Edward S. Curtis's The North American Indian - Uncorrected OCR Text for volume 3

Vol.3. The Teton Sioux. The Yanktonai. The Assiniboin.

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THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN

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gfhtid {itian i6 Ximitelr tff^id t @tiftfir fX fttet tr $ibe 0tun1rert kett arf WbtFict tTfti lumber -46-.

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The Sioux [photogravure plate]

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THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN BEING A SERIES OF VOLUMES PICTURING AND DESCRIBING THE INDIANS OF THE UNITED STATES AND ALASKA WRITTEN, ILLUSTRATED, AND PUBLISHED BYEDWARD S. CURTIS EDITED BY FREDERICK WEBB HODGE FOREWORD BY THEODORE ROOSEVELT FIELD RESEARCH CONDUCTED UNDER THE PATRONAGE OF J. PIERPONT MORGAN IN TWENTY VOLUMES THIS, THE THIRD VOLUME, PUBLISHED IN THE YEAR NINETEEN HUNDRED AND EIGHT

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stiern Unjs MAY 15 1924:/~RaP C '( /, v. " COPYRIGHT 1908 BY EDWARD S. CURTIS THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U.S.A.

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Contents of Volume Three
ALPHABET USED IN RECORDING INDIAN TERMS ILLUSTRATIONS...... INTRODUCTION.... PAGE....... Vi ~ ~.~ ~~...... vii..~. ~.... xi THE TETON SIOUX........... GENERAL DESCRIPTION.... HISTORICAL SKETCH........ RELIGION............ Myth of the White Buffalo Woman. The Vision Cry.... I 3 3' O.5 3I * * 55 *.. 56 56 65 CEREMONIES The Foster-parent Chant Sun Dance.... The Ghost Keeper. FOLK-TALE Weyota and Iktomi. ~.........~ 71 X XX......... X 87......... 99......... III THE YANKTONAI... 119 THE ASSINIBOIN 125 APPENDIX. TRIBAL SUMMARY The Teton Sioux NOTE ON THE INDIAN MUSIC. HUNKA-LOWANPI PRAYERS DAKOTA VOCABULARY. HIGH HAWK'S WINTER-COUNT BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES........... I 135........... I 137 ~...........~1I42 5 ' ~........... ~ 152 ~........... ~159........... 82 INDEX TO VOLUME THREE.... 0 0 0 0 ~ ~ Ig

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Alphabet Used in Recording Indian Terms
[The consonants are as in English, except when otherwise noted] a as in father a as in cat i as aw in awl ai as in aisle e as ey in they as in net ias in machine I as in sit o as in old 8 as ow in how oi as in oil u as in ruin 0 as in nut t as in German hitte u as in push dh between d and t; a lingual r gh as in Arabic ghain h always aspirated h as cb in German Bach k a non-aspirated k p a non-aspirated p q as qu in quick rr a trilled r t a non-aspirated t ts as in hits ch as in church gh as in shall, sash n nasal, as in French dans ih as z in azure a pause Individuals whose portraits are marked thus t form the subject of biographical sketches in the Appendix.

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Illustrations
The Sioux Frontispiece Calico - Ogalala 2 In the Shadow of the Cliff 4 In Camp 6 When Winter Comes 8 Shield - Ogalala 10 Start of a War-party 12 Stands First - Ogalala 14 Good Lance - Ogalala 16 Mother and Child 18 Daughters of a Chief 20 Tipi Construction (A) 22 Tipi Construction (B) 24 Pipe-bags 26 Sioux Maiden 28 Scalp-shirts 30 Iron Plume - Ogalala 32 Short Log - Two Kettle 34 Brule Warriors 36 Struck By Crow - Ogalala 38 Sioux Hunters 40 Scouts 42 Custer Battle-field - Map 44 Custer's Crow Scouts 46 White Man Runs Him 48 Custer Monument 50 White Man Runs Him 52

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viii THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Red Cloud's Granddaughter 54 Elk Head, and the Sacred Pipe Bundle 56 The Camp 58 Daughter of American Horse 60 Ogalala Child 62 Big Road's Twin Daughters 64 In the Mountains 66 Fasting 68 Slow Bull's Tipi 70 A Prairie Camp 72 Huka-lowapi - Fire-carrier Bringing the Skull 74 Huka-lowapi - " Work-do removes the covering" 76 Huka-lowapi- Painting the Skull 78 Huka-lowapi - The Altar Complete 80 Singing Deeds of Valor 82 Crow Dog - Brule 84 Slow Bull's Wife 86 After the Snow 88 No Flesh - Ogalala 90 The Parley 92 Blue Horse - Ogalala 94 Drying Meat 96 Returned Scout - Ogalala 98 Good Day Woman - Ogalala 100 He Crow - Ogalala 102 Making Camp 104 Kills In Timber - Ogalala 106 Standing Bear - Ogalala 108 Little Hawk - Brule 110 Ring Thunder - Brule 112 Elk Boy - Ogalala 114 Spotted Elk - Brule 116

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ILLUSTRATIONS ix His Fights - Ogalala 118 A River Camp - Yanktonai 120 Gray Bear - Yanktonai 122 Yellow Horse - Yanktonai 124 Camp Life - Assiniboin 126 An Assiniboin Lodge 128 Long Fox - Assiniboin 130 Good Voice Hawk - Yanktonai 132 Flying Shield - Yanktonai 134 Winter-count - First Period 158 Winter-count- 1540 160 Winter-count - 1680 162 Winter-count - 1701-1727 164 Charge Crow - Yanktonai 180 Eagle Elk - Ogalala 182 Fast Thunder - Ogalala 184 Little Dog - Brule 186 Red Hawk - Ogalala 188 Yellow Hawk - Yanktonai 188 Photogravures by John Andrew & Son, Boston.

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I

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Introduction
In gathering the lore of the Indian of the plains one hears only of yesterday. His thoughts are of the past; to-day is but a living death, and his very being is permeated with the hopelessness of to-morrow. If the narrator be an ancient nearing the end of his days, he lives and relives the life when his tribe as a tribe flourished, the time when his people were truly monarchs of all they surveyed, when teeming buffalo supplied their every want; and his wish is ever that he might have passed away ere he knew the beggary of to-day. The younger man, if a true Indian, is a living regret that he is not of the time when to be an Indian was to be a man. Strong sympathy for the Indian cannot blind one to the fact that the change that has come is a necessity created by the expansion of the white population. Nor does the fact that civilization demands the abandonment of aboriginal habits lessen one's sympathy or alter one's realization that for once at least Nature's laws have been the indirect cause of a grievous wrong. That the inevitable transformation of the Indian life has been made many-fold harder by the white man's cupidity, there is no question. Those who do not comprehend the limitations of primitive people protest, " Why sympathize with the Indians? They now have every opportunity that civilized man has, and more, for the Government grants them lands and renders them aid in many ways." The question might as well be asked, why the man born without eyes does not see. The Indian is an Indian not alone in name and in the pigmentation of his skin or his other physical characteristics. He developed gradually and through ages to meet the conditions of a harsh environment exceedingly well, but these conditions were so vastly different from those we have thrust upon him that to expect him to become adjusted to the new requirements in a generation or

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xii THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN two would be much like expecting of a child the proficiency of ripe manhood. Perhaps among no tribe has the encroachment of civilization wrought greater change than among the Sioux, or Dakota. A proud, aggressive people, they depended wholly on the chase and the indigenous vegetation. Powerful in numbers and vigorous in spirit, they roamed almost at will. But in brief time all was altered. The game had vanished; under treaty stipulations which the Indians ill understood they were concentrated on reservations beyond the boundaries of which they must not wander, and became dependents of the Nation, to be fed and clothed according to our interpretation of the compact. Of the present condition of the Sioux little that is encouraging can be said. They have small hope for the future, and a people without the courage of hope are indeed a serious problem with which to deal. In a few years will have passed away all who knew the old life when means of subsistence were near at hand and the limitless plains were theirs to roam. The younger generation, having no tribal past, may strive to carve a future, and their children, with even less of the instinct of the hunter, will make even better advance; but standing in the way of the present generation and of all the generations to come is the fact that they are Indians, and lack by many ages that which is necessary to enable them to meet the competition of the Caucasian race. Brought suddenly in contact with the diseases of civilization, the blood of the Indian was particularly susceptible, and the change in food, and in mode of life generally, lessened his vigor and made it the more difficult to combat disease of any sort. In the mixed-blood element must be seen the greatest hope. The proportion of the pure bloods is steadily decreasing, and with each blending the handicap is lightened. The first generation of the amalgamation is on the whole discouraging, but succeeding ones will doubtless show a relatively rapid gain. Even in the West the stigma attached to the possession of Indian blood will gradually disappear, and this in itself will be a factor in the uplifting. The great change that now comes to the Sioux and to other

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INTRODUCTION Xiii tribes of the plains with the opening of their reservations to settlement and in the consequent increased contact with alien influences will, within the present generation, further demoralize and degenerate. This, however, is one of the stages through which from the beginning the Indians were destined to pass. Those who cannot withstand these trying days of the metamorphosis must succumb, and on the other side of the depressing period will emerge the few sturdy survivors. In gathering the material from which this condensed text is selected, the Ogalala, Brule, Miniconjou, Two Kettle, Sans Arc, Hunkpapa, Blackfoot or Sihasapa, and Yanktonai tribes or bands of the Dakota, and their ethnically close relatives, the Assiniboin, were visited by my assistants and myself. The first studies were made in I905, the final researches in I907 and I908. It is to be regretted that it was not feasible to study the Santee Sioux before finishing the investigations summarized in the present volume; but even had this been possible, the desire to extend the comparative work would have persisted. In order to carry out the original plan, the study for each part of the work must not be unduly delayed for further investigation; consequently the publication of the Teton material is not withheld pending the prosecution of field research among the eastern Sioux. In collecting and arranging the ethnographic material in this volume I have had the assistance of Mr. W. E. Myers. Professor Edmond S. Meany has rendered special aid in compiling the historical data, and Mr. Edgar Fischer has transcribed the music both from his personal field notes and from phonographic records made by other members of my party. Mr. A. F. Muhr has continued his valued services in the laboratory. EDWARD S. CURTIS

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The Teton Sioux

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Calico - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX General Description
T H E Lakota, or Teton Sioux, during early historic times occupied the region about Big Stone lake, in western Minnesota, whence they moved gradually westward, driving the Omaha to the southward and themselves occupying the valleys of the Big Sioux and the James in South Dakota. Making their way still westward, they reached the Missouri, forcing the Arikara southward and penetrating as far as the Black Hills, so that within the more recent historical period they have held as their home-land the region west of the Missouri river and north of the Platte, extending permanently as far west as the Black Hills, and on the upper Missouri sending occasional parties as far west as central Montana, where the country of the Blackfeet was met. Along the northern line of Wyoming they attempted to take up their abode even beyond the Bighorn. This, however, was the land claimed and held by the Apsaroke, or Crows, who, notwithstanding their inferior numbers, more than held their own and forced the Lakota to the east of Powder river. In the light of the considerable body of information gathered from the several bands of the Teton it can be safely said that the final or permanent crossing of the Missouri river began from one hundred and seventy-five to two hundred years ago, or between about I700 and 1725, although previous to this parties had crossed the stream from time to time on hunting expeditions. As to their habitat before the passing of the Missouri, folk-tales, fragments of tradition, and many winter-counts enable us to trace them with certainty back to Mille Lac, Minnesota, in which locality they were found by Hennepin in i680; beyond this point tradition grows more vague, yet it affords enough of definiteness to entice one to conjecture. "Big Water,"

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4 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN of course, could have been the Great Lakes, but according to some of the old men that water was "bitter." Large shells that could have come only from the sea are mentioned. The argument may reasonably be made that these could have been obtained by barter; but the Indians insist that their source was the water beside which their people lived. No tribe which the writer has studied is so lacking in traditional knowledge of its original home and early migration. In fact, no creation and early migration legend worthy of the name has been found to exist among any of the western Sioux tribes. On the other hand, other tribes of Siouan stock, the Apsaroke, Hidatsa, and Mandan, have definite creation and migration stories, which make it clearly evident that at one time they had their home on the South Atlantic seaboard, where Siouan tribes are known to have lived well within the eighteenth century, and where indeed the remnant of the Catawba still survives. If it can be admitted that the Apsaroke, Mandan, and Hidatsa migrated from the South, it is safe to assume that the plains Sioux came from the same general locality. Sioux tradition, borne out by that of other tribes and by knowledge of their earliest history, is convincing that in their western migration the Sioux passed north of the Great Lakes. This being so, and their origin on the South Atlantic being traditionally clear, their migration has been an exceedingly long one, probably following the line of the Atlantic coast. The very length of their journeying may reasonably account for the lack of a definite migration tradition. The Hidatsa legend of the creation tells of a land where the birds always sang and the trees were always green. Thence the people moved slowly northward, passing into a land of ever-increasing cold, until they came to a large lake where they found a tribe speaking a language much like their own. They declared: "These people must be our brothers; henceforth we will live together." Feeling that the winters were too rigorous, they journeyed southwestward and southward until they reached the Missouri, where they found the Mandan, who had been living there a long time. This was before the Sioux made their appearance. The probable route of the Hidatsa and Mandan was far shorter than any

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In the shadow of the cliff [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 5 possible one the Sioux could have taken, and the fact of their slow movement and their long residence in fixed places may well account for the early traditions of these two historically sedentary tribes. Inasmuch as the Teton, as their name (Titonwan) indicates, have been prairie dwellers for centuries, they must be considered as such, disregarding their earlier forest life. It would seem to be without doubt that the vast herds of buffalo were the cause of their westward movement. Their life was so closely associated with the bison that with the disappearance of the herds the Teton were left pitiably helpless. For generations they had depended in great measure on the buffalo for food, clothing, shelter, implements, and utensils, and because of its necessity in supplying these physical needs it became also a factor of surpassing importance in the religious life of the tribes. Their divine teachings were brought them by a sacred buffalo cow acting as messenger from the Mystery. In every ceremony the bison played a part, and its flesh was invariably used in the rituals of their worship. But, alas for their religion as well as for their temporal needs, the herds were swept from the earth as in a twinkling. So sudden was the disappearance that the Sioux regard their passing as waka", mysterious. The old men still ask what became of them, and nothing can convince them that the herds have passed forever. It is doubtful if in the history of the world any people ever were brought so suddenly to such a radical change in their manner of living. The enforced change in diet alone so undermined them physically that they became an easy prey to every ill, particularly the diseases introduced by the white man.' Their dwellings became changed from the warm but well-ventilated portable tipis of skins to flimsy ones of cotton cloth, or, worse yet, to small, close, ill-ventilated, permanent log cabins, the floors of which soon reeked with diseaseproducing filth; their comfortable robes of the buffalo dressed with the hair on were superseded by trade blankets, and unsuitable cast-off 1 Doctor Walker, Government physician with the Ogalala, insists that the only way to build up the Sioux that he may resist tubercular affection is to put him on a strict fresh-beef diet.

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6 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN garments thrown at them by kindly disposed people. One day they were a proud, care-free people with every desire of the heart to be gratified by slight exertion - the next they were paupers, "wards of the Nation" we call them. From the primitive man's point of view the old life was an ideal one: it gave the Indian every necessity of life with a minimum of effort. His principal labor was that of the chase, which in itself was a pleasure; and on the warrior's return from hunt or raid, the women of the household waited on him as though he were indeed a lord. Even the thought of wasting old age was spared him, for the man whose life was the war-path and the wildest of hunting knew full well that a quick death was apt to be his; and he preferred it thus, insisting that it were better to die while yet strong and happy and when friends' hearts were good, than to grow old and be supplanted by another. Nor was the life of the women the one of drudgery so often depicted. It is true they did the menial work of the camp, but, strange as it may seem, the task was usually a pleasure rather than a hardship, and it is difficult to imagine how, in their stage of culture, the work of the Indians could have been more equitably divided. Owing to the perilous existence of the men and the consequent high deathrate, polygyny was a necessary institution, causing several women to share the burdens of the domestic establishment, and thus lightening the labor of all. Physically the women are equal to any task, however hard. Observed at work, they seem even stronger than the men. In civilization many generations of safeguarding and protecting women have created what we term the "weaker sex"; but among the hunting tribes especially the life of the women has been such as to develop the greatest physical strength, resulting in slight differentiation in features or in endurance of the sexes. The natural disposition of the Lakota woman is sunny and full of cheer, particularly when she is seen in the home and with her children, where merriment is the normal condition; but when strangers are present the Indian code of ethics decrees that the woman should be retiring in manner. To her husband she is noticeably affectionate and attentive, waiting upon him constantly, seeing that every article of apparel is brought to him as needed, often literally dressing him

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In camp [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 7 as she would a child, and as each article is fastened about her lord's body, she gives it an affectionate pat to show her pleasure in the task. And, indeed, why should she not derive pleasure from such personal attentions? Has she not with her own hands made every article of his apparel - dressed the skins, dyed and fashioned them into form, and with infinite patience embroidered them in beautiful designs with colored quills or beads? And with every stitch there has gone into the work her affection for the man who is to wear the garment, and gentle smiles play about her mouth as she dreams of how proud and fine he will look in his beautiful trappings. The Sioux were a semi-nomadic people. Through the summer months they moved their camps to follow the buffalo herds, and day after day the hunting parties went out to the killing. Great stores of the meat were cut into thin strips, dried, and pounded into pemmican for use during the winter months when they could not hunt and kill at pleasure. As the autumn closed and the cold northern winds began to sweep across the plains, the hunting parties, large and small, sought the valley of some wood-girt stream, and there in the protection of the forest remained until spring approached. Robes and furs had been brought in for winter bedding and clothing, and were heaped about the tipis in prodigal profusion. Sufficient jerked meat and pemmican had been provided to last them through the winter months, and these, with the stores of berries and roots gathered and prepared by the women, gave promise of a season of plenty. Occasionally a herd of buffalo came within striking distance and gave the men an opportunity for a grand winter hunt. The meat obtained at this season could be kept fresh until warm weather again approached. The buffalo chase, were the occasion winter or summer, was not a matter to be lightly considered; indeed it was a tribal function to be attended with much ceremony. The Sioux, like other Indians, are exceedingly devout, all acts of their lives being attended with religious practices. This was particularly so of buffalo hunting. No individual was allowed to hunt on~ his own account, for to do so might alarm the herd, and such indiscretion was visited with serious punishment, even with death. After much prayer and many songs,

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8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN scouts were sent out to look for the game, and during their absence the supplication was continued that they might be successful. When approaching the camp on their return, whether they had been absent a day or a week, the scouts made signs indicating success or failure. Beyond such signals they held no communication with their tribesmen, but made their report to the priests who had performed the ceremonies at the time of their departure. The report was received ceremoniously, and if buffalo had been sighted the crier announced the fact to the entire camp and made known the plans for the hunt. The hunting party was under the leadership of the chiefs, and straggling or individual movement was guarded against by the Soldier Band, the scouts being kept in advance; and if a night camp was necessary, there was more making of medicine that many buffalo might be killed. On approaching the bison the party was kept in a compact body by the Soldiers, that no one might make an impatient start, and at a signal from the chief began their wild sweep down on the stupid but fleet-footed herd. If a hunting party was so fortunate as to kill a white buffalo, it was an event of great tribal importance. A Ghost Keeper priest was sent for, who first offered many prayers to the Great Mystery, thanking him for this favor, after which he carefully took the skin from the dead animal. No one else was allowed to do this; in fact a white buffalo-skin was holy, and no ordinary man would dare to touch it. The skin having been removed, a horse was brought to convey the waka" hide to the village. - Sage was placed on the rider's lap that the sacred skin might not be profaned by contact with his body. He took it carefully to the camp, where it was intrusted to a virgin, who had been appointed to dress it, and who purified her hands in sage smoke before beginning her task under the direction of a priest of the Hunka. After having been carefully prepared, the skin was given over to the keeper of the Calf Pipe, who, before taking it into the wakaP-tipi, purified the air with the incense of burning ground-cedar. In the days to come the sacred skin was kept outside of the tipi and raised high as a sign to the people. "We do this thing as a remembrance to White Buffalo Woman, who brought us the sacred ceremonies," they said.

