of, 119 See ASH; CEDAR; COTTONWOOD; DOGWOOD; WILLOW Tremino, Antonio, among the Tawehash, 35 Trial by combat, 59-60 Trickster in myth, 170-177, 190-192, 228, 229 See COYOTE; Fox Trinity river, a Tonkawa boundary, 31 Caddoan tribes on, 28, 36 Tuberculosis cured by peyote, 213 Tule lake, Modoc on, 31 Tuinapi-mu nje. See BEAR CLAN Turkey-bone for tattooing, I56 Turkey dance of the Wichita, 44 Turnips, wild, eaten by Oto, 226 Turtle in myth, 53, 164, 166, 169-170 Two Boys in Buffalo legend, 132 Uchean, a stock, 3, 13 Unalachtigo, Delaware division, 21 Unami, Delaware division, 21 Ute and Lipan Apache enmity, 30 Utensils, Cheyenne, in myth, 145, 146 See IMPLEMENTS; INDUSTRIES Uwat, portrait, folio pl. 684 Vengeance by Potawatomi, 62 Vermilion Band of Kickapoo, 23 Vermilion river, Kickapoo on, 23 Virginia, Indians in, 20, 24 Virgins, tattooing of, 154 Vision, ceremony originated in, I84 children named after, 40 songs received in, 202 Vocabularies, Oto, Cheyenne, Wichita, Comanche, 230-238 Vow before ceremony, 226 {view image of page 268} 268 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Vow for Arrow ceremony, 114 of Sun-dance votary, 122 Waapekiejeck, a Potawatomi, 63 Wabash river, a Kickapoo boundary, 23 Potawatomi on, 17 Waco, a Caddoan tribe, 35 and Wichita affinity, 36 assigned to reservation, 31 habitat, 36 Waka", meaning of, I58 See SNAKE CLAN WYkan-ta"ka, the Great Mystery, 158 Wakonda, supplication to, 204, 209 Wakonda, portrait, folio pl. 677 wife of, portrait, I58 pi. Walpole island, Indians on, I6, 17 Wands, feather, in Sun dance, I26 willow, in ceremony, I30 War customs in myth, I04 deeds recounted in Sun dance, 125, I26 deeds, tattooed symbols of, 39, 223 mythic origin of, 160, 163-I64 with Seminole, 8-IO War-bundle, mythic origin of, 160, 164 War-clubs in myth, 160, i68, 169 See CLUBS War-dance at Sun dance, 126 mythic origin of, 164 of Wichita, 44 Warfare, Cheyenne, 109, Ino Comanche, 18I-I83, i86, 195 in legend, 137-I38, 164-I66, 173 success in, 141, 142, i6i Warriors in myth, 168-169 of the Comanche, 187 simulated in Sun dance, 122 spirits of, 161 Warrior societies of the Cheyenne, 225 Warrior spirit in legend, 13I, I35-136 War-songs in Oto myth, I64-I66 Washington, treaty of, 1854, 26 Washita river, battle of, folio pl. 658 illustrated, frontispiece Wichita on, 36-37 Wcter mark on sacred arrows, 121 sanctification by Wichita, 40 symbolic of life, 95 Water. See DRINKING WATER SOCIETY; SPIRIT OF THE WATER Water Lizard, a monster, 194-195 Water rite in Peyote cult, 207-209 purification, Cheyenne, folio pl. 662 Water Spirit, Wichita, 40, 45, 47, 93-95 Wea, removal of, 15 treaty with, 14 Wealth of Oklahoma Indians, 3-4 Weapons given in puberty rite, I55 given to bereaved, 157 in myth, 134, 137, 148 painting of, in myth, 163, 164 placed with dead, 227 See ARROWS; AXES; Bows; CLUBS; IMPLEMENTS; KNIVES; SPEAR; WAR-CLUBS Weeco, the Waco, 36, 223 Wetumpka band of Seminole, 9 Whaskwaft, a Wichita, 40 Wheel, magic, in legend, I17 Wheel game in myth, 131, 135, I47 Whip, The, portrait, I74 pi. Whipping during ceremony, 78 for adultery, 227 See PUNISHMENT Whirlwind symbolized, 127 Whistle, eagle-bone, in Peyote rite, 207, 208 in ceremony, 129 in myth, 19, 137 in Sun dance, 125, 126 songs accompanied with, 96 White Deer, portrait, 202 pl. White Elk, portrait, I60 pl. White Mountain Apache, Peyote cult among, I99-20I White river, Delaware tribal boundary, 22 Siouan tribes on, 26 White Weasel, portrait, 172 pi. Wichita, account of the, 35-104, 223-224 and Lipan Apache enmity, 30 and Tonkawa relations, 31 Comanche name for, 229 early habitat, folio pl. 653 joined by Caddo, 29 Oto name for, 228 Peyote cult among, 200 population, 32, 37, 223 {view image of page 269} INDEX 269 Wichita, portraits, 36 pl., 38 pl., folio pls. 653, 657 vocabulary of, 230-238 Wichita mountains in myth, go Wichita in, 36 Wichita river, Wichita village on, 35 WYdaiiskasaks. See BEAR BROKEN LEG Wildcat-intestine, bow-string of, 70 Wildcat-skin used in ceremony, 69 Willow, cooking frame of, I51 decoration with, 123 