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When winter comes [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 9 The earliest method of killing buffalo was by making camp around the herd, with the tipis pitched close together, side by side; then two young men with waka" bows and arrows ran around the entrapped animals, singing medicine-songs to bring them under a spell, so that the people could close in and kill large numbers. Following this primitive method, they slaughtered numberless bison by driving them into a compound a stockade-like enclosure, usually of logs, at the foot of some abrupt or sheer depression, its plan of construction depending on the nature of the ground. In a mountainous region, where the buffalo plains might end at a high cliff, no enclosure was needed. The long line of stampeded animals would flow over the precipice like a stream of water, to be crushed to death in their fall. There was no possibility of drawing back at the brink; the solid mass was irresistibly forced on by its own momentum, and the slaughter ended only with the passing of the last animal that had been decoyed or driven into the stampede. At other times the embankment over which the buffalo ran was only high enough to form one side of the enclosure. In rare instances pens were built on the open prairie, and at one side of the stockade was thrown up an inclined approach along which the buffalo were driven to fall at its end into the corral. The manner of driving and decoying the bison was as varied as the form of the slaughter-pen; but whatever the method, the purpose and results were the same -the object was to stampede the herd, or a part of it, and to direct the rapidly moving animals to a given point, the Indians knowing that, once well in motion, they would run to their own destruction. The Sioux built out in rapidly diverging lines from the pen a light brush construction, not in truth a fence, as it was only substantial enough to form a line. Men concealed themselves behind this brush, and when the herd was well inside the lines the hunters rose up and by shouting and waving their blankets frightened the animals on. Sometimes a man skilful in the ways of the bison would disguise himself in one of their skins and act as leader of the drove to the extent of starting them in their mad rush. By this method the Indians simply took advantage of a 1 See High Hawk's Winter-count, page I59.

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IO THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN characteristic habit of the buffalo - to follow their leader blindly. The movement grew into a stampede, and forced the leading animals before it. If the advance was toward a sharp gully, it was soon filled with carcasses over which the stream of animals passed;1 if toward swampy land or a river with quicksand bed, numbers were swallowed in the treacherous depths. If it happened that the route took the herd across a frozen lake or stream, the ice might collapse with their combined weight and drown hundreds; and the Indians relate many instances in which during winter the herd failed to see the edge of an arroyo or a small canion filled with drifted snow and were buried one after another in its depths, the buffalo seemingly not having sufficient instinct of self-preservation to stop or turn aside. The sportsman and the utilitarian join with the Indians in their cry of regret at the ruthless slaughter of the millions of bison which composed the great western herd, and during the last quarter-century all the harsh language at the command of American writers has been hurled at those directly responsible for the extermination. That the destruction was the most brutal and improvident of its kind in the history of civilization there is no question, and that those who went out and mowed the animals down by scores and hundreds in a single day are deserving of every criticism there is no doubt; but when we view the question in a broader way, the blame would seem to rest not entirely with those who shouldered the guns. It was public sentiment that slaughtered the western herd of the American bison-a sentiment which, fostered by our desire further to oppress, to bring under subjection, and to rob of their birthright a people already driven for two generations before a greedily advancing civilization, was supported by the people as represented in the halls of Congress, and which 1 Frenzied stampedes of bison herds have been known almost as long as the animals themselves. Thus, as early as I54I a small party belonging to the expedition of Coronado, while on the Staked Plains of eastern New Mexico, according to Castafieda's narration, "came across so many animals that those who were on the advance guard killed a large number of bulls. As these fled they trampled one another in their haste until they came to a ravine. So many of the animals fell into this that they filled it up, and the rest went across on top of them. The men who were chasing them on horseback fell in among the animals without noticing where they were going. Three of the horses that fell in among the cows [bison], all saddled and bridled, were lost sight of completely."

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Shield - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX II became the governmental policy. And here lay the blame. We slaughtered the buffalo in order to starve the Indians of the plains into submission, thereby forcing them into a position in which they must take what we saw fit to dole out to them. In 187I, which might be called the beginning of the last decade of the buffalo, the friends of these animals, and of the Indians, made an effort to promote legislation designed to protect the herds from wanton destruction. In June, 1874, the Senate and the House passed a bill for the protection of the buffalo, but the enactment unfortunately failed to receive the President's signature. During the next four years feeble efforts to the same end were made, but without result. By this time the southern herd was represented only by bleaching bones, while the northern herd was within four years of its extinction. The sentiment of the people at this time is reflected in a contemporary report of the Secretary of the Interior, which says: "The rapid disappearance of game from the former huntinggrounds must operate largely in favor of our efforts to confine the Indians to smaller areas, and compel them to abandon their nomadic customs, and establish themselves in permanent homes. So long as the game existed in abundance there was little disposition manifested to abandon the chase, even though Government bounty was dispensed in great abundance, affording them ample means of support. When the game shall have disappeared, we shall be well forward in the work in hand.. "I cannot regard the rapid disappearance of the game from its former haunts as a matter prejudicial to our management of the Indians. On the contrary, as they become convinced that they can no longer rely upon the supply of game for their support, they will turn to the more reliable source of subsistence furnished at the agencies, and endeavor to so live that that supply will be regularly dispensed. A few years of cessation from the chase will tend to unfit them for their former mode of life, and they will be the more readily led into new directions, toward industrial pursuits and peaceful habits." 1 It must be realized that, however comprehensive the legislation and rigorous its enforcement, restrictive laws could only have retarded 1 Report of the Secretary of the Interior for I872, pages 5-7.

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I2 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN for a limited time the inevitable extermination of the wild buffalo. If by care they could have been utilized for twenty-five years longer, they would have served, like other things of primeval life, their natural purpose, and we could have viewed their end with only that regret with which we see the forest fall and the prairies' broad surface turned sod by sod from its natural beauty to the utility that Nature's own laws demand. To have thus husbanded such a vast natural food supply would have been of inestimable value to the white settler, saved untold expenditure in caring for the Indians and many hundreds of them from pitiful starvation, and preserved the virility of the plains tribes. Those, therefore, who feel that the sooner the Indian, like the buffalo, is exterminated the better, must realize that the most effective effort toward this end was the sweeping of the buffalo from the land. The political organization of the Teton Sioux could not be termed a confederacy. There were seven tribes composing this subfamily-the Ogalala, Brules, Miniconjou, Sans Arcs, Two Kettles, Blackfeet (Sihasapa), and Hunkpapa-and each comprised several smaller groups or bands. Each tribe had a head-chief, widhaSiaydtapika, and usually each smaller unit a sub-chief, ita'ha. In serious warfare these several tribes were apt to form a close alliance for greater strength, but it was not considered obligatory for any one chief to aid another. Generally, at the inception of a hostile movement of importance, a man of recognized leadership would take the initiative by organizing a war-party, and those who felt so disposed would join him, either as individuals or under the leadership of their own chief. A notable instance is their last great war, which terminated in the victory of the Sioux and their allies over the troops at the battle of the Little Bighorn in I876. Five of the Teton tribes were strongly represented: the Ogalala, Sans Arcs, Brules, Miniconjou, and Hunkpapa, and these united Sioux tribes were aided by a large party of Cheyenne, while individual members of the other two Teton tribes also joined the hostile forces. Chiefs were elected at a general council of the men, led by the Short Hair Lodge and similar organizations. Disability by reason of age, or such serious loss of wealth as to make it impossible for a

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Start of a war-party [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX I3 chief to give many feasts or to provide for the poor, were causes for retirement. In the old days the chiefship never descended from father to son, and no man could be elected a chief who had not counted the necessary coups. The council was consulted on questions of public moment, such as laws governing the camp and, particularly, affecting the hunt. Small war-parties were made up without regard to the chiefs or the council, for any individual who could gain a following was free to go against the enemy. General rules were often suggested to the chiefs by the different societies. Some of the young men, perhaps half of them, were organized into the Soldier Band. When the chiefs met, the Soldiers gathered at the council-place and took their position in front of the tipi, first having gone about the village gathering food for the councillors. If a man was asked to give a dog for the feast and refused, the Soldiers would kill the dog and take it away, and if resentment was shown they would punish the offender by destroying some of his property or by beating him. The Soldiers, in a way, were the servants of the chiefs, and consequently were supposed to carry out their instructions. If the chiefs decided to move camp on the following day, the Soldiers were so informed, and when morning came they mounted their horses, rode about the camp and made everybody pull down his tipi, and saw that all promptly took the trail. If one should refuse to obey the command, the Soldiers cut his tipi to pieces and killed a horse or two, and if the man gave vent to anger his life might be forfeited. Orders to move camp sometimes originated in the Soldier Lodge, but their action was only in the form of a suggestion to the chiefs, who agreed or not as they deemed fit. The Soldiers of each village had two leaders, Soldier Chiefs, through whom all commands of the tribal chiefs were communicated to the lodge. When young men were sent out to look for buffalo, Soldiers kept guard so that only those authorized to go could leave the village; and on the return of the scouts with report of where the buffalo were, they assumed charge of the preparations for the hunt, and saw that all started together. Some of the Soldiers remained at home, guarding the village, while others accompanied the huntsmen and kept them together until they had neared the

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14 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN herd. Any man who began to shoot before the signal was given was severely beaten, sometimes to insensibility, his horse probably killed, his clothing cut to pieces, and his gun or bow and arrows broken. If he showed the slightest resentment, he was quite likely to be killed. The same treatment was accorded one who should steal away from the party on the march and kill a lone buffalo even without alarming the herd. At times in the autumn several bands formed a single buffalo hunting party; on such occasions the Soldiers kept the entire party together, not permitting one band to leave the others until the hunting-grounds were reached, after which the scouts were sent out. When the buffalo were found, the bands hunted together until every one had been supplied with enough meat for the winter. After the general hunt the chiefs gave the command to disband in order that the horses might have sufficient forage, as well as to avoid the sickness which experience taught them followed the practice of camping together in large numbers. This dispersion brought a partial disintegration of the Soldier Band, since each member accompanied his own patriarchal group. The Soldiers had their headquarters in the large tiyo-tipi, pitched near the tipi of the head-chief, and it became a general rendezvous and lounging place for the members. If there was dearth of food in the lodge, a member was sent out to distribute through the camp a hundred red sticks, each a sign, not to be disregarded, that the recipient must quickly furnish meat to the t6yo-tipi. If a member of the body should keep the others waiting after a meeting had been called, he was treated rather roughly on his arrival; the injuries inflicted were not serious, consisting principally in the cutting up of his robe and other clothing. Soldiers were appointed by the Soldier Chiefs, who donned their war-bonnets and rode from tipi to tipi, shaking the hand of each man chosen. To be selected a Soldier was a distinct honor, to which only men of tried courage and strength, who had counted at least one undisputed coup, could aspire. Red Cloud, before he became a chief, was always chosen Soldier Chief, for, being a man of indomitable courage, he carried out the chief's orders with reckless disregard of consequences.

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Stands First - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX I5 In addition to the Soldier Lodge there were several other societies, or lodges, one of the most important being that of the Brave Hearts, Chahte-tfiza. All plains tribes had similar orders, the function of which in all cases was practically the same. The paraphernalia of the organization among the Ogalala were two buffalo head-dresses, four lances, a drum, and two quirts, and its purpose was to inspire its members to acts of bravery and the succor of those in danger or in need. From the membership of the society were selected four men with brave hearts to carry the lances, and two others to act as attendants in the lodge. It was occasionally necessary to obtain recruits. In selecting them, members would go to the tipis and lead forth the young men who were thought worthy. Sometimes a man would object to becoming a member, and even after being taken to the society's tipi might make his escape. Such action was regarded as a great and lasting disgrace. If, on the other hand, the candidate remained, he was lauded by the people, for he thus avowed himself ready at any time to give up his life to the enemy. The men who bore the lances in battle were exposed to the gravest danger, however, since when their comrades were hard pressed, one of them was in duty bound to plant his staff in the ground and remain by it until all of his party had passed that point. He was then called Igula/hka, He Ties Himself, and, like the color-bearer, was not supposed to retreat. On the death of a lance-bearer a member was chosen to take his place. Owing to the great danger involved, the position was necessarily regarded as one of high honor, and to refuse it when proffered would subject a warrior to ineffaceable disgrace. An expression of the utmost derision was, "He would not take the lance!" Another society was the Short Hair, Pehi?-ptedhela. This is a modern designation, used only within the last fifty years, the old name being Tataika-wapahao", Wear Buffalo Head-dresses. The short buffalo-hair of the head-dresses gave rise to the modern name. Only warriors of renown were eligible, men who had gained undisputed honors, and they were appointed, rather than elected, by the four chiefs of the tribe. When a warrior was deemed worthy of membership, the Soldier Chiefs were sent for, and he was brought to the tipi, placed before the chiefs, and told of the honor conferred on him.

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I6 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN An address of advice was made to him, and his relatives distributed such gifts as were expected of those to whom distinction had come. The members of this society are said to have had the elective power of new chiefs. Chief Minihfiha relates the following of the time when four new chiefs, Crazy Horse, Man Afraid Of His Horses,1 Sword, and American Horse, were elected to succeed the four who had become superannuated: "The chiefs and the members of the Short Hairs met in open council and selected the four who were adjudged to be most fit for the positions. When the new men had been decided on, with the concurrence of the retiring chiefs, the latter sent the two Soldier Chiefs to bring the men selected. They were brought one at a time, and given place side by side in front of the chiefs. The retiring chiefs made addresses of advice and placed on the newly elected leaders scalp-shirts made especially for the occasion. Four men were then called who had led war-parties that had returned after striking an effective blow at the enemy without a man or a horse being wounded; four others, also, who had counted first honors in battle. The first four sewed the hair on the newly made shirts; then the other four sewed the feathers on: the first feather on the right shoulder of each shirt, the second on the left, the third on the right elbow, the fourth on the left." The Teton Sioux had several other societies whose functions were much the same -that of encouraging the members to deeds of bravery and to perform acts of hospitality and liberality. Rivalry always existed between the different organizations as to which had the most aggressive and fearless leaders and the bravest men. The Lakota gentile organization has gradually become broken down through general tribal disintegration until little thought is now given to precepts that once were the means of conserving the strength of the blood. Previous to their contact with the white race the laws of the gentes were an important part of their education and were rigidly adhered to. Descent is traced in the male line. The 1 Ta'hunke-kokipapi means "They Fear His Horse"; the name is now borne by a brother of him here mentioned, who fell dead on revisiting Custer Battlefield.

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Good Lance - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX I7 father's brothers are called " fathers," and their children " brothers" and "sisters," as the case may be, while the mother's sisters are addressed as "mothers." The other degrees of relationship have names corresponding to those of our own race. A man on marrying continued to live with his gens. Or he might dwell with that of his wife, but he always retained membership in the gens of his birth, and his children belonged to the same social group. Such a man was called witid-woha ("man buried"). When the wife went to live with her husband's people, she was called wi"-wohia ("woman buried"), but she retained her own gens membership. Marriage between members of the same gens was prohibited. A man was not permitted to address directly or to look directly at his mother-in-law or her sisters, but was free to communicate with his wife's sisters and brothers. He dare not speak to his own sister privately, or remain in her company in the absence of others. A wife's brothers were expected to act with diffidence toward the husband's mother and her sisters, but might act with greater freedom toward the husband's sisters. Great respect was exhibited between the daughter-in-law and the husband's father, and between son-in-law and father-in-law. A bond of friendship surpassing even the ties of blood relationship usually existed between brothers-in-law. Adoption of a son or a daughter to take the place of a child lost by death was common. This was attended by a simple ceremony, consisting of a gathering in a tipi, an address of advice to the new son or daughter by a man chosen for the purpose, and an exchange of gifts between the parents and the parents-to-be. Wife and husband owned their personal property in severalty. A man dying otherwise than by violence made provision in the presence of his kindred for the distribution of his property among his children, wives, and other near relations. After his death whatever was not thus specifically willed was disposed of by general distribution, and the widow returned with her children to her parents, with whom she lived until another marriage had been effected. Similar disposal was made of the deceased wife's possessions, and in the case of a monogamous marriage the widower returned to his parents and the children were cared for by them or by the wife's parents. VOL. III —2

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i8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN When a child was born, the parents prepared a feast and sent for a wicihasha-waka", asking him to name the infant. The name bestowed was always one suggested by some animal or object seen during one of his fasts, and the accompanying prayer was one taught him during a vision. The Santee custom of giving to children fixed names depending on the order in which they were born did not prevail with the Teton. After a boy had returned from his first war-party he was given an appellation by an uncle or a brotherin-law, and this was later exchanged for a name earned by great deeds. A man could assume his father's name only after having performed acts of such valor as to entitle him to the honor. At the close of the mother's period of lactation, occurring in two to four years, the parents gave a second feast, when the child's ears were pierced, signifying that the period of abstinence was past and the wife could resume her marital relations. Frequently the piercing of the ears took place during the Sun Dance or other public function. From earliest childhood children were taught in the way that would make them strong and useful members of the tribe. Long before they were large enough to sit unaided on a horse, they were securely tied on the back of a quiet, trusty animal, and there they would sit riding along with the moving band for hours and even days at a time. The boy was early trained to care for horses, driving them in from the ranges to water, and then out again to the grazing lands, and when he had reached his tenth or twelfth year the father usually took him on short hunting trips, instructing him in killing game. The father would drive a young buffalo from the herd, and show the boy how to shoot the animal just behind the shoulder; then followed object-lessons in skinning and dressing. Thereafter he was allowed to single out a calf for himself, and when he had brought it down was made to dress it without help. Even as early as the age of thirteen, seldom later than seventeen, a boy was permitted to accompany his first war-party, and after he had accomplished some worthy deed and thus attained to years of discretion, he was at liberty to marry. Having decided upon a girl whom he would make his wife, he places himself by some secluded path where she is likely to pass at

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Mother and child [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX I9 nightfall. As she glides with soft fall of moccasined feet along the shadowy trail, the young man slips from his concealment to meet her, shrouded in a sombre blanket, his dark eyes peering out from its folds. The girl may not fancy his attentions and soon pass on, perhaps to meet other suitors. If she be a proud and haughty maiden, several summers may pass with their evenings of courtship ere her heart finally goes out to some favored youth. With her consent to marry, the lovers exchange the marriage-token - a ball of sweet-grass wrapped in deerskin with long fringes to be tied in the hair at the ends of the braids. She then names the time when her lover is to come for her. At this appointed hour he goes to her tipi, cautiously raises the cover at the place where she is sleeping, touches her to apprise her of his presence, when she rises quietly and the two steal forth. The young man then takes his sweetheart at once to his parents' tipi. In the morning the youth's father summons the village crier, bidding him announce that his son has taken a wife, and at the same time a horse is given to some poor person whom the herald publicly names. Thus the two are married. It was never the Teton custom for a young man to take. the girl away from the village and live apart with her for a time as a form of honeymoon. Such has occurred in modern times, but only when there was parental opposition to the marriage. At other times the marriage was of a more conventional nature. The courtship was the same, but the suitor having been accepted and the alliance proving satisfactory to his parents, they sent many presents to the parents of the girl, who, after the family in council had agreed on the fitness of the suitor and the adequacy of the gifts, would signify their consent by making many gifts to the youth's family in turn. If these consisted of horses, the girl was placed upon the finest and was thus borne to the tipi of her lover, where she was received by the women of the family, who spread a large buffalorobe on the ground for her to step upon in dismounting. Both forms of marriage existed side by side until within recent times. It is, however, self-evident that the latter method was the one followed by daughters of the more important families. Polygyny was common, the number of wives being limited only

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20 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN by the man's ability to obtain and support them; and the more wives he had the richer he became, as there were that many more workers to prepare skins, which among the Sioux constituted a large part of the wealth. With the consent of his wives a man often married a younger sister of one of them, and usually presents were given for the girl. All lived together in the same tipi, and if a deposed favorite should create discord by reason of her jealousy she was soon sent away. The divorced wife, returning to her parents, married again when opportunity offered. A runaway wife was more than apt to be killed by the husband, and a meeting between the woman's husband and her new consort was likely to result in a fight with fatal consequences. In the mortuary rites of the Lakota the relatives immediately after death combed the hair of the deceased, dressed the body in fine clothing, and painted the face red. Then occurred the first day's performance of the Ghost Keeper ceremony, itself an elaborate mortuary service. After removing a lock of hair, they laid the body on a buffalo-robe, wrapped it tightly in several skins, and tied it securely with thongs. For the preparation of the burial-platform, the relatives selected a poor person of the same sex as the deceased, who erected the scaffold in a tree by fastening poles from branch to branch. The same person who prepared the resting-place carried the body out and lashed it securely to the platform. Relatives and friends followed, giving vent to their grief in true primitive fashion by loud wailing and crying. Food was left with the body, and the favorite horse was killed, that the spirit might travel in a fitting manner to the after-world in the south. An instance of the disposal of the remains of a Sioux warrior killed in battle is related by the Apsaroke. During a clash between war-parties of the two tribes in the Wolf mountains, the Apsaroke were certain that a Lakota, who had ridden a noticeably large sorrel horse, had been killed. They followed the trail of the retreating war-party, and within a few miles of the scene of the fight found the body laid on its tree-scaffold. There, with painted shield and feather-decked coup-stick proudly hanging above, the warrior lay fastened in the tree, beneath it the body of his favorite horse, which had

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Daughters of a chief [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 21 carried its master to the end of his trail and there been shot that their spirits might journey together. Burial tipis were sometimes used, a notable instance being the tipi of the dead in the valley of the Little Bighorn, in which, after the Custer fight, were laid side by side, as if asleep, the bodies of some of the fallen Sioux. The entire culture of the Sioux is based primarily on two concepts, first, that his " medicine," or supernatural occult power, is derived from the mysterious forces of nature, and secondly, his creed of a brave heart. The conduct and the effort of every Sioux throughout life were so to strengthen his supernatural power that he could not only resist any harm threatening him from ordinary sources, but could become possessed of invulnerability to those imbued with like power. He desired this mystery-power to be stronger than any he was to encounter. Many a brave warrior has cried out to his people that his "medicine " was so great that no arrow or bullet from the enemy could harm him, and, singing his medicine-songs, has charged recklessly into the camp of the enemy and struck them right and left; and, strangely enough, they seem often to have proved their pretension to supernatural strength in that while they were shot at repeatedly at close range they escaped unharmed.1 In spite of this strong belief in a tutelary spirit the Sioux was a fatalist, a firm believer in predestination, convinced that if it were so decreed he would lose his life; no subtle power, however strong, no care on his part, could save him. It was his belief further that the spirit or mystery-strength of the animal that appeared to him in vision entered his body and became a part of his waka" strength. He might fast many times and have many such tutelary spirits within his body.2 Notwithstanding the mystery-power residing within him, the Sioux warrior prepared his war-shield for utility, after which it was consecrated and made waka" by painting on it, literally or symbol1 General George Crook, considered one of the best rifle shots in the army, in talking with scout Charles Tackett said that on one occasion he had shot deliberately at Crazy Horse more than twenty times without effect. 2 See the biography of Spotted Elk, page I89.

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22 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN ically, the animals or objects that constituted his "medicine." If it was a bird that appeared to him, feathers of that bird were fastened around the edge of the shield, and as a further protection he wore about his person a portion of the bird; or if an animal, some portion of it, as, for instance, a necklace of bear-claws, was used as a part of the warrior's personal adornment. Ordinarily such objects would be classed as fetishes or talismans, but as used by the Indian they are more than that. Consecrated weapons also formed a part of his war equipment. Coups, or honors, claimed by warriors show to what extent braveness of heart entered into every thought of their life. In camp the chiefs and warriors would meet around the council-fire and recount stories of the war-path, and as each deed was related without challenge, a stick from the bundle kept by the chief would be laid before him. The French-Canadian word coup, of such common usage in speaking of Indian deeds of valor, has not been adopted by the Sioux; their term is t6ka-kte (" kill enemy"). A coup could be won by actually killing an enemy, by striking the body of an enemy whether dead or alive, by capturing a horse or a band of horses, or by taking a scalp. Honors were counted on each hostile warrior by the first four who struck him, the first in each case winning the greatest renown, an honor called ta'ya"-kte (" kill right "). Thus, if twenty men were struck or even touched in an encounter, twenty honors of the first grade were won by the victors. But the greatest exploit of all was to ride into the midst of the enemy and strike a warrior in action without attempting to wound him. When a man had led four war-parties, and in each achieved a first honor, he was eligible to chieftainship. If in addition to the recognized coups a man had been wounded, or had had his horse killed or wounded, or had been sent out with a scouting party, he was considered an accomplished warrior and was entitled to wear a scalp-shirt, on which his exploits were indicated by various insignia: a wound was represented by a breast-feather of the eagle, dyed red; a white one signified that the wearer had been a member of a scouting party, while a yellow one denoted a captured horse; and each tuft of the human hair that gave the shirt its name indicated a coup. An

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Tipi construction (A) [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 23 eagle's tail-feather was usually worn in the hair for each honor counted. Wounds to man or horse were indicated by marks painted on the body over the injured spot. A man who had killed the first enemy in a battle also painted his face black. Captives were adopted into the tribe. Chief Minihfiha never heard of a case in which the Sioux had tortured one of their captives by burning, though he had once been told that the Pawnee burned at the stake the Sioux, Paints His Face Red, after having killed his entire family. Discussing the treatment of captives, Minihiuha related the following incident: "When I was a young man my father was with a small party that happened to come upon a single tipi of the Shoshoni. The occupants were killed, all except one little girl, who was captured alive by my father and brought home. My sister had died a short time before, and the little Shoshoni girl was adopted in her place and given the name Zittkala-washte-wi", Pretty Bird Woman. She was about twelve years of age and lived with us more than a year. Then through the Arapaho, who were friendly with the Shoshoni, we heard that her father was alive and was searching for his daughter. My father thought the matter over; then he came to me and said: "'My son, are you willing that your sister should be sent back to her people? "I said,' She has been with us so long that she seems like one of our people and of our family; but I suppose she ought to be sent back if she wishes to go.' "So my father provided new clothing for her, and three horses, and I gave her my best suit of clothing and my fine racehorse, and at the appointed time she was sent off to her own land." The typical habitation of the Sioux, as of other plains tribes, from earliest tradition to the disappearance of the buffalo, was the skin lodge, in their language tipi. The tipi of the old days, when dogs were the beasts of burden, was smaller than during the period following the coming of the horse. The covering was of tanned buffalo-hides, and when new was almost white; but with use and from the smoke of the tipi fire it became a rich brown, and was

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24 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN exceedingly soft and flexible. The skin in this state was called wizi, and was much used for leggings and other clothing. To make a small tipi when the dog-travois was the only means of transportation required six or seven hides; but with the broadening of their life by the acquisition of the horse, they made the tipi so much larger that the manufacture of one required fifteen to twenty hides. The tipi-covering was made in sections for convenience in transportation, the strips being fastened together when in place by overlapping the edges and slipping skewer-like pins through eyelets. In preparing the hide it was stretched on the ground and firmly fastened with pegs driven through its edge; then with an adze-like tool -made with an elkhorn handle and a blade of steel, and before steel was obtained a piece of elk thigh-bone - the hair was scraped from the hide, which was then flaked down by further scraping to a satisfactory thinness. Spotted Horse Woman said: "I could prepare three hides in a day; that was a hard day's work. Lazy women could not dress so many, and so they had small tipis. My tipi had twenty hides, and it was a fine, big one." The number of poles required depended on the size of the tipi, twenty-two being necessary for the larger ones. In erecting the tipi four poles were first fastened together near their tops. Two women raised them perpendicularly, and each taking two poles separated their bases until the circumference of the tipi was determined, then the other poles were quickly leaned into place, their bases forming a perfect circle. The sections of skin were next skewered together and the tipi-lifter fastened to the topmost portion of the cover. Now with considerable effort and the assistance of several women the pole with its weight of skins was lifted into place and the covering drawn around the framework. The open ends were fastened together with wooden pins, one woman standing on the shoulders of another in order to reach the highest part of the seam. The bottom was next pinned down and two extra poles were fastened to the outer point of the flaps for use in changing their position when necessary to regulate the draft that carried away the smoke from the fire. A long rawhide rope left hanging from the fastening of the four poles first erected was securely tied to a heavy stake driven into the ground inside the

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Tipi construction (B) [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 25 tipi, thus adding to its stability and preventing it from being blown down by severe winds. The lining, a strip of skin extending to about the height of a man, was now attached to the poles inside and fitted securely and closely to the ground, thus leaving an air space between the outer and inner walls. Since the outer covering was not entirely closed at the bottom, perfect ventilation was maintained by means of this air space. In fact for its purpose the skin tipi was an ideal structure - portable, perfect in ventilation, and rigid in wind-storm. In addition to the tipis used as dwellings there were many that had a public or ceremonious purpose, each with a name indicative of its use. Most striking of these was the tipi-okihe, placed at the entrance of the village for use as a guest-house for all visitors to the tribe, and as a public meeting-place, where there was always welcome, and food without asking. The large dwelling-tipi was very roomy. The family and guests sat or lounged about the edge of the circle, the head of the family or special guest occupying the place of honor at the extreme rear. In winter or during stormy weather all food was prepared over the single fire, and during the waking hours there was a large kettle of steaming food, for a visitor might come at any moment, and failure to offer him refreshment would be regarded as the height of inhospitality. The handicraft of the Sioux was comparatively simple, the preparation of skins being their most important manufacture. From deerskin they made much of their clothing, as well as pouches, called pan, for holding small personal effects; pipe-bags, both waka" and for every-day use; saddle-blankets for the women; and the carrier for the infant. From the skins of the buffalo were made the tipi-covering, as above mentioned, clothing and blankets, and many durable parfleches of rawhide for carrying heavy articles, as well as food, clothing, and household effects. Bows were made of ash and cherry backed with sinew. No trace of elkhorn bows could be found. Arrows were pointed with bone, flint, or steel; but flint points have not been made by the Sioux for several generations, probably not since they first crossed the

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26 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Missouri. On reaching their present habitat they found many stone points scattered about the land; and not knowing who made them they attributed their origin to the supernatural, calling them now "Iktomi arrow-heads," because Iktomi, a legendary hero, is described as having used points of that kind. It has been asserted that the Sioux never made stone arrow-heads, but this statement is difficult to accept, especially since several Sioux tell of having seen their ancestors work stone for this purpose. It is certain that the stone points used by the Teton were practically all found on the ground, having been made, in all probability, by tribes occupying their territory in early times. Roughly shaped stone hammers, axes, and war-clubs were made; also knives of clamshells bound to wooden handles, and spoons and drinking-cups of mountain-sheep- and buffalo-horn. Bowls were fashioned from natural protuberances on trees, hollowed out by burning and scraping, and highly polished; a carrying bucket was made of the buffalo paunch, with a hoop fastened in the top to hold it in shape. This vessel was used also for boiling food by partly filling with water and dropping therein heated stones. Very large utensils for pounding pemmican and other foods were made of rawhide fashioned into concave form while the skin was fresh. The decorative art of the Lakota found expression on their deerskin garments, pipe-bags, saddle-blankets, robes, parfleches, shields, and tipis. Before the coming of traders the designs were worked wholly in dyed porcupine quills; later they obtained beads, which are now used largely, and in a majority of cases the two materials are combined in a single decoration. There seems to be no fixed motif in many of their designs, each woman reading into her art whatever may be prompted by her thoughts, the same figure sometimes meaning as many different things as there are workers. In the accompanying plate are shown three tobacco-pouch pipe-bags. The middle one, a particularly elaborate and beautiful piece of work, is in quills and beads; that to the right is an old specimen worked entirely in quills; while the one to the left is a waka", or sacred, pouch that has been in the family of the Ogalala chief, Slow Bull, for four generations. Its form, patterned after the human figure, is representative of a strange enemy killed in traditionary times in the

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Pipe-bags [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 27 midst of a buffalo herd,1 and the tufts of hair are emblematic of the scalp-locks taken. Four pipes, two of which appear on the side shown, represent the four generations since the pouch was originated. The circle of beadwork is symbolic of embryonic life, and the pouch is considered very efficacious during parturition. The hands represent the enemy killed by each generation, and the red stripes the four winds. Slow Bull's father told him to put on the pouch a beaded hoof for each horse he captured, but when seventeen years of age he took one hundred and seventy horses at one time, so he had embroidered on it as many hoofprints as the pouch would accommodate. The figured margin has no significance; it was designed merely "to look pretty." The braid of sweet-grass is for lighting the sacred pipe on special occasions. The Sioux exhibited considerable skill in working red pipestone, or catlinite, into large pipes for ceremonial and common usage. Some were finely inlaid with silver or lead, and in others the bowl and stem were carved in representation of an animal or a bird, the buffalo being the most common subject. While many of the stems were made of pipestone, the majority were of wood, more or less carved, the remainder being beautifully ornamented with porcupine quills or deerskin. Traditions of the Sioux indicate that they were perhaps the discoverers of the catlinite quarry in Pipestone county, Minnesota, and all such legends and traditions collected by the writer speak of the spot at the time of its discovery as virgin ground, and account for the unusual color by some miracle, rather than describe it as a quarry worked by some mythical people who had mysteriously disappeared -the explanation to be expected if they had discovered old and abandoned workings. Among the many legends relating to this quarry, which to the Indian is a sacred spot and during historical times has been neutral ground, is one of a battle between the: Sioux and the Winnebago. It was of the days when the Sioux were still living on "The Lake " 1 See the High Hawk Winter-count, page I59, year I631, for the record of a similar if not the same occurrence. * Description of these pipe-bags on this and the preceding page.