for drum-making, 96 in Comanche rite, 185 in Sun-dance lodge, 124 used for cradles, 40-41 used for sweat-lodge, 140 wands of, in ceremony, I30 worn in Sun dance, 126-127 See OSIERS Willow ceremony, the Sun dance, I21 Wind, beliefs regarding, 46, 48, 142 in deluge legend, 54-55 spirits of the, 128 Wind River reservation, Arapaho on, I5 Winnebago, habitat of, 24, 27 migration of, 25 Oto name for, 228 tribal relations of, 24 Wisconsin, tribes in, 15-17, 22, 24 Wisconsin river, a Dakota boundary, 24 Indians on, 18, 22 Witchcraft among Cheyenne, 138-140 among Wichita, 41, 56-64 See SORCERY WYtfakwekaqs, a Wichita, 40 Wizard Who Became Crazy, a legend, 60 Wo;isa, Cheyenne woman, folio pl. 669 Wolf, howl of, in Sun dance, 122 in Animal dance, 136 pi. in legend, 138 personated in ceremony, 129, 130 Wolf-skin, bands made of, 97 Cheyenne quiver of, 113 Wolf Society, myth of, 95-98 Wolf spirit in myth, 95 Woman Forever In The Water. See WATER SPIRIT Woman Who Married A Star, a myth, Io2 Women as food-bearers, 82 captives among Comanche, 182, 229 capture of, in myth, 173 chastity of, 186 Cheyenne, 76 pi., 86 pi., 90 pi., io8 pi., folio pls. 667-669 Cheyenne, dress of, 224, 228 Comanche, I86 pi., folio pl. 685 Comanche, dress of, I88 Comanche, game of, 229 Comanche, status of, I86 function of, in sweat-lodge, 142 in ceremonies, 96 in Forty-nine dance, 215 in Oto games, 227 in Sun dance, 123, 125 Osage, status of, 4 Oto, 158 pl. Oto, society of, 227 participate in lodge-building, 65 sacred objects taboo to, 113, 154 scarification in mourning, I86 watchers in house ceremony, 67-68 Wichita, 36 pi., 48 pi., 50 pi., 54 pl. Wichita, dance societies for, 44 Wichita, dress of, 39, 223 Wichita, how guarded, 45-46 Wichita, tattooing of, 39, 223 See MARRIAGE Wood, bowl of, in legend, 136 Cheyenne utensils of, 224 Wichita receptacles of, 39 See IMPLEMENTS Woodcock in Oto myth, I60 Woods Apache, the Jicarillas, 212 W6tapi band of Cheyenne, 225 Wyandot, history of, 23 on Ohio river, 20-2I population, 32 See HURONS Wyoming, tribes in, 15, I81 Wyoming, Pa., Delawares at, 22 Wyoming valley, Shawnee in, 20 Yamasee among Seminole, 8 Yamparika, Comanche band, 187, 229 Yapa, Comanche band, 187, 229 Yazoo river, Siouan tribes on, 24 {view image of page 270} 270 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Yellow, symbolism of, I20 See COLORS; FACE-PAINTING; PAINT Yellow bird in Cheyenne myth, I 19 Yellow Man, legendary Arapaho, 119 Yellowstone river, Kiowa on, 29 Young Man When The Dawn Comes Up, the Morning Star, 88 Youthful Sorcerer, a legend, 6I Yuchi among Seminole, 8 historical note on, 13 THE END OF VOLUME XIX {view image of page List of Large Plates} The North American Indian List of Large Plates Supplementing Volume Nineteen 652 As it was in the old days In early days, before white men invaded the Great plains and ruthlessly slaughtered them by the hundreds of thousands, bison were of prime importance to the hunting tribes of the vast region in which those animals had their range. The bison was not only the chief source of food of the Plains Indians, but its skin was made into clothing, shields, packs, bags, snowshoes, and tent and boat covers; the horns were fashioned into spoons and drinking vessels; the sinew was woven into reatas, belts, personal ornaments, and the covers of sacred bundles; and the dried droppings, "buffalo-chips," were used as fuel. So dependent on the buffalo were these Indians that it became sacred to them, and many were the ceremonies performed for the purpose of promoting the increase of the herds. 653 A Wichita The Wichita belong to the Caddoan linguistic family and in the earliest historical times lived in the Arkansas valley in the present Kansas. Here they were visited by Coronado and his force of Spaniards in 1541, in a region known to them, through Indian informants, as the Province of Quivira. Then, as in later times, after moving southward, the Wichita lived in grass-houses. 