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28 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN and before they had horses. A brave chief organized a war-party, and, crossing the Great River, they journeyed many days to the southwest, and there in a broad, sweeping prairie valley, broken only by a small stream, were encamped a strong party of the Winnebago. The fight was a long and bitter one, but from the beginning victory seemed to favor the Sioux, and with the closing of the day the last of the Winnebago had been killed or had escaped - all but a single captive, the beautiful daughter of the Winnebago chieftain, spared by order of the Sioux leader, who would have her for his wife. As he approached the young woman she drew a knife and stabbed herself, exclaiming, "I will die rather than be a wife in the camp of the Sioux! " As her life-blood trickled down in a crimson stream it stained the rock a deep red, and thus it has been to this day. The dress of the women consisted of a garment made of finely tanned deerskins, which extended from the shoulders to midway of the knee and ankle. Sleeves reaching nearly to the wrist were tied at intervals on the under side, ample openings being left at the armpits for the convenience of the mothers in nursing their babes. The sides of the dress were sewn from armpits to bottom. A dress regarded as well-made was fringed at its bottom and sleeves, and finely decorated at the shoulders and arms with porcupine quills, beads, and shells. The one here pictured belonged to a very old woman, wife of the chief Two Strike. It was made by her mother and was worn by herself in the days of her maidenhood, when young warriors were wont to woo her. The little love-charm given her to cast a spell over her youthful suitors is still fastened to the shoulder of the dress. Leggings extending from knee to foot were worn by the women, and moccasins, ankle-high, usually also beautifully worked with quills and beads. Pendants fashioned from shells were suspended from the ears-often long strings extending nearly to the waist, and each weighing a quarter of a pound or more. Each ear was decorated at times with two strings of ornaments fastened in separate piercings, and massive necklaces made of cylinders of bone were hung about the neck. In winter warm outer moccasins of buffaloskin, with hair inside, were worn, and with a buffalo-robe wrapped

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Sioux maiden [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 29 closely about the body the Sioux woman was well protected against the severest weather. The hair was parted at the middle from front to back and arranged in two long braids, hanging in front of the shoulders and tied at the ends with a thong and ornaments. In large encampments the lower bodies of the girls were wrapped with deerskin at night-time, that youthful marauders might take no advantage of their heavy sleep of exhaustion entailed by the hard work of the day. The dress of the men ordinarily consisted of leggings, moccasins, and loin-cloth made from old and soft tipi-covering. The upper part of the body usually was unclothed, but in cold weather was covered with a buffalo-robe held in place by a belt. For ceremonial and dress occasions the apparel of the men was much more elaborate, consisting of deerskin leggings embroidered with quills and beads, moccasins finely stitched and decorated, and in addition to the customary loin-cloth a long strip of embroidered deerskin, eight or ten inches wide, inserted under the belt at the back and permitted to trail the ground. An elaborately ornamented pipe-bag was carried in the hand. The hair in a small circle at the crown of the head was braided and allowed to hang down the back, being tied at the end with a small thong. This was the "top-of-head braid "- what we have come to call the "scalp-lock." From this lock the hair was parted in diverging lines to the temples, and in front was a long bang, kept out of the eyes by wetting and rolling back. The long hair at the sides of the head hung down in two braids wrapped with strips of otter-skin, each with a twisted deerskin thong inside to give it stiffness. The important article of dress for those who had won the necessary honors to warrant them in wearing it was the scalp- or honorshirt - a coat-like garment fringed at the bottom as well as along the side-seams and sleeves, and slipped on over the head. In making the scalp-shirt two deerskins of medium size were placed together face to face, sewn at the shoulders, and tied at the sides. The sleeves were sewn firmly at the shoulders and left open along the under side of the arms. The garment was ornamented with bead* The girl in the picture is a mixed-blood Sioux of the Sans Arc band.

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30 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN work on body and sleeves, and, according to the owner's deeds of valor, with tufts of human hair, weasel-skins, and feathers, each component part of this decoration telling its own story of the wearer's prowess. When taking a scalp, a warrior often removed almost the entire head-covering of the enemy; this was divided into many small pieces for use on the scalp-shirts. The hair of white people was not used for this purpose, as the taking of their scalps was not considered an honor. The war-bonnet, like the shirt, could be worn only by men who had earned honors in war. When the young warrior had struck the necessary coups, he procured the needed eagle-feathers, took them with suitable presents to some one skilled in fashioning war-bonnets, and asked him to make a head-dress, that he might wear it as evidence of his bravery. The unit employed in reckoning the passage of time is the winter. There is no name for year, and though there are terms for spring and fall, in general only the two seasons, winter and summer, are recognized. Twelve moons compose the year, for each of which twentyseven days are marked off on the pipestem; then the moon ",dies," and three days are passed before another one rises and the count is resumed. When Ursa Minor is observed in a certain position, the old men say, "The next moon the leaves will be brown." With the new moon, therefore, the tally begins, succeeding moons receiving their appellations from what is regarded as the most striking phenomenon accompanying them. The majority are named from the appearance or habit of the buffalo at the time. The chronological records of the years consist of pictographs, called "winter-counts," kept by certain members of the tribe known as "winter-counters," and passed from father to son. Though somewhat fragmentary, these picture-writings give intermittent glimpses of history and an insight into the life of the people. They cannot, however, be relied on to give accurate historical data previous to the year I700. In many cases the events recorded were of only local or personal interest, although they may have been of grave moment to the annalist, while matters of intertribal importance remain unrecorded. Of the calendars examined by the author, that now kept

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Scalp-shirts [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 31 by High Hawk,' a Brule Sioux, is the only one that presumes to trace history from the beginning and to mention the coming of White Buffalo Woman. High Hawk's count gives two hundred and twenty-one periods or events. From I701 there is a pictograph for each year, but prior to that date the record is by longer periods, which in fourteen instances High Hawk interprets as representing seventy years each. In this he is without doubt in error. Reading these periods as meaning seven years- a number most prominent in Sioux life and culture - makes their first sight of white men to have occurred in the interval between I666 and I673; and by the same reading of seven years, rather than seventy, the coming of White Buffalo Woman is placed at 1540, which agrees approximately with the estimate given by Elk Head respecting the origin of the Calf Pipe. Furthermore this interpretation places the date of the acquisition of horses within reasonable probability. Historical Sketch
The term Sioux -a French abbreviation of the Chippewa Nadoweisiw, signifying Little Adders, or Little Enemies -designates seven tribes: Mdewakaitonwa1 (Mdewakanton), Mysterious Lake Village; Wahpekute, Shoot Among Deciduous Leaves; Wahpetonwa1 (Wahpeton), Village Of The Deciduous Leaves; Sisitonwan (Sisseton), Village Of The Swamp; Ihanktonwa" (Yankton), End Village; Ihanktonwanna (Yanktonai), Little End Village; and Titonwan (Teton), Prairie Village. In a time more remote than the farthest reach of definite tradition these seven tribes were kindred bands composing one great camp in the vicinity of the head-waters of the Mississippi, a community still referred to as O6hti-Thak6win, the Seven Council Fires. They called themselves Dak6ta, Allies. Disintegration came. First the Teton, then the Yankton and the Yanktonai, left the camp-circle of the Seven Council Fires and found new homes in the west, so that the tribes of 1 See page I59. 2 Although mentioned by French explorers as early as I640-I641, the Sioux were not seen by white men until some years later. See the notes accompanying the High Hawk count.

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32 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN the Dakota occupied the same relative position as within recent historic times: the four tribes known collectively as Isa"yati, Knife Dwellers (anglicized into Santee), remaining in the Mille Lac region of eastern Minnesota, the Yankton and the Yanktonai leading a seminomadic existence farther west, and the Teton roaming the boundless prairies beyond them, but centring about Big Stone lake of Minnesota river. Differences of speech developed three dialects, those of the Santee, of the Yankton and Yanktonai, and of the Teton. The Santee sound of d frequently becomes n in the Yankton and Yanktonai, and always I in the Teton; while invariably hd of the Santee appears respectively as kd and gl in the speech of the middle and the western divisions of the Dakota. The earliest known allusion to the Dakota occurs in the relation of Father Le Jeune in I640, in which the " Nadvesiv" are said to be neighbors of the Winnebago, and as " Nadoiiessis" they are again casually mentioned in the Jesuit Relation for I642. Radisson and Groseilliers spent the winter of I66I-I662 among the "Nadoneseronons" at Mille Lac. Du Luth in I679 visited a large village of the "Nadouessioux," and in I680 a Dakota war-party of thirty-three canoes captured and held for several months Father Louis Hennepin, whose map of the upper Mississippi region affords the first glimpse of the Teton habitat. Disregarding intertribal warfare, the more recent history of the Dakota consists largely of a record of councils and treaties with commissions from Washington, and of hostile movements against emigrants and troops. During the war of I812 between Great Britain and the United States, the Dakota were divided in their allegiance. The excitement fomented by the designs of Tecumseh and his brother the Prophet had spread, like the subsequent Ghost Dance craze, to distant tribes. In spite of this frenzy the traders out of St. Louis managed to hold the Dakota of the Missouri favorably inclined toward the Americans, but British agents controlled those of the upper Mississippi and actually led bands of them to the front to aid in campaigns against the Americans about the Great Lakes. At the conclusion of the war, William Clark, Ninian Edwards, and Auguste Chouteau, as com

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Iron Plume - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 33 missioners plenipotentiary of the United States, held a great council at Portage des Sioux, at the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers. At this council, held July 19, 1815, treaties were concluded with the Teton, the Sioux of the Lakes, the Sioux of St. Peters river, and the Yankton, and were ratified December 26 of the same year. At St. Louis the same commissioners concluded a treaty, June I, I816, with "eight bands of the Sioux, composing the three tribes called the Sioux of the Leaf, the Sioux of the Broad Leaf, and the Sioux who shoot in the Pinetops," which was ratified on December 30. These brief treaties declared that "all the friendly relations that existed between them before the war shall be, and the same are hereby renewed." The year I825 marks one of the turning points in the modern history of the Dakota. Governor Clark took personal charge of an expedition to the upper Mississippi tribes, being accompanied by Governor Lewis Cass and Major Lawrence Taliaferro, the famous first agent of the Dakota of the upper Mississippi, who served in that capacity with remarkable success for thirty years. A treaty with the Sioux and eight other tribes was effected at Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, on August I9, the celebrated Wabasha and Little Crow III being among the signers. To the Dakota west of the Mississippi Governor Clark sent an expedition headed by General Henry Atkinson and Dr. Benjamin O'Fallon, the latter a nephew of the Governor. Three comprehensive treaties were negotiated by these commissioners in June and July, and were signed by sixty-two Dakota chiefs and headmen. While nominal peace was thus established for a time, the hatred that had existed between the Dakota and their hereditary foes the Chippewa for fully a century was again awakened. In May, 1827, a party of Dakota visited a Chippewa camp almost under the walls of Fort Snelling, Minnesota, and after smoking and eating, the Dakota fired upon their hosts. Arrests and executions for the murder increased the excitement, and while open warfare did not result, General H. H. Sibley later declared that the Dakota had exacted the lives of one white man and one Chippewa for each of their own number who had suffered the death penalty at Fort Snelling. VOL. III-3

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34 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The discovery of gold in California also precipitated trouble between white people and the Lakota. Before this time almost the only men who had traversed the Sioux country were fur trappers and traders, but Jnow came a horde that alarmed, disturbed, and tempted the Indians. In I849 Superintendent Mitchell suggested a general council with the Indians at Fort Laramie on the Platte, but it was not until two years later that the council was held, and the treaty resulting from it was practically a failure. In 1855 General W. S. Harney was given twelve hundred troops and sent to punish the Ogalala and the Brules for their continued attacks on emigrant trains and for other depredations. In this campaign Harney succeeded in punishing the Indians and in compelling them in the following year to agree to permit undisturbed travel on the emigrant trails; but the failure of the Senate to ratify the treaty, combined with subsequent explorations in the Black Hills, caused further trouble. In the light of historical knowledge it is clear that the burden of responsibility for what is known throughout the State of Minnesota as the Outbreak of 1862 rested on the shoulders of Little Crow, the disreputable son of the wise chief Little Crow III, and Inkpaduta, the bloodthirsty, fiendish, though capable leader of Indian outlaws. Nevertheless, fairness demands that mention should be made of the fact that the newly installed Federal officers blundered in their management of affairs, especially in delaying the annuities provided under the land cession treaties, and also that the Indians were justifiably incensed when Governor Ramsay recognized and paid certain disputed claims of the traders despite a prohibitory clause of the treaty. It is easier now than it probably was then to see how these actions, coupled with certain impetuous movements on the part of the military leaders, incited the Indians to hostility, especially as they had become aware that the Government had met a series of reverses at the hands of the Confederate armies. There is little wonder that they believed the time had arrived when they could drive the white people back and henceforth hold the old hunting-grounds for their own use. The outbreak was begun on August 17, 1862, by four young men belonging to the band of Little Six, who murdered three men, a woman, and a girl, near Acton, Beeker county, Minnesota. Hasten

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Short Log, Two Kettle [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 35 ing home with stolen horses, they reported the deed to their chief, who recently had succeeded his father, Shakopee II, and who apparently was anxious for war. He hastened his young men by night to the camp of Little Crow, who, fired by the atrocity, planned to massacre the white people of the agency at sunrise. The scenes that followed are beyond description. Every horror peculiar to savage warfare was perpetrated. Homes were burned; men, women, and children were scalped and butchered, and before peace again reigned eight hundred settlers and soldiers had given up their lives. Governor Ramsay promptly enlisted volunteers and placed in command Colonel Henry H. Sibley, who proved a most excellent leader in such a crisis. He at once rescued a large number of captives from Little Crow, sought to segregate the friendly Indians, and began a vigorous campaign against the hostiles. When other trained military leaders appeared on the scene, Sibley endeavored to relinquish his command, but he was promoted to the rank of brigadiergeneral of volunteers and induced to continue his services. The war spread through Dakota to eastern Montana and continued until I865. The most severe engagement during the conflict was the battle of Tahakouty, or Kill-deer mountain, between the Little Missouri and the headwaters of Knife river, in western North Dakota. Here on July 28, 1864, General Alfred Sully with twenty-two hundred men met the Sioux, numbering about sixteen hundred warriors, and after a desperate fight the Indians were routed from their stronghold by the aid of artillery and compelled to flee after an estimated loss of one hundred to one hundred and fifty. Newton Edmunds had become Governor and Superintendent of Indian Affairs in I863. He believed he could end the war by treaty, but being prevented from dealing with the Indians except through the army, he placed the case before President Lincoln, who appointed Edmunds, Edward B. Taylor, S. R. Curtis, Henry H. Sibley, and Orrin Guernsey a commission to treat with all the Dakota tribes, Congress providing thirty thousand dollars to defray its expenses. This was early in I865, but by reason of the opposition of the War Department and the death of President Lincoln, October arrived before the treaties ending the War of the Outbreak were signed.

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36 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The four tribes composing the Santee group were principally concerned in the uprising of I862, but many individual warriors and small parties of the more easterly Teton and Yankton bands joined them. The Minnesota Outbreak is therefore worthy of notice in Teton history because it was so closely connected with succeeding hostilities in the west. The chiefs of the Ogalala and the Brule Sioux were still unsatisfied at the time of the treaties of October, 1865, but the defection of these powerful tribes of the confederacy was not deemed very serious by the Government or by the country at large. On December 3, 1866, President Johnson in his second annual message to Congress said: "Treaties have been concluded with the Indians, who, enticed into armed opposition to our Government at the outbreak of the rebellion, have unconditionally submitted to our authority and manifested an earnest desire for a renewal of friendly relations." Subsequent events, and indeed events occurring while the President's message was being read to Congress, showed that the Chief Executive and the people were not justified in their belief that complete serenity reigned on the frontier. The reason why the Ogalala and the Brules were not represented at the treaty-making of I865 is apparent. Gold had been discovered in Idaho and Montana, and the miners demanded better highways. Congress had passed a bill on March I, I865, providing for a road from the California trail near Fort Laramie to Bozeman, Montana, by way of the head-waters of the Tongue, Powder, and Bighorn rivers - in other words, authorizing the building of a road protected by military posts in the midst of the best buffalo hunting country available to those two tribes. Spotted Tail of the Brules and Red Cloud of the Ogalala were now powerful and dominating chiefs, and with others were quick to see what the new roads meant. The buffalo furnished food, clothing, shelter, and materials for barter; without them suffering was inevitable, and the herds could not exist in a land of roads and forts. This was the fate that stared the Teton in the face. During I865 they argued with the surveying parties and sought to intimidate them.