654 Wichita grass-house The relatively permanent character of the typical dwelling of the Wichita indicates the sedentary life of this tribe. They were farmers in the main, but hunted the buffalo and other game in season. 655 Grass-house ceremony – Wichita The rites performed at the building of a grass-house are described in Volume XIX, pages 64-72. 656 Henry – Wichita The native names of the Indians are often unpronounceable by untrained white people, who therefore apply such incongruous English names as this and the following. 657 Walter Ross – Wichita 658 Story of the Washita An Old Cheyenne warrior recounts the famous battle of the Washita in 1868, when the tribe was severely defeated by General Custer. 659 On the Canadian River The name of the Canadian river was not derived from any association with Canada or the Canadians, but from the Spanish cañada, on account of the high, cut banks of the stream. The Canadian originally divided the lands claimed by the Quapaw on the south and those of the Great and Little Osage on the both. The Indians in the picture are Cheyenne. 660 Cheyenne sun-dance lodge For an account of the Sun-dance ceremony and the erection of the lodge among the Southern Cheyenne, see Volume XIX, pages 121-128. 661 Hotamitaye Society, Cheyenne sun-dance The members of this and other bands, which were created by the Prophet of Cheyenne legend, go to the forest for the poles with which to build the lodge. While in the forest they decorate themselves and their horses with willow branches, leaving the rearmost horsemen to drag the poles to camp. 662 Water rite purification, Cheyenne animal dance The legend of the Animal dance is given on pages 133-135 of Volume XIX. 663 At the pool, animal dance – Cheyenne 664 Cheyenne chief The Cheyenne belong to the Algonquian linguistic family and therefore are related to the tribes of the Blackfoot Confederacy and to the Arapaho of the north, and, much more remotely, to many of the tribes that once lives along the Atlantic seaboard and in the Midwest. They are now divided into the Northern Cheyenne, living in Montana, and the Southern Cheyenne who were assigned a reservation in the present Oklahoma in 1867. 665 Lone Chief – Cheyenne 666 Cheyenne costume This woman's deerskin costume, ornamented with porcupine-quill embroidery and with beads and fringe, is characteristic of that of the Cheyenne; but such is now worn only on gala occasions and probably ere very long will be a thing of the past. 667 Cheyenne maiden 668 Dog woman – Cheyenne The woman's dress is embellished with elk-teeth. 669 Woista - Cheyenne woman Remarkable strength of character is depicted in the features of this woman, and indeed in those of all the Cheyenne. Their former life was such that only the fittest could survive. 670 Reuben Taylor (Istofhuts) – Cheyenne 671 Black Belly – Cheyenne The extreme age of this Cheyenne is quite apparent. 672 Old Cheyenne 673 Old warrior – Arapaho The Arapaho, of Algonquian stock like the Cheyenne, are divided into Northern and a Southern tribe, the former living on the Wind River reservation in Wyoming and the latter on the reservation assigned to them and the Cheyenne in the present Oklahoma in 1867. 674 Black Man – Arapaho 675 Standing Two – Oto The Oto belong to the great Siouan linguistic family and originally formed, with other tribes, a part of the Winnebago. The typical ceremonial head-dress of the Oto of the present time is shown here and in the nest three plates. 676 Lone Chief – Oto 677 Wakonda – Oto 678 Pipe-stem – Oto 679 Old Eagle – Oto The head-dress of this Oto is characteristic of the older style, like that worn also by the related Osage in plate 680 and the adopted head-dress of the Comanche in plate 683. The medal worn by Old Eagle, in this case bearing the portrait of Lincoln, is like other medals given by the Government to noted chiefs from Washington's time. 680 John Abbott – Osage The Osage (corrupted from Whzahzae, their own name) is a Siouan tribe - the wealthiest of all Indians, and probably the richest people in the world, population considered. They are most closely related to the Omaha, Quapaw, Ponca, and Kansa, with whom they once formed a single body. 681 John Quapaw - Hunta Wakunta The Quapaw are another Siouan tribe, otherwise known as Akansa, from which Arkansas river and state derive their name. 682 Esipermi – Comanche There were no more vigorous people among the Indians of the Plains than the Comanche, a Shoshonean tribe, related to the Shoshone and Bannock of Idaho, from which region they entered the northern plains and drifted ever southward, following the bison in their wanderings. They were noted warriors and raiders, being the enemies of many tribes and extending their depredations far into Mexico. One need look no farther than the accompanying portraits to discern the warrior character of those old braves. 683 Lefthand – Comanche 684 Uwat – Comanche 685 A Comanche mother 686 A Comanche 687 Peyote drummer The Peyote rite as practised by the Indians of Oklahoma is described in Volume XIX. No Indian custom has been the subject of greater controversy or has led to the adoption of more laws and regulations with a view of abolishing it, largely because its effects have been misunderstood by white people. {view image of page plate no. 652} As it was in the old days [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 653} A Wichita [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 654} Wichita grass-house [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 655} Grass-house ceremony – Wichita [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 656} Henry – Wichita [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 657} Walter Ross – Wichita [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 658} Story of the Washita [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 659} On the Canadian River [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 660} Cheyenne sun-dance lodge [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 661} Hotamitaye Society, Cheyenne sun-dance [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 662} Water rite purification, Cheyenne animal dance [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 663} At the pool, animal dance – Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 664} Cheyenne chief [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 665} Lone Chief – Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 666} Cheyenne costume [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 667} Cheyenne maiden [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 668} Dog woman – Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 669} Woista - Cheyenne woman [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 670} Reuben Taylor (Istofhuts) – Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 671} Black Belly – Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 672} Old Cheyenne [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 673} Old warrior – Arapaho [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 674} Black Man – Arapaho [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 675} Standing Two – Oto [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 676} Lone Chief – Oto [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 677} Wakonda – Oto [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 678} Pipe-stem – Oto [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 679} Old Eagle – Oto [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 680} John Abbott – Osage [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 681} John Quapaw - Hunta Wakunta [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 682} Esipermi – Comanche [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 683} Lefthand – Comanche [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 684} Uwat – Comanche [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 685} A Comanche mother [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 686} A Comanche [photogravure plate] {view image of page plate no. 687} Peyote drummer [photogravure plate] |
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