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Brule warriors [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 37 After these experiences Spotted Tail and Red Cloud declined to attend the treaty council in October and even refused to have their bands represented. Those in the Indian country knew the true situation. Spotted Tail had always been friendly, and it was believed a treaty could be successfully negotiated. A commission headed by E. B. Taylor assembled at Fort Laramie on June I, 1866, and in response to the invitation two thousand Brules and Ogalala assembled. The object of the commission was to insure peace and arrange for the authorized road. The Indians who did not use the lands in question were ready and willing to sign, but those directly concerned stubbornly refused. Even while the negotiations were in progress, Colonel Henry B. Carrington arrived at Fort Laramie with seven hundred men and armed with instructions to build the road and the forts. Thereupon Red Cloud and Man Afraid Of His Horses, convinced that their rights were to be ignored, left the council grounds with their bands of Ogalala. Spotted Tail and Swift Bear with twelve hundred Brules and Ogalala, at the instance of Agent Maynadier, went south of the Platte in order that they might be segregated as friendly. From the first day of July to December 21, i866, Red Cloud and his warriors killed ninety-one private soldiers, five officers, and fifty-eight citizens, besides inflicting other injury and damage. Most of this mortality was the result of a single battle and was due to Captain Fetterman's temerity quite as much as to the skill of Red Cloud and his warriors. Colonel Carrington had proceeded to lay out the road and to establish forts in accordance with his instructions. Though the Indian warriors outnumbered the troops, they at first contented themselves with harrying the flanks of the little army and snuffing out the lives of those who ventured within the danger line. But the building of Fort Phil. Kearny, on Piney creek, a tributary of Powder river, in the very heart of the buffalo country, was more stoutly resisted, and it became necessary to send a strong guard with each supply-train. Skirmishes were frequent, but Colonel Carrington was cautious and vigilant with his slender command. The younger men, especially Captain Fetterman, chafed

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38 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN under the restraint. On December 2I, I866, Fetterman, with eighty picked men, was sent to rescue a besieged wood-train. Violating his strict orders by giving chase to the Indians, he was drawn into a trap, and every man of his command was slain, stripped, and mutilated. After such a bloody victory the Indians expected the soldiers to make a desperate attempt at retaliation; consequently they hastily withdrew and separated into small bands, but continued their watchful work with small parties about the forts of Phil. Kearny, C. F. Smith, and Reno. In the spring and early summer of 1867 the military posts received some needed reinforcements, with ammunition and better arms. The garrisons, momentarily expecting an attack, remained close to their forts and guns. As the time drew near for laying in a supply of fuel, arrangements were made with civilian contractors under promise of military protection. This plan gave rise to one of the most remarkable battles in Indian history sometimes called the Wagon-box Fight. Captain James W. Powell, detailed to guard the wood-cutters at Fort Phil. Kearny, found they had two camps, about a mile apart. To one camp he detailed twelve men, and to the other thirteen, each squad under a non-commissioned officer. This left him twenty-six men, with Lieutenant John C. Jenness, and with these he built a shelter in the midst of a plain in reach of the two camps by arranging the bodies of his wagons as a rude barricade. Indians had been seen skulking in the neighborhood, but there was nothing to indicate that a serious attack was about to be made. The fact is that Red Cloud had determined to crush Fort Phil. Kearny, and to begin by capturing the wood-train. The first active operation on the part of the Indians in this direction was to stampede the mules, which was done on the morning of August 2. The choppers and the outside guard were rescued largely through the bravery of Captain Powell, who drew the Indians from an attack on the woodmen and then retired into his wagon-box corral, while the others with the choppers escaped to the fort. It was afternoon when the battle was ended, but those three hours had been eventful. Four civilians had joined Powell's little command, bringing the total to thirty-two men, well-armed with breech-loading rifles and having abundant ammunition. The best

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Struck By Crow - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 39 marksmen were to use the rifles, while the others loaded them. After the wood-camps had been plundered and destroyed, the Indians gathered to exterminate the wagon-box party. There were more than three thousand warriors, and the women and children assembled on the hills to witness the annihilation of the little band. A force of five hundred warriors, magnificently equipped and mounted, dashed toward the corral. Powell ordered his men to remain silent until the Indians were within fifty yards; then the firing commenced. The execution was terrible. Indians had never faced such guns before. Their line reeled, many dropped to the earth, and the survivors scurried back to the main body, where Red Cloud began another movement by sending out a swarm of sharpshooters to prepare the way for another attack. Six charges were made, each time with dire result to the Indians. Dismayed and alarmed, the living began the work of recovering their dead, and as the whole body, cowed for the nonce, moved from the field, reinforcements arrived from the fort, and Powell's men were escorted to safety. In the first charge Lieutenant Jenness and one soldier had been killed and two soldiers wounded. This was the extent of the loss by the troopers. Captain Powell estimated that he had killed sixty-seven and wounded one hundred and twenty, while his men asserted that the Sioux had lost from three hundred to five hundred. The Indians themselves are usually reticent as to the extent of their losses in this engagement, and when they do speak of it their statements conflict. The exact number will never be known. Even before this clash at arms Congress had come to realize that everything was not peaceful on the northern frontier, in spite of the Edmunds treaties. By Act of Congress of July 20, 1867, a peace commission was appointed, consisting of N. G. Taylor, J. B. Henderson, Generals Sherman, Harney, Sanborn, Terry, and Augur, and S. F. Tappan. The commission met at St. Louis on August 6 and organized. Word was sent to Red Cloud that the commission would meet him and the other chiefs at Fort Laramie on September 13, and there hold a council. But the crafty chief and his followers were not in haste to end the war; indeed, they made attacks from time to time in the vicinity of the objectionable forts until the middle

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40 THE NORTI-I AMERICAN INDIAN of December, with the result that the Montana road was utterly impassable and the forts were practically useless. Swift Bear, a friendly Brule, was the emissary from the commissioners to Red Cloud. The summons not meeting the favor of the hostiles, Swift Bear on his own account promised them that if they would come in, ammunition would be furnished to enable them to kill their winter's game. Proceeding to Fort Laramie, the commissioners received Swift Bear's report and were informed that the hostiles could not meet them in council until November. When this time arrived, Red Cloud sent word that his hostility against the whites was for the purpose of preserving the valley of Powder river for his people, and that when the troops were withdrawn from the forts the war on his part would cease. The commissioners then despatched a messenger to Red Cloud asking for a truce until a council could be held, to which the Sioux leader, with his customary indefiniteness, replied that he would meet them in the following spring or summer. The commissioners returned to Fort Laramie early in I868, and by April 29 a treaty had been formulated. Many of the Brule and Ogalala chiefs, including Spotted Tail and Man Afraid Of His Horses, signed in April and May. Red Cloud, however, again sent word that he would wait until the garrisons were withdrawn from the forts. The commissioners advised the Government to submit to the chief's demands, and on August 27 the posts were abandoned in accordance with the provisions of the new treaty. Red Cloud then took time to accumulate a supply of buffalo-meat, which caused much fear that the war was not yet ended; but on November 6 he appeared at Fort Laramie and signed the treaty, which was ratified by the Senate on February I6 and proclaimed by the President on February 24, I869. The Red Cloud war was ended and the Indian victory was complete. This famous treaty of I868 was impossible of complete fulfilment, and to its violation were due the wars with the Lakota that followed. The enormous reservation created under the treaty provisions consisted of that portion of the present State of South Dakota lying west of the Missouri river. As the white settlers crowded and clamored

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Sioux hunters [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 41 for more lands it would have been difficult, but still possible, for the Government to keep faith by preserving that great empire to the Indians, and it likewise would have been possible to keep faith in the agreement as to annuities in money and goods, and in the services proffered for their civilization. But the most impractical article of the treaty, which reads as follows, marked the climax of Red Cloud's victory: "The United States hereby agrees and stipulates that the country north of the North Platte River and east of the summits of the Big Horn Mountains shall be held and considered to be unceded Indian territory, and also stipulates and agrees that no white person or persons shall be permitted to settle upon or occupy any portion of the same; or without the consent of the Indians first had and obtained, to pass through the same; and it is further agreed by the United States that within ninety days after the conclusion of peace with all the bands of the Sioux Nation, the military posts now established in the territory in this article named shall be abandoned, and that the road leading to them and by them to the settlements in the Territory of Montana shall be closed." Thus was the valuable game-preserve apparently saved to the Indians; but its conservation as such was of brief duration. The withdrawal of this stipulated protection and the disappearance of the game provoked disturbances that continued at intervals until the fighting strength of the Lakota had been completely overcome. In the summer of I870 Red Cloud and Spotted Tail, with others, made a visit to Washington, where it was agreed to move Spotted Tail's agency back from Whetstone, away from the evil influences of the Missouri river settlements, while Red Cloud was promised for his people an agency near Fort Laramie. They were taken to New York, where at Cooper Union Red Cloud was honored with a remarkable reception. The survey of the Northern Pacific Railroad route aroused further hostility, and the year I872 witnessed a number of lesser encounters about Fort Abraham Lincoln, opposite Bismarck. In March, 1873, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs appointed the Reverend J. P. Williamson and Dr. J. W. Daniels to investigate the troubles. They found

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42 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN the hostiles near the Red Cloud agency, and in May held a council with delegates from the Hunkpapa, Miniconjou, and Sans Arcs, when it was learned that the Indians were poorly armed and equipped, but that they strongly, and it may be added, rightfully, opposed the presence of the railroad and of white men on their lands. General Philip H. Sheridan, in command of the Department of the Missouri, determined to end the conflict by establishing a fort in the Black Hills. To that end he visited Fort Laramie late in 1873, but found the Indians there so opposed to the plan that he gave up Laramie in favor of Fort Abraham Lincoln as the proposed base. He then ordered General Terry to fit out an expedition under Colonel George A. Custer to explore the Black Hills, a proceeding in distinct violation of the treaty of 1868. Custer's glowing report brought forward many bold spirits anxious to obtain a footing in such a promising region, and especially to begin operations on the gold deposits suggested in the report; but this gold fever was checked by orders from General Sheridan to General Terry to prevent white people from entering the Indian lands. In March, 1875, Professor Walter P. Jenney conducted a geological reconnoissance of the Black Hills under the protection of Lieutenant R. I. Dodge with a guard of four hundred men, and reported the finding of gold. A commission was appointed, headed by W. B. Allison, to treat with the Indians for the possession of these lands, but long and patient argument resulted in failure. Venturesome prospectors were now pouring into the Black Hills, and by March, 1876, eleven thousand white men had gathered at Custer City. The Indians believed that the only way by which they could preserve their rights was to make war. During all this time Crazy Horse, American Horse, Gall, and Sitting Bull were maintaining themselves in the buffalo country along Powder river. Red Cloud and Spotted Tail remained at their agencies, but their warriors slyly slipped away, ostensibly on buffalo hunting expeditions, which they had a perfect right to do under their treaty. In December the agents were instructed by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to send runners to all the Indians, enjoining their return by the close of January; if they failed to obey, they were

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Scouts [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 43 to be treated as hostiles. The cruelty of this order is manifest from the reported sufferings of the soldiers in the wintry blasts of the northern plains, and yet the Indians were commanded to move their women and children with scant food and protection. The runners brought back word that the Indians were well-disposed and had promised to return in the early spring. Nevertheless, on February I, 1876, the Secretary of War was notified that the Indians refusing to return to the agencies were deemed hostile and from that time were to be dealt with by the military. The officers, basing their calculations on reports from the Indian agents at the various reservations, concluded that not more than five hundred to eight hundred warriors could possibly be encountered, but in reality probably five thousand were engaged in the battle of the Little Bighorn later in the year. General Crook was instructed to reduce the hostiles to subjection. General Sheridan, still commanding the Department of the Missouri, planned to converge three columns - one under Crook from Fort Fetterman, northwestward, one under Terry from Fort Abraham Lincoln, southwestward, and one under Gibbon from Fort Ellis, southeastward. In March, with a force of eight hundred and three men, Crook had scouted the Rosebud region by way of the old Bozeman trail. The most important result was the destruction of Crazy Horse's camp, the Indians themselves escaping to the hills. Crook, with a force of ten hundred and forty-nine officers and men left Fort Fetterman on May 29, and on June 17 fought with Crazy Horse the all-day engagement known as the Battle of the Rosebud, which resulted in victory for the Indians. Crook fell back to await reinforcements, and Crazy Horse, without following up his advantage, left the field and rejoined Sitting Bull on the Little Bighorn. Terry moved out of Fort Abraham Lincoln on May 17 with a force of six hundred cavalry and four hundred infantry. He met the steamboats with supplies at the mouth of Powder river on June 9, and proceeded up to the mouth of the Rosebud, where on June 2I he received scouts from Gibbon, who had arrived from Fort Ellis with four hundred and fifty men. Terry detached Custer and sent him

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44 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN on a scout up the Rosebud, while he took the steamers to ferry across Gibbon's force, which was to go up the Bighorn to effect a junction with Custer. Custer with eight hundred and fifty men and Indian scouts and guides started up the Rosebud on June 22.' Early in the morning of the twenty-fourth, while the Custer command was passing up the Rosebud, the scouts, who were well in advance, saw a few Sioux scouts or hunters. Later in the day they reported to Custer that they had seen these men and that the Sioux had crossed over into the valley of the Little Bighorn. Custer seemed a little excited, and instructed the scouts to go first to the top of the mountains forming the divide between the Rosebud and the Little Bighorn. The sun was now very low, and the scouts started with the command following. In the scouting party were Lieutenant Varnum, Mitch Boyer, the five Crow scouts - White Man Runs Him, Goes Ahead, Hairy Moccasins, White Swan, and Paints Half His Face Yellow -a halfbreed, and some Arikara. The scouting party followed up the Rosebud until they reached a small creek that heads in the mountains. They followed this stream, almost reaching the summit of the divide before daylight. Here they lay down to rest. At approaching dawn Boyer and White Man Runs Him left the others asleep and went to a high point at the summit, usually referred to as the Crow's Nest. Far below them and to the west spread the Little Bighorn valley, over 1 In my close personal study of the Little Bighorn battlefield I took with me the three Crow scouts, White Man Runs Him, Goes Ahead, and Hairy Moccasins, who, with other scouts and Mitch Boyer, guided the command from the Yellowstone up the Rosebud and across from its waters to the Little Bighorn. These three men remained with Custer until he was actively engaged in the final brief fight. With these three scouts and Upshaw as interpreter, I traveled carefully time after time over all the ground covered by the troops in this encounter. I also visited the Sioux country and interviewed many participants. Red Hawk (see page I88), whose recollection of the fight seemed to be particularly clear, I persuaded to visit the field with me. His description of the battle was exceedingly lucid and remarkably detailed for one who had been a participant. I also went over the ground with Two Moons and a party of his Cheyenne warriors. Following this study I accompanied General Charles A. Woodruff, U. S. A., over the area covered by the troops. In this study we had with us the three Crows, as I particularly desired that the testimony of these men might be considered by an experienced army officer. Following the day spent on the field with General Woodruff and the scouts, I visited the country of the Arikara and interviewed the scouts of that tribe who had been with the command, gathering much valuable information from them.

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Custer battle-field - map [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 45 which hung a mist-like cloud-the smoke from a large Indian encampment. The Crow called to the others to ascend. Varnum or Boyer sent a note by Red Star, an Arikara scout, to Custer, who by that time had ascended close to the divide between the Rosebud and the Little Bighorn. When Red Star came hurriedly to Custer, he was asked by the latter in sign, "Have you seen the Cutthroats [Sioux]?" On receiving the scout's reply, Custer read the note, and then with four or five men rode at once to the Crow's Nest, from which vantage he studied the distance for some time and viewed the encampment with its great herd of horses on the hills beyond. This outlook, which affords a splendid view of the entire region, is about fifteen miles from the encampment site and is at the head of Davis creek, which flows into the Rosebud, and Middle Reno creek, which empties into the Little Bighorn. The creek flowing down to the Little Bighorn stretches clearly before one, and much of the Sioux encampment was plainly in sight. The writer's party visited this point in mid-afternoon when considerable haze hovered over the valley, yet even the small cabins now on the camp site could be discerned with the naked eye, and with the aid of a glass smaller objects could be readily identified. While the party stood on this point two railway trains were seen to pass along the valley. These details are mentioned because it has been asserted that Custer was not able to see the valley clearly from this outlook. The scouts say that the white tipis were pitched so thickly in the valley that it had the appearance of being covered with a sheet, and that the hills beyond were brown with horses. The outlook afforded such a perfect prospect that with the assistance of the scouts, who were thoroughly familiar with the ground, a commander could easily have formulated a plan of attack and have found no reason for materially changing it. Custer discussed with his scouts the situation, the nature of the ground, and the best route to follow, and then rode back to his command, which was just below him at the right. In the early forenoon the command moved down the western slope of Wolf mountains and out on the plain, and thus began the most unfortunate day ever experienced by United States troops in Indian

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46 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN warfare. Before leaving the summit one Crow scout, Hairy Moccasins, was sent ahead to scan the ground and obtain a closer view of the village. Proceeding down the valley, past the oft-mentioned death-lodge of a Sioux, he climbed a pine-clad hill near the junction of the middle and north branches of Reno creek,' observing the Sioux everywhere across the Little Bighorn, and a few, who were presumably Sioux scouts, in the valley of Reno creek. Hairy Moccasins rode back and reported the size and position of the Sioux encampment, and said the hostiles were not running away, as had been thought. On receiving this report Custer hurried the command down the valley and halted at the junction of the two forks on a fair-sized flat, now, as it probably was then, a prairie-dog village. At this point White Man Runs Him designated to the author the site where the troops were halted and the spot where Custer stood. This was where Custer and Reno separated. Reno advanced down the valley at its left margin. He had with him as scouts White Swan and Paints Half His Face Yellow, both Crows, and several Arikara. The distance from the point of separation as travelled by Reno to where he began his fight is, by the United States Geological Survey map, three and one-half miles. With Custer were the Crow scouts, White Man Runs Him, Hairy Moccasins, Goes Ahead, and Curly, and Mitch Boyer as interpreter and scout. Custer's command bore off to the right down a sharp bank, across a narrow flat, then across a small cut of a dry creek and out on a rising plain, Custer with his staff and scouts in the lead and their horses at a gallop. The course was gradually up and out of the valley of Reno creek. Off to the left Reno's command was in full sight, moving down the valley almost within hailing distance. As Custer's command emerged from the valley it passed, for two or three minutes, from the sight of Reno's men, then came up close to the crest of the hill overlooking the valley. Just before reaching this crest - the distance is about a quarter of a mile - the command was halted and the scouts were sent ahead. They appeared at the top of the hill, riding along silhouetted against 1 This creek is sometimes referred to as Sun-dance creek and as Benteen creek, and is known to the Indians as Thick Ash creek.

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Custer's Crow scouts [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 47 the sky, and signaling Custer to follow; he and his staff went at once to the summit. This is Point 2 on the map, and is where Custer was seen to wave a salutation to Reno's command. To quote Lieutenant-Colonel Bowen, U. S. A.: 1 "Some of Reno's men had seen a party of Custer's command, including Custer himself, on the bluffs about the time the Indians began to develop in Reno's front. This party was heard to cheer, and seen to wave their hats as if to give encouragement, and then they disappeared behind the hills." This statement by Reno's men verifies the scouts' story and proves that Custer's route paralleled the river rather than went far back from it, as some have stated and as his line of march is traced on many published maps. When Custer reached this outlook, probably one-half or three-fourths of the Indian encampment was in plain view. Reno had already forded the river and was riding down the valley toward the Sioux camp. The distance from the point of separation to where Custer now stood on the outlook is one mile, and to where Reno was seen across the Little Bighorn beginning his march down the valley, it was the same distance. From these points either or both commanders could have ridden into the Sioux camp in less than ten minutes. Custer stopped here, as the Indians expressed it, "only as a big bird alights and then flies on." The ground in general is a sharp ridge sloping abruptly toward the river on the one hand and gently on the other, this easy slope ending in a draw, which from here to the point where the attack on Custer began parallels the river. The peculiar topography enabled Custer and his staff to keep close to the crest where they could have a full view of the valley, while at the same time the troops were entirely ignorant of what was in the valley on the other side of the ridge. Within one minute from Custer's starting from this first point of vantage he passed over the ground on which Reno's disordered force was later to make its stand. This spot is now strewn with the bleached bones of troop-horses and pack-mules. Hugging the ridge for a time, Custer passed behind a hill and 1 Brady, Northwestern Fights and Fighters, pages 347-348.

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48 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN out in full view of the valley again. This last point is one of the highest in the region and gave a perfect view of the entire Indian encampment and the ground on which Reno made his attack. It is Point 3 on the map, and is a mile and a quarter from the scene of Reno's fight in the valley. The nature of the intervening ground is such that cavalry could have covered it at a lope. The distance from here to the point of separation is two and one-half miles. Custer's route thence practically paralleled the valley for a distance, then turned to the left down a dry creek, by the Indians called Medicine Tail Coulee. Here he rode out close to the river, and probably planned to ford at this point and attack the Sioux. But the Indians had now discovered him and were gathered closely on the opposite side, and if the plan had been to cross, it was given up without an effort, even without going quite to the stream. It has been said that this was not a good ford - that the river had cut banks and quicksand. On the contrary, there is no better fording place in the river. The ground slopes down without a bank of any sort, and the opposite side is likewise favorable to passage, although a little higher, and there is no sign of a treacherous bottom. From here Custer turned slightly, led his command back up the valley a short distance, then swung to the left, and with Boyer and some of his staff dismounted and went out on a fairly high point overlooking the whole encampment. This is Point 4 on the map. The configuration of the land is, as at the other stopping place, such that the troops now dismounted were back of him, and in part, at least, out of sight of the Indians. At this time some Indians were crossing the river here and there, and others were stealthily creeping up in Custer's front. When Custer had reached this point, Reno's fight in the valley had closed, and his men, with those of Benteen, were together on the bluffs, so that the entire Sioux force was free to attack Custer. Lieutenant-Colonel Bowen says: "While waiting for the ammunition pack-mules, Major Reno concluded to make an effort to recover and bury the body of Lieutenant Hodgson. At the same time he loaded up a few men with canteens to get water for the command; they were to accompany the 1 Brady, Northwestern Fights and Fighters, page 347.

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White Man Runs Him [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 49 rescuing party. The effort was futile; the party was ordered back after being fired upon by some Indians who doubtless were scalping the dead near the foot of the bluffs. At this time there were a large number of horsemen, Indians, in the valley - at least one thousand, says Benteen. Suddenly they all started down the valley, and in a few minutes scarcely one was to be seen." According to the testimony of almost innumerable Sioux participants, this rush of warriors down the valley commenced when they had sighted Custer's command, and this was the beginning of their attack on him. Custer personally, while sitting there, shot at Indians who were reckless enough to come within range. Boyer sat at Custer's side and the Crow scouts were behind with the troops.1 Boyer called White Man Runs Him, who came up to them on his hands and knees, when Boyer said to him, "You have done what you have agreed to do - brought us to the Sioux camp; now go back to the pack-train and live." The scouts then mounted and rode away, and as they came in sight of the attacking Sioux, many shots were fired at them, but they were soon out of range. They say they did not ride hard very long, but as soon as well out of range proceeded more slowly and watched the fight. Theirs was only a distant view, hence they could give no details of the encounter. Custer mounted at the time the scouts left him and began his retreat, and it was at this point that seven bodies were found by the burying squad. None of these men had empty cartridges, which clearly indicates that they were killed in the first attack, before there had been any considerable firing by the troops. Custer made no attack, the whole movement being a retreat. 1Curly had deserted Custer more than an hour before the attack, the place of the desertion being close to Point 2, where he joined some of Reno's deserting Arikara scouts, who had stolen Sioux horses in the valley previous to the beginning of the fight there and were running away. As these fleeing scouts passed Custer's command on the hill, Curly joined them and made his escape. As there has been so much discussion relative to Curly's part in the affair, it seems necessary to present some of the evidence bearing particularly on the action of this scout. The three Crow scouts, White Man Runs Him, Goes Ahead, and Hairy Moccasins, stated positively that Curly ran away at the time and in the manner mentioned, and, without leading questions, the Arikara scouts verified their assertions. John Burkman, Custer's hostler, also supported the statements of the Crows, having personally seen Curly with the escaping Arikara; while Curly himself, when sharply questioned, admitted that he was never anywhere near the actual fight. The only knowledge he has of the affair was gained from a distant outlook. VOL. III-4

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50 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Whether he thought only of withdrawing far enough back from the river to find a favorable position to make a stand, or had undertaken a long retreat to the mountains, cannot be told. The Sioux thought he was trying to reach the distant hills, and headed him off, forcing the retreat in a line more or less paralleling the river. A careful study of the ground convinces one that within miles there was no more favorable ground for a stand than that occupied by Custer's troops when the Sioux made the attack. To the west was the circling cut-bank protecting a third of his line; to the east his position commanded all the immediate points; there were no hills near enough to form a satisfactory commanding position for the Indians, and he was within fifty yards of water. On June 27, two days after Custer's defeat, Terry arrived with Gibbon's men, forming a junction with Reno's force. They buried Custer's two hundred dead, gathered up Reno's wounded, and withdrew to the mouth of the Bighorn. The wounded were sent to Fort Abraham Lincoln, and Terry applied for reinforcements. Large additional forces were hurried to the front, but no considerable body of the Indians could be found; they were apparently satisfied for the time with their bloody victory, and had scattered, many going back to their reservations. The soldiers now adopted the policy of disarming and dismounting all the Indians at the agencies. Colonel Miles, in pursuit of the fleeing Sioux north of the Yellowstone, had two parleys with Sitting Bull, Gall, and others. No understanding being reached, the chase was resumed. Five of the chiefs surrendered and were held as hostages, but Sitting Bull and Gall with their immediate bands escaped into Canada. After the Custer battle Congress as well as the military authorities awakened to the seriousness of conditions among the Lakota. On August 15, i876, an act was passed for the appointment of a new commission, and on August 24 the personnel was made up as follows: George W. Manypenny, Henry C. Bullis, Newton Edmunds, Bishop Henry B. Whipple, A. G. Boone, A. S. Gaylord, General H. H. Sibley, and Dr. J. W. Daniels. They prepared a treaty in advance, the main object of which was to secure the cession of the Black Hills. Many concessions and advantages were promised,

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Custer monument [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 5I and an effort was to be made to move the Lakota into Indian Territory. In violation of the Laramie treaty of 1868 no effort was made to obtain the consent of three-fourths of the adult males; but instead, the treaty was first presented to the friendly Spotted Tail and his leaders, and then to the headmen of the other bands separately. By the end of October all the Lakota except the irreconcilable bands of Gall and Sitting Bull had signed. The Indian Territory project was abandoned, and after discussing other localities without result the bands settled down to a prosaic existence on the reservations where their survivors are still living. When Sitting Bull and Gall fled to Canada, Crazy Horse remained with his followers in the Bighorn mountains. During the winter General Crook learned that he probably was ready to surrender, and sent Spotted Tail, uncle of Crazy Horse, to bring him into camp. The emissary returned from the hills with nineteen hundred and seventeen Indians, and on May 6, 1877, Crazy Horse came in and surrendered with eight hundred and eighty-nine people and two thousand ponies. For this successful winter errand Spotted Tail was recognized by the authorities as head-chief of all the Lakota and was accorded other honors. Crazy Horse remained at Fort Robinson under military surveillance, but became uneasy in the summer. Resisting arrest, he was bayoneted by a sentry and died, September 5, I877. Early in I88I Gall, crossing the border into the United States with most of the Lakota that had fled into Canada, was speedily confronted by General Miles, and after a stubborn resistance he surrendered. He was taken to Fort Buford, and later to the Standing Rock agency, where he lived peaceably until his death, December 5, I894. In I88I Sitting Bull surrendered at Fort Buford. After serving two years as a prisoner of war at Fort Randall, he too was taken 1 Article I2 of the Laramie treaty of 1868 reads: "No treaty for the cession of any portion or part of the reservation herein described which may be held in common shall be of any validity or force as against the said Indians, unless executed and signed by at least three-fourths of all the adult male Indians, occupying or interested in the same; and no cession by the tribe shall be understood or construed in such manner as to deprive, without his consent, any individual member of the tribe of his rights to any tract of land selected by him, as provided in article 6 of this treaty."

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52 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN to Standing Rock agency. It was in the year of Sitting Bull's surrender that Spotted Tail was murdered by Crow Dog, a Brule sub-chief, as the result of a feud involving jealousy and politics. The capitulation of Sitting Bull and his Hunkpapa marked the completion of the labor of reducing the Lakota to a life of peace. There remains to be mentioned one last unfortunate disturbance. News of a Messiah cult, which originated among the Paiute at Walker Lake, Nevada, at the time of the total eclipse of the sun on January I, I889, reached the Lakota by the summer of that year. A delegation sent to Nevada to investigate the new religion brought back in the following spring an enthusiastic report: a new order of things was prophesied, by which the white men would be swept from the country, life would be restored to the bodies of slain Indians, and the lost buffalo brought back, once more to blacken the prairies with their teeming herds. A new kind of ceremony, the Ghost Dance, was to produce the resurrection of their dead relatives and of the buffalo, while sweat-baths, prayers, sacrifices, and the wearing of a distinguishing form of shirt would protect the dancers from every harm. It was indeed a luring promise, and Red Cloud, with the others, was carried away by it. The Ghost Dance spread rapidly, until every band of the Teton Sioux was asmoulder with the excitement of the craze. The flames actually burst forth at two points: on the Pine Ridge reservation, the home of Red Cloud and his Ogalala, and at Standing Rock, where the medicine-man, Sitting Bull, that implacable foe of encroaching civilization, thought he saw a day of hope dawning upon his people. The agents at Standing Rock and Rosebud were well equipped by experience and character to face the crisis, but unfortunately the case was far different at Pine Ridge, where the Government's representative, the successor of the efficient Dr. McGillycuddy, became alarmed and called for military assistance. Later other local agents reported that as a result of the new religion the Indians were beyond their control-all except Agent McLaughlin at Standing Rock, who still insisted that he and his Indian police could cope with the situation.

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White Man Runs Him [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 53 In November the War Department was called upon to prevent an outbreak, and under orders from General Miles General John R. Brooke was despatched from Fort Robinson to Pine Ridge. His forces were rapidly increased until three thousand troops had been assembled in the Sioux country, and General Miles himself established headquarters at Rapid City, South Dakota. At the first appearance of the soldiers, Short Bull, a Brule, who had been one of the tribal delegates to the Paiute Messiah but was now living among the Ogalala and declaring himself to be the true Messiah, fled with his immediate adherents to the Bad Lands. It was decided to arrest the leading chiefs implicated, and W. F. Cody (Buffalo Bill), an old friend of Sitting Bull, was deputed to capture that chief. Agent McLaughlin protested that such action would precipitate a conflict, and he promised to bring in the chief with his agency policemen. During this attempt, on December I5, I890, occurred a clash in which the forty-three Indian policemen held their ground against one hundred and fifty warriors. There were casualties on both sides in this skirmish, and among the slain was Sitting Bull. After Sitting Bull the most dangerous leader in the north was Hump, whose band of four hundred, with an equal number under Big Foot, were dancing on the flat at the confluence of Cherry creek with Cheyenne river. For seven years Hump and his band had been charges of Captain E. P. Ewers, who at this crisis was summoned from Texas and sent to Hump's camp. His success was such that Hump was completely won from the hostiles to active and efficient service with the military. Captain Ewers, Lieutenant H. C. Hale, and others, manifested splendid courage during these disturbances by going alone into the Indian camps and effecting peace without force. Big Foot's band was now the chief menace in the north. After several parleys they agreed to follow the orders of the military and the agent, but at the last moment they changed their minds and made a dash for the Bad Lands. In the meantime successful negotiations had been conducted with the hostiles already in the latter region: Two Strike had come in, and even Short Bull and Kicking

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54 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Bear had yielded and were within five miles of Pine Ridge agency, when an unlooked-for catastrophe occurred at Wounded Knee. When Big Foot's band fleeing to the Bad Lands was overtaken by Major Whitside's command on December 28, I890, the chief asked for a parley, but, refused in this, he surrendered on demand. Captives and troops moved to Wounded Knee creek, twenty miles northeast of Pine Ridge, and General Brooke sent additional forces under Colonel Forsyth, who now assumed command of the total force of four hundred and seventy men as against one hundred and six captive warriors. The next morning the troops began to disarm the captives, but the task proved a slow and tedious one. While it was in progress Yellow Bird, a medicine-man, was encouraging the warriors to resist, blowing on his eagle-bone whistle to incite them to action, and when the troops began to search for arms under the blankets of the braves, Yellow Bird suddenly threw a handful of dust into the air. At the signal Black Fox fired at the soldiers, who at once responded with a deadly volley, and before the slaughter was ended three hundred Indians, men, women, and children, were dead. The bodies of women and children were found two miles from the scene of the first assault, indicating that revenge had impelled some of the troopers beyond all reason. The unfortunate occurrence was followed by a terrible snow-storm, but three days later a detachment was sent out to rescue the wounded, if any survived, and to bury the dead. Strange to say, a number of women and children were found still alive, in spite of the fury of the three days' blizzard that had raged about their unsheltered bodies. A long trench was dug, and in it were piled the frozen corpses. The thirty-one soldiers that had fallen had already been buried at Pine Ridge. In the summer of I907 the outline of that huge grave of the Sioux could still be traced in the grass at Wounded Knee. The Indians had placed about it a neat fence, and had reared a monument on which may be read the names of forty-three of the victims and this inscription: "This monument is erected by surviving relatives and other Ogalala and Cheyenne River Sioux Indians in memory of the Chief

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Red Cloud's granddaughter [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 55 Big Foot Massacre, Dec. 29, I890. Col. Forsyth in command of U. S. Troops. Big Foot was a great chief of the Sioux Indians. He often said, 'I will stand in peace till my last day comes.' He did many good and brave deeds for the white man and the red man. Many innocent women and children who knew no wrong died here. "The erecting of this monument is largely due to the financial assistance of Joseph Horncloud, whose father was killed here." Compared with the quiet yet brave and efficient action of the Indian policemen in overcoming Sitting Bull, to the future historian if not to our own generation the so-called Battle of Wounded Knee will appear to have been little less than a massacre. The four thousand Indians at Pine Ridge, who had prepared to follow the path of peace, fled in anger at the news from Wounded Knee. It looked as though a war had now begun in earnest, but the soldiers were numerous and alert. General Miles knew personally all the leading chiefs and had their confidence. He promised to have army officers appointed as agents and to use his full power at Washington to have the wrongs of the Indians adjusted. It was midwinter, the Ghost Dance craze was subsiding, and by January I6, I891, the Indians had all surrendered and the last Sioux disturbance was at an end. Religion
According to tradition and the legendary lore of the Teton Sioux, the self-termed Lakota, their teachings - religious, social, ceremonial, and medicinal-are divine laws revealed by Pte-san-winyan, White Buffalo Woman, acting as emissary of the Great Mystery. As indicated by their mythology they were, before the coming of this divine messenger, a people with slight knowledge of how to live or to worship. The palladium left with them by White Buffalo Woman was the sacred Calf Pipe, now in the keeping of Elk Head, a member of the Sans Arc band living on the Cheyenne River reservation. Elk Head's version of the myth agrees with the versions obtained from other sources. He has been the keeper of the pipe for thirty-one years, having received it the year following the Custer fight in 1876; and

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56 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN he names six other keepers, beginning with Tataika-naihi", Standing Buffalo, who is said to have received it directly from White Buffalo Woman. The next keeper was the brother of Standing Buffalo, Pehin_-ha, Red Hair. The pipe then descended to Hehaka-pa, Elk Head, who was succeeded by his brother, Mat6-makpa, Bear's Ear. Then followed in order Wi-hi nanpa, Rising Sun; He-hehiiloghe6ha, Hollow Horn; and the present guardian, Hehaka-pa, Elk Head. If Elk Head is correct in his statement of the number of pipekeepers, the myth is of comparatively recent origin. What seems to be a proper rendering of High Hawk's winter-count places the date three hundred and sixty-eight years ago, which would require each of Elk Head's predecessors to have been the guardian of the pipe for fifty-six years. There may have been keepers of whom Elk Head has no knowledge; but it is more likely that the winter-count is in error, due to the attempt of the annalist to record events that occurred in the misty past. To the Lakota the pipe is the holy of holies.1 During the tribal journeying a virgin, carefully guarded by the priest, bore it in advance of the band, and but one instance of the opening of the bundle during Elk Head's priesthood is known. That was when it was taken from him by the Indian police at the command of the resident agent and opened by that official, but the people made such an outcry against the sacrilege that the pipe was quickly restored to its keeper. Myth of the White Buffalo Woman
Many generations ago, when the Lakota still dwelt beside the lake far away in the east, they experienced a winter of terrible severity. The snow lay deep on the ground, and the streams were frozen to their very beds. Every day could be heard the sharp crack of trees as the frost gnawed at their hearts; and at night the piles of skins and the blazing fires in the tipis scarcely sufficed to keep the blood coursing through the veins. Game seemed to have deserted 1 See the Escape of Among The Willows, in Volume IV.

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Elk Head and the sacred pipe bundle [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 57 the country, for though the hunters often faced the hardships of the winter chase, they returned empty-handed, and the wail of hungry women and children joined with the moan of the forest. When finally a tardy spring arrived, it was decided to leave a country so exposed to the anger of Waziya, Spirit of the North, and seek a better homeland in the direction of the sunset, where ruled the Wing Flappers, who existed from the beginning. There was little enough to pack besides tipis and fur robes, and what few dogs had not been eaten were soon harnessed to the laden travaux. Two young men were sent in advance. No pair could have been more different in their nature than these two, for while one was brave, chivalrous, unselfish, and kind, the other's heart was bad, and he thought only of the sensuous and vicious. Unencumbered as they were, the scouts were soon far ahead of the wearily dragging line of haggard men, women bent under burdens that dogs should have been drawing, straggling children, and a few gaunt dogs tugging at the overladen travaux. Late in the day the scouts succeeded in shooting a deer, and thinking their people would reach that point for the night's camp, they left it where it had fallen and were turning away to seek other game when one of them felt a sudden impulse to look back. Wonderful sight! There in a mist that rose above a little hill appeared the outline of a woman. As they gazed in astonishment, the cloud slowly lifted, and the young men saw that she was a maiden fair and beautiful. Her only dress was a short skirt, wristlets, and anklets, all of sage. In the crook of her left arm she carried a bundle wrapped closely in a red buffalo-skin; on her back was a quiver, and in her left hand she held a bunch of herbs. Straightway the young man whose heart was evil was overpowered by a desire to possess the beautiful woman, but his companion endeavored to dissuade him with the caution that she might be waka" and a messenger from the Great Mystery. "No, no!" he cried vehemently, "she is not holy, but a woman, human like ourselves, and I will have her!" Without waiting he ran toward the woman, who forthwith warned him that she was a sacred being. When he persisted and went closer, she commanded him sternly to stop, for his heart was evil and he

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58 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN was unworthy to come near to the holy things she bore. As he still advanced, she retreated, laid her burden on the ground, and then came toward him. Suddenly it appeared to the waiting youth that the mist descended and enveloped the mysterious woman and his companion. Then followed a fearful sound of rattling and hissing as of thousands of angered rattlesnakes. The terrified observer was about to flee from the dreadful place when the cloud lifted as suddenly as it had descended, disclosing the bleached bones of his former comrade, and the beautiful virgin standing calmly beside them. She spoke to him gently, bidding him have no fear, for he was chosen to be priest of his nation. "I have many things to impart to your people," she said. "Go now to the place where they are encamped, and bid them prepare for my coming. Build a great circle of green boughs, leaving an opening at the east. In the centre erect a council tipi, and over the ground inside spread sage thickly. In the morning I shall come." Filled with awe, the young man hastened back and delivered to his people the message of the holy woman. Under his direction her commands were reverently obeyed, for were they not a message from the Great Mystery? In the morning, gathered within the circle of green boughs, they waited in great expectancy, looking for the messenger of the Mystery to enter through the opening left at the east. Suddenly, obeying a common impulse, they turned and looked in the opposite direction, and behold! she stood before them. Entering the tipi with a number of just and upright men selected by the youth whom she had chosen to receive the sacred rites, she at once spread open the red buffalo-skin, exposing its contents - tobacco, the feather of a spotted eagle, the skin of a red-headed woodpecker, a roll of buffalo-hair, a few braids of sweet-grass, and, chief of all, a red stone pipe with the carved image of a buffalo calf surmounting its wooden stem. At the same time she explained that the Great Mystery had sent her to reveal to them his laws, and teach them how to worship, that they might become a great and powerful people. During the four days she remained with them in the tipi she instructed them in the customs they were to observe-how the

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The camp [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 59 man who would have great waka" power should go into the high places and fast for many days, when he would see visions and obtain strength from the Mysteries; how to punish him of evil heart who sinned against the rights of his brother; how to instruct girls at maturity, and to care for the sick. She taught them also how to worship the Great Mystery by selecting, in the summer of each year, a virgin who should go into the forest and cut down a straight tree; this was to be dragged in and erected for the Sun Dance, but before the ceremony all the virgins should come up and touch the pole, thus proclaiming their purity. But a false declaration would be challenged by the young man who was able to testify to the transgression and she should be driven from the place in derision. A young man wishing success in war or love should paint a rock and make a vow that in the coming dance he would offer himself to the Mystery; then whenever he saw this rock he would be reminded of his vow. Then she taught them carefully the five great ceremonies they were to observe: Hukka'-lowa pi, WYiwanyank-wahlipi, Ha"bele-theapi, Tatiaka-lowanpi, and WYanaghi-yuha - the Foster-parent Chant, the Sun Dance, the Vision Cry, the Buffalo Chant, and the Ghost Keeper. The sacred pipe she gave into the keeping of the chosen young man, with the admonition that its wrapping should be removed only in cases of direst tribal necessity. From the quiver on her back she took six bows and six arrows, and distributed them among as many young men, renowned for their bravery, hospitality, and truthfulness. These weapons she bade them take, after her departure, to the summit of a certain hill, where they would find a herd of six hundred buffalo, all of which they were to kill. In the midst of the herd would be found six men. These also they were to kill, then cut off their ears and attach them to the stem of the sacred pipe. Her last words were these: "So long as you believe in this pipe and worship the Mystery as I have taught you, so long will you prosper; you will have food in plenty; you will increase and be powerful as a nation. But when you, as a people, cease to reverence the pipe, then will you cease to be a nation."

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60 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN With these words she left the tipi and went to the opening at the eastern side of the camp-circle. Suddenly she disappeared, and the people, crowding forward to see what had become of her, beheld only a white buffalo cow trotting over the prairie. The Sioux, like other Indians, are exceedingly devout in their gropings after deity. They may not be able to explain to alien thinkers their subconscious strength, but their faith is such that almost every action of their lives is formulated by their creed and divine promptings. In their belief the sun, the earth, the moon, the stars, and the more important perceptible forces of nature are personified and deified, and called waka", mysterious. The sun is addressed as To"nkahila, Grandfather, and the moon as O"Ali, Grandmother. In the west is the Nation of the Thunder, the Wing Flappers, who first existed, while from the north comes Waziya, Spirit of the Cold. In extending the pipe in supplication the four cardinal points, the zenith, and the nadir are invariably observed, beginning at the west, but beyond this supplication of the various deities there is the invocation in word and thought of the power that controls all, Wakan-ta ka, the Great Mystery. The translation of Wakaf-ta ka as "Great Mystery" most nearly approximates the true Indian thought, while as rendered for missionary purposes into "Great Spirit" it is misleading, presupposing the Lakota to be monotheists, which is far beyond any concept in the minds of the oldest men. Certain men who have been won over to the precepts of the Christian religion translate waka" as "spirit," and, attempting to reconcile the primitive with the Christian religion, assert that their people originally believed in a single god. These, however, will quickly break down when confronted with the teachings of their own people. To the Lakota all things passing the understanding are waka". When supplicating Wakaf-ta ka, the Indian conceives the Mystery as possessing and being all things that transcend his comprehension. After invoking successively each deity in his belief, he comprehends all in the prayer, "Great Mystery!" and in the cry he has included all the forces of the universe, from that represented by the personal fetish on his body to the undefined consciousness of the infinite.

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Daughter of American Horse [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 6i Not only the heavenly bodies, but cold, heat, snow, rain, frost, a tree struck by lightning -all these, as well as the tipi used for ceremonies and all the consecrated paraphernalia, are waka". The ceremonial pipe is waka", likewise the tobacco-pouch that accompanies it. The spot where the ceremony is held is holy ground, waka". The horse, which came first as a strange, huge beast, they call mysterious dog, shznka-waka"; and the gun, which they could not understand, became maza-wakd", mysterious iron. Wakinya", Thunder, is a nation of enormous birds, the flash of whose eyes is seen in the lightning; of whom, in one of the Hunkalowa"pi prayers, it is said, "Ye are half chiefs, half soldiers." Long ago, runs a Lakota tale, a returning party of hunters saw on a bare plain a great white bird, or something in that form. Around it a fog was rising, in the midst of which flashes of lightning were playing. No one dared to approach, but the next day several of the party started back to see what the creature was. Again they found it enveloped in cloud and lightning, and in great fear retreated; but the next day they approached once more. The creature was gone, and where it had lain was now a broad, burned space, from which ran zigzag furrows in four directions. Then they knew that they had seen a Thunderbird. The medicine practices of the Lakota are inseparable from their religious rites. Disease is evil, brought on by some malign influence, and naturally the treatment is in no case by pharmacy alone. In fact, such medicinal plants as are used are those revealed to the individuals during their fastings, and are therefore waka". The word "medicine" is continually employed by those writing and speaking of the Indians. This common usage has caused it to appear in modern dictionaries, and, as misleading as the word is, it seems impossible altogether to avoid its use. For this reason it is essential to define its meaning. As used in connection with the Sioux and other plains tribes the word does not in a true sense imply medicinal properties, but rather spiritual strength. In his Origin and Growth of Religion Max Muller discusses Mana, a Melanesian name for the Infinite, quoting Mr. R. H. Codrington, a missionary with the Melanesians:

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62 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN "'The religion of the Melanesians consists, as far as belief goes, in the persuasion that there is a supernatural power about, belonging to the region of the unseen; and, as far as practice goes, in the use of means of getting this power turned to their own benefit. There is a belief in a force altogether distinct from physical power, which acts in all kinds of ways for good and evil, and which it is of the greatest advantage to possess or control. This is Mana. The word is common, I believe, to the whole Pacific, and people have tried very hard to describe what it is in different regions. I think I know what our people mean by it, and that meaning seems to me to cover all that I hear about it elsewhere. It is a power or influence, not physical, and, in a way, supernatural; but it shows itself in physical force, or in any kind of power or excellence which a man possesses. This Mana is not fixed in anything, and can be conveyed in almost anything; but spirits, whether disembodied souls or supernatural beings, have it, and can impart it; and it essentially belongs to personal beings to originate it, though it may act through the medium of water, or a stone, or a bone. All Melanesian religion, in fact, consists in getting this Mana for one's self, or getting it used for one's benefit."' Substituting "medicine" for Mana in the above citation, we have a very satisfactory definition of the term. A medicine-man is called wicfhfha-waka", man of mystery. His power is derived from spirits that appear in visions, which he may have in his own tipi as he sleeps at night, or out upon a hilltop whither he has gone for the express purpose of becoming a medicineman, or in the observance of Hanbe-le-heapi, the Vision Cry. In his vision a spirit comes to him, sometimes in human form, and commands him to look in certain directions where he will behold wowaAh'ake, power; and there in each place he sees a man standing. As he gazes they vanish, and in their places are certain plants, which he now knows are, for him, medicine. This pez^uta, grass-roots, he will use as medicinal remedies, but never are they considered as other than a part of his waka" strength. When the dreamer or faster turns about after beholding these powers, he finds that his visitor has vanished, so far as human form goes, and is walking away

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Ogalala child [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 63 in the shape of some animal - a buffalo, perhaps, or an elk, or a bear. From the animal he receives certain prayers and songs, which will always remain the same in different ceremonies. The songs and prayers of two medicine-men taught by the same animal vary somewhat, though all bear resemblance to one another. The same man may fast many times, have many visions, and be taught by different spirits; and in addition to his medicine acquired by fasting and supplication he can have transferred to him the medicinepower of others. The medicine ceremony of the Lakota is called wapiya, to which is added the name of the animal that taught it, as Mato-wapiya, Bear Medicine Ceremony; Tatiak-wapiya, Buffalo Medicine Ceremony. To illustrate the general custom: A young man has had a vision in which the Bear gave him his medicine. In order to make a public announcement of the fact, he first erects a waka"-tipi and calls into it a number of young men, who help him array himself in a bear-skin with the head and claws still attached. Then he comes forth, and word is passed through the village that the bear-man is coming. Men, women, and children scramble hurriedly out of his path, for if he catches one of them he treats him much as a genuine bear would, hugging him and sinking his claws into the flesh of his captive. His young men accompany him, representing bears, though they are not necessarily dressed in skins, and always in advance of the party goes the crier announcing the approach of the bear-man. Henceforth he is known to the tribe as a Medicine-man of the Bear, and he possesses the most efficacious medicine for the treatment of wounds. In treating a patient he first seizes the man by the hair and shakes him, at the same time growling like a bear; then he strikes himself on the sides of his body and spits out several Juneberries, which he picks up and puts in the wounded man's mouth. In his own mouth he places a pinch of the mixture contained in his medicine-pouch and blows it into the mouth of the patient. Then some of it is sprinkled on the man's eyes, rubbed on his temples, and held under his nose for him to inhale. If no improvement is shown, he proceeds no further, for there is no use: the man is bound to die. If, on the other hand, the patient seems to yield to the treat

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64 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN ment, the medicine-man continues it by making incense of sweetgrass and purifying in it his w6piye, a long rawhide cylinder, three or four inches in diameter, from which he then takes his medicine and puts it into a bowl of water. Next he repeats his own individual prayer, which is addressed to the bear and for the greater part is merely a description of the appearance of the animal that came to him in his vision, ending with a request that he "make his deed powerful." Then he gazes into the bowl, and from the fantastic shapes of living creatures that the mixture, to his imagination, assumes, he predicts recovery. Three or four assistants, men whom he has previously treated for illness, now beat the drum and sing the Bear songs. The medicine-man, while they sing, approaches the patient, simulating the actions of a bear, lifts him and almost throws him down, tumbling him over and over, just as a bear might do. The mixture is then administered, a portion being first blown upon the wound. This treatment is repeated once or twice daily during the four days. Medicine-men of other animals confine their incantations to one day, following much the same course of procedure, each impersonating the animal from which his power is derived. There is no ceremonial gathering of herbs, the plants revealed in the vision being collected immediately after the public announcement of the fact that one is a medicine-man, and thenceforth as occasion requires. In treating disease the medicine-man locates the seat of the ailment by mixing his medicine in a bowl and obtaining the desired inspiration from some peculiarity of the shape it assumes. The affected spot he then sucks, and spits forth either blood or some sticky substance, ostensibly pus. Strong light is thrown upon the method of acquiring medicinepower by a description of HanbeleW-Ceapi, the Vision Cry, one of the ceremonies taught by White Buffalo Woman, as previously mentioned. It shows clearly that the men are not mere idle tricksters, as is generally supposed, but rather, within the limits of the primitive mind, thinkers, understanding well the great mental and spiritual power to be gained by subduing the physical man and by concentration of thought.

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Big Road's twin daughters - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 65 The Vision Cry
The father of a child seriously ill may beseech its recovery by a vow to worship the Great Mystery in fasting and prayer. First, filling his ceremonial pipe, he takes the child out under the open sky at break of day, holds it in his arms, and reverently raises the pipe aloft to the west, praying, "Great Mystery, All-powerful, permit this child of mine to recover health, and when the summer comes I will worship you with many offerings." The Vision Cry may also be observed by one desirous simply of a revelation and the gift of mystery-powers. As soon as possible the intending faster collects the materials for the promised offerings: a red-painted buffalorobe, a calf-skin, tobacco, and kinnikinnick; all of which, wrapped in a bundle, he suspends from the tipi-lifter, where they remain until the time comes to redeem the vow. Near the end of June he summons to his tipi, through the herald, the prominent men of the village. In silence the pipe is filled and passed about the circle. Soon the host apprises the company of his unredeemed pledge to the Mystery, and inquires if they know of a man who understands this rite. "Yes," is their response; "we know of one who is a priest of this Hanbele'-heapi." At once he fills a pipe, bears it to the tipi of the priest, and silently extends it to him. Without a word it is accepted, lighted, and offered successively to the spirits of the Four Winds, the Sky Father, and the Earth Mother. Having smoked with deliberation, the priest speaks: "I understand what you wish. This is my rite. I stood alone a day and a night, worshipping the Great Mystery, but it was hard. Do you wish this one day? If you do, tell me. Then I stood two days and two nights alone on a hill. That was yet harder. Do you want that? If you do, tell me. Again I stood three days and three nights, 1 In this and in other ceremonies herein described the reader is taken back to a period when more primitive conditions existed, when the religious rites were performed in their aboriginal purity. With the gradual civilization of the tribes much of the old life has passed away, so that their ceremonies are now in most cases little more than a memory. The Foster-parent Chant is occasionally still observed, but the Vision Cry, the Sun Dance, and the rites of the Ghost Keeper have not been performed within very recent years. VOL. III- 5

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66 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN crying to the Mystery, and it was very hard. Do you want that? If you do, tell me. Then I stood four days and four nights upon a hilltop, praying and crying to the spirits of Sky and Earth, to /Yaka"-ta"ka, Great Mysterious One. I drank no water and ate no food. That was the hardest of all. Do you want that? If you do, tell me." "My heart is strong; my father's heart was strong. I have promised the Great Mystery to worship him. I will fast four days and four nights," is the response. "It is very hard, but the Mystery will aid you. Go now to your tipi; choose two good young men and request them to build a sweatlodge for you early in the morning." The selection of the two Ini-wowahAi, Sweat Workers, and the bestowal of presents upon them, end the day's preparations. At sunrise the sweat-lodge is erected, facing the east. In the centre is a small pit to hold the heated stones, and behind this the ground is strewn with sage. Ten paces from the entrance the turf is removed from a spot designed to receive the fire and is heaped up just east of the cleared space. Firewood and twenty-five smooth round stones are gathered, and the latter, painted red by the faster, are thrown into the leaping flames. The priest enters the sweatlodge, and, sitting in the place of honor at the rear, lays before him the bundle containing red robe, calf-skin, tobacco, and kinnikinnick. These articles he unwraps, while the faster enters and sits down at his left. He next commands the Sweat Workers to procure four young cherry stocks, in length seven or eight feet, untrimmed and not cut with axe or knife, but twisted and broken from the roots. Two buffalo-chips are laid side by side back of the stone-pit, and behind them a glowing ember, carefully borne on the prong of a fire-stick, is deposited by one of the young men. With the neveromitted motions of raising the hand to the four world-quarters, the sky, and the earth, the priest makes sacred smoke by dropping a bit of sweet-grass upon the coal, and passes the tobacco through the incense four times, to make it sacred. Having thoroughly mixed tobacco and kinnikinnick, he sanctifies the pipe by rubbing his hand downward on each of its four sides, before each movement placing the

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In the mountains [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 67 hand on the earth as if to draw its essence from it. Then with ceremonious deliberation he fills the pipe, seals it with buffalo-tallow, ties a stalk of sage about each extremity of the stem, and hands it to the faster, who places it, bowl to the westward, on the heap of turf outside. The priest is now to prepare wao'yapi, offerings to the Great Mystery. The principal wa6oyapi consists of a quantity of tobacco tied into a corner of the red robe, which is attached to a branch of one of the cherry poles. For the others fifty smaller portions of tobacco tied up in pieces of calf-skin are fastened to the twigs of the other three boughs. All four are then deposited in a row to the east of the pile of turf, the principal offering being farthest removed. Beyond this is placed a buffalo-robe, previously purified in sacred smoke. During the portion of the ceremony thus far performed Wakan-kadghapi (make sacred) - no one save the two young men is permitted to approach the sweat-lodge, which is waka". Priest and faster now step outside and remove their clothing, while one of the Sweat Workers calls for worthy men to come and take part in the sweat. Those who respond disrobe to the loincloth and follow the two principal actors into the sudatory. None may touch the faster, for he is holy. When all are seated, the priest chants a song and speaks: "This is my rite. This young man has given me many presents and asked for Hanbele-heapi. I have worshipped the Great Mystery many times, and I now ask Thunder for a blue day. The Mystery has created many animals, some of which are like men. This young man will see them." Continuing, he instructs the faster: "This sweat removes from your body all evil, all touch of woman, and makes you waka", that the spirit of the Great Mystery may come close to you and strengthen you. When our sweat is over, you will take pipe and buffalo-robe and go to some high mountain where the air is pure. On your return you must be careful to speak the truth in telling us of your visions, for should you deceive us, we might work you great harm in trying to aid you in interpreting the revelations sent by the Mystery."

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68 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The stones, glowing white with heat, are placed in the pit. The priest offers to the Great Mystery a small piece of dog flesh and another of dried buffalo-meat taken from a bowl of each brought by the faster's relatives, and after marking with charcoal two stripes across the inner surface of a wooden cup, he fills it with water and gives both meat and cup to the faster. The attendants close the entrance, the priest chants another song, and, bidding the faster cry, dashes water twice on the stones. After a time air is admitted; then follows another song, and more water is thrown on the stones. Twice more this is repeated, and the faster, never ceasing to cry aloud, comes forth, puts on his moccasins, takes the pipe in his left and the robe in his right hand, and starts out on his sacred journey. Behind him follow the two Ini-wowaAhi bearing the offerings. At the foot of some lonely hill miles away from human habitation the faster halts, still crying aloud to the Great Mystery and holding the pipe before him in supplication. The two attendants pass by him and proceed to the summit, where they plant the four wa6nyapi at the corners of a square of some six or eight feet, the chief offering being, of course, to the west. Within this space they spread a thick covering of sage, for this is sacred ground and must not be touched by the feet of the suppliant. The faster is now left alone in the presence of the Mysterious. Reverently he removes moccasins and loin-cloth, throws the robe about his shoulders, and stands with uplifted face in the centre of the sacred square, extending the pipe to the sun. At noon he turns and prays to the Mystery of the South; at sunset to Thunder, the Wing Flapper, Spirit of the West. As darkness spreads over valley, plain, and hilltop, he lies prone, with face still turned to the west, calling upon the Thunder Mystery to grant him a vision. In aweinspiring solitude and the darkness of midnight he prays to Waziya, who sends the biting north wind and blinding snow, and who also controls in some mysterious way the movement of the buffalo. The first glimmer of dawn beholds him in the attitude of humble supplication before the deity that holds sway in the east. As the rim of the sun appears above the horizon he stands erect, clasping the shaggy buffalo-robe to his breast and offering the pipe to the orb,

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Fasting [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 69 while with loud cries he expresses to the mysterious powers of the universe his heart's desires. Having become waka', mysterious, supernatural, by reason of the ceremonial sweat, the faster is now able to understand the speech of supernatural beings, and of animals and birds. At some time during his vigil on the hilltop one of these creatures - bird or beast, tree, rock, natural phenomenon, ghost of ancestor - appears before him, either in its own proper body or in the form of a man, and after commending his strength of heart in having endured the pangs of hunger and thirst and the temptation of evil spirits to leave the sacred spot in fright, the spirit-being reveals to him information of the future, and then, pointing out some shrub or plant, says: "There is medicine; take it, and cure your people of illness." Thus every man who has seen such a vision becomes, to a certain degree, a medicine-man; whether he uses his divinely given rites and remedies so extensively as to be known generally as a dispeller of disease, wias'hsa-waka", man of mystery, depends upon his own initiative. He has the medicine; it is for him to use it, much or little. The mysterious creature itself becomes the suppliant's tutelary spirit, his so-called "fighting medicine," to aid him in battle and in every crisis of life. Its image is painted upon his shield, his tipi, his gala robe, and before entering upon any undertaking of importance he beseeches its favor and guidance in prayer and song. But not to every one that endures the pangs of the four days' fast is it given to behold a vision. While to some may be unfolded many events of the future in the course of a single fast, there are many well-known instances of a man having sought more than once in vain for a revelation of the supernatural. The truth of the vision seen is never questioned; it may be wrongly interpreted, but always subsequent events will prove that the spirit-creature was not at fault. It follows naturally that a man never feigns to have seen a vision, for such a course could result only in misleading the people and thus bringing misfortune when the sages give their interpretation. The first day of the fast is the prototype of those that follow. If in the end the seeker after divine favor is still denied his prayer, he no longer stands with face confidently uplifted to the mysterious

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70 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN powers, but sinks to the ground, bowing his head upon his knees in utter dejection, and praying, aloud or in silence, to the Spirits of the West, the North, the East, the South, the Sky, and the Earth. His eyes are downcast, averted from the face of the Great Mystery in the sky until his appeal is granted and the revelation given, or until he has relinquished all hope, knowing that in some way he has offended the divine ones and that the power of the supernatural, for the present at least, is denied him. When the proper time has elapsed, the two attendants return to the hill, mounted, and leading a horse for the faster, who, weak and emaciated from hunger, thirst, and lack of sleep, is lifted bodily to the animal's back and supported as the horse is led slowly homeward. The trio halt in front of the sweat-lodge, into which the priest and a helper bear the faster, still clasping his pipe. The old men, anxious to hear the story of his visions, quickly disrobe and enter. The faster can now detect a disagreeable human odor, for he is holy, and human flesh, however clean, has for him a peculiar smell. The priest takes the pipe from his hands, removes the tallow, and, looking into the bowl, says: "There is nothing in it. What have you done that the pipe is empty?" "I do not know," answers the faster. "The Mysteries," solemnly announces the priest, "have smoked this pipe. Tell us, my friend, truthfully all that you have seen." The vision, if one has been experienced, is then described, and, unless its significance is obvious, is interpreted by the priest and the sages. A cup of water and a piece of meat, both having first been purified by exposure to the incense of sweet-grass and offered to the Mysteries by the priest, are given to the faster, and the sweat now takes place as on the first morning. On the distant hilltop remain standing the four withered boughs bearing the robe and the little bags of sacred tobacco, offerings to the mysterious, the infinite, the incomprehensible powers of sky and earth.

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Slow Bull's tipi [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 7I Ceremonies
The Foster-parent Chant
The name of the Hunka6-lowanpi ceremony is derived from hu"ka, a term of respect for one's parents or ancestors, and lowa"pi, they chant. As the Singer becomes the grandfather of the initiate, child or adult, a proper translation of the name seems to be Foster-parent Chant. The principal purpose of Hu"nk-lowanpi is to implant in the initiate the virtues of kindness, generosity, hospitality, truthfulness, fairness, honesty. At the same time it is a prayer for continued prosperity - for abundance of food, for health, strength, and moral well-being as a people. Hunka-lowanpi is usually observed for a child who has been near to death, whose recovery is regarded as the result of the father's solemn promise to worship the Mystery by means of these rites. Having made such a vow, he begins to bend every effort to the accumulation of property-horses, skins, clothing, deerskin bags and parfleches, and many varieties of food. A sufficient quantity collected, he goes to the Huika-lowankta, the Hunka Singer, and after the usual formal smoke announces his intention, requesting him to take charge of the ceremony. The Singer, accepting, provides the necessary sacred articles mentioned throughout the description of the rites, and on the day before the ceremony is to occur - it may be months after the intention was proclaimed - he calls to his tipi a certain man, to whom he offers the ceremonial pipe. After the smoke the man is informed that he has been selected as 6Yowashi-efhukta, the Work-do, or Worker, which means that he will appear as the principal active participant in the rite. The Singer arrays him in new clothing, and the two sit in the rear of the tipi with the ceremonial paraphernalia tied into a bundle at the Singer's left. Work-do now appoints the Fire-carrier, giving him the two fire-sticks —peeled cherry rods about eighteen inches long, split at one end to form a prong- and with his knife shaves the grass from a small circular spot. The Firecarrier, at his bidding, brings a burning coal on the end of one of

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72 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN his forked sticks, which he deposits with the end inside the circular spot, exercising the greatest care; for to drop the coal would portend the death of himself or one of his family. With his pipe-stick Work-do gently brushes the coal into the sacred plot, breaks the tip from a braid of sweet-grass, and extends it successively to the west, north, east, south, zenith, and nadir. He advances his hand toward the burning coal with four short movements, and near the circle extends the sweet-grass again to the four quarters and the zenith, finally dropping it upon the coal. This is the prescribed manner of making incense. As he raises the sweet-grass to the cardinal points the first time, Work-do commences to repeat this prayer:1 "Great Mystery, you have existed from the first; This sky and this earth you created. Wing Flapper, you have existed from the first; Your nation is half soldiers and half chiefs, so they say. Lend me a good day; I borrow it. Me, the Indian race, you have uplifted. But now I am in despair; Yet this good boy will renew the life of his people. So, Great Mystery, look upon me; pity me, That the nation may live - Before the face of the North, the nation may live." The closing words are spoken as the sweet-grass falls upon the coal. As the incense begins to rise, Work-do places his open hands upon the ground, one on each side of the cleared space, then holds them in the smoke and rubs them over his entire body from the head downward, purifying himself. Next the bundle and the knife are passed through the incense for their purification, and Work-do ceremoniously cuts up tobacco leaves and kinnikinnick. Placing a dried buffalo-bladder upon a roll of buffalo-hair, he calls for a new coal, sanctifies a pinch of the tobacco mixture in the new-made incense, and from the westward drops it into the bladder. A small portion is dropped in from the direction of each of the other three winds, then the remainder of the mixture is poured in. 1 For the Lakota text of the Hu"kda-lowa"pi prayers, see pages 151-I52.

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A prairie camp [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 73 A piece of blue paint is now placed in a wooden bowl and moistened with spittle; then, using a roll of buffalo-hair as a brush, Work-do paints stripes down the four sides of the bladder, and circles about the opening and at the bottom. The neck is drawn together with a thong, which includes also a roll of buffalo-hair and a braid of sweet-grass, and the bladder tobacco-pouch is enfolded in a new calf-skin furnished by the Singer, the bundle being tied at the ends and provided with a pack-string. Beside it the Singer lays a small stick, token of a gift to be made to the initiate, and Work-do ties it to the bladder bundle. At this juncture the Fire-carrier enters with the food prepared by the Singer's women, serving Work-do first, then the others, all of whom should properly be Hunka, though there may be present old men of high standing who have never been initiated. Before food is touched Work-do chants, Hunka oyasi", "Hunka all"; and they answer assent, "H6!" The feast disposed of, Work-do appoints a man to bear the pack to the initiate's tipi, and, expressing his thanks, - for the task will be requited with a gift, - the one selected swings the roll to his back and sets forth, followed by Work-do, Fire-carrier, and some others, but not the Singer. As the procession halts outside, either parent of the initiate appears and carries the pack into the tipi, where it is deposited on a new robe stretched out in the place of honor at the rear. The visitors sit down, Work-do beside the robe, with the initiate at his right. The necessary space having been previously prepared, he calls for an ember, and in sweet-grass incense purifies his hands and the bundle, which the initiate then unties, the parents at this point announcing a gift to some needy person. Work do touches both cheeks with the bladder, which now represents a child, and hands it to the initiate, who does likewise and passes it along the circle, whence it finally returns to Work-do and is replaced on the new robe. The Fire-carrier fills a wooden bowl with food and sets it before Work-do, who places a morsel in a horn spoon, purifies it with incense, and lays the spoon on a braid of sweet-grass beside the bladder. At this point he prays thus, addressing the bladder:

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74 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Wherever a man goes, he remembers his relations, And wherever he goes he quiets the child. He enters and kisses the child on the mouth, so they say. Now, this day, new-born, though your face is invisible, you lie there. Having this family as your own, you lie there; Having this tipi-lifter as your own, you lie there; Having these four poles as your own, you lie there; Having the two sun-holes for your own, you lie there; Now, with no shaking of the tipi-poles, to-morrow you will reveal your face to the camp. This food you will partake of first; Afterward all we who are Hunka, assembled, will eat of the food. This food I will eat, and before the face of the North the nation will live. Pity me." Work-do then gives the holy food to the initiate and asks how many eagle-feathers are to be prepared; for in addition to the one for whom primarily the ceremony is performed there may be other initiates, for each of whom a feather must be made ready. However, the one whose recovery from illness was besought of the Great Mystery is chief of the initiates. Finally Work-do ties the bladder containing the tobacco mixture to the tipi-lifter, and the consecrated food is distributed. Following this, the procession returns to the Singer's tipi, stopping four times while the pack-bearer calls like a coyote: "Hu-u-u-u-u," an intimation of good news for the Singer. Work-do informs the Singer how many feathers are needed, and asks a number of men to remain and assist in their preparation. The others file out. To the quill end of each eagle down-feather are attached three or four hairs from a horsetail, dyed red, and some of the feathers of the loon. The Fire-carrier brings in four trimmed cherry sticks about thirty inches long, from two of which pieces about six inches in length are cut and tied on at an angle, so as to form a crotch. Another is sharpened at both extremities, one of which is inserted into the end of a perfect ear of corn. Work-do then paints the ear blue, just as the bladder was painted, and with the same ritualistic motions. The four sticks are painted blue. From two trimmed cherry sticks about a yard in length are prepared two wands called

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Huka-Lowapi, Fire carrier bringing skull [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 75 Hunka-Chaan6npa, Hunka pipes. One is stained red, and at intervals extending somewhat more than halfway down are tied four red horsetails, with a red feather of the woodpecker at the same places. Below these are attached four, five, or six eagle-feathers in the fashion of a war-bonnet, while over the lower end is stretched the neck-skin of a mallard drake, the head projecting. The other wand differs only in that blue-black paint and spotted eagle-feathers are used. These Hunka pipes are said to represent the wings of Thunder, suggested in the first prayer by the epithet Wing Flapper, while the Mysteries residing in the other three world-quarters are symbolized by the feathers of the three birds. The Fire-carrier is sent for a whitened buffalo-skull with the horns still attached, and a quantity of sage, both of which are brought and left a short distance from the tipi. This ends the preparations for the actual ceremony. The next morning, when the sun has travelled about halfway to the zenith, Work-do fills a ceremonial pipe, elaborately ornamented with horsehair and feathers, and seals the bowl with buffalo-tallow to prevent the tobacco from falling out. The man who on the preceding day bore the bladder pouch to the initiate's tipi now carries the pipe to the same place, the stem held in both hands and pointing to the front. Followed by the others he enters, circles to the left, and lays the pipe beside the incense altar, behind which sits Work-do, with the Hunka Chief on his right and those entitled to be present ranged in two large semicircles extending to both sides of the entrance. Now the Singer enters, passes to the left, and sits down at Work-do's left, and the Fire-carrier brings a coal. After making incense in the prescribed manner, Work-do holds the pipebowl to the ember, first on one side, then on the other, repeating both motions, and each time puffing at the mouth-piece as if lighting the pipe. He then passes it through the sweet-smelling incense and lights it with a piece of sweet-grass, having first removed the tallow and laid it on a piece of skin. The pipe is handed, stem first, to the Hunka Chief, who puffs four times and starts it about the circle. When it returns to Work-do he loosens the ash, pours it upon the skin beside the tallow, wraps up both, and ties the

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76 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN roll to the bladder pouch, which still swings from the tipi-lifter. Leaving the pipe with the Hunka Chief, Work-do and his party return to the Singer's tipi. Outside the women are preparing a feast, while at a short distance some of the female relations of the Hunka Chief are erecting the ceremonial tipi. Its flaps are opened to their full height and extended outward in parallel lines some thirty feet by the use of other tipi-coverings. To this wakai-tipi the wife of the Singer bears a quantity of skins, clothing, tobacco-pouches, and parfleches, arranging the skins in the rear as if for a luxurious bed, and hanging a robe as a curtain inside the tipi-wall and at each end of the couch another supported by a tripod. Then comes the mother of the Hunka Chief, removes the gifts, and leaves in their place a similar collection. There is thus an exchange of presents between the Singer and the Hunka Chief. Work-do and the Fire-carrier enter the wakad-tipi, the former taking position immediately in front of the couch, the latter by the entrance. The Fire-carrier is commanded to bring "those things," that is, an axe and a knife wrapped in one or more buffalo-skins in the possession of the Hunka Chief. First presenting the wrappings to the Fire-carrier, Work-do shaves the grass from the incensealtar, calls for an ember, and makes incense. With the usual motions he purifies the axe, then rises and extends it toward the west, repeating the prayer: "No other creature may be mentioned save you, Wing Flapper, who first existed. This boy will renew the life of his people; So lend me one of your good days, That this day the nation may live. This axe I swing toward the earth for you. Let there be no adversity, that the nation may live." Then four times he swings the axe downward as if to smite the ground, the fourth time actually striking it gently at the southwest corner of a square, which is to serve as an altar-space; and moving the blade sidewise he scratches the loosened earth to the centre. With similar movements he strikes the other corners and the

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Huka-Lowapi, "Work-do removes the covering" [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 77 centre, and utters the following prayers in order, addressing the Mystery-creatures that hold sway over the several world-quarters: To the North: "This day no other creature may be mentioned beside you, Spotted Eagle, most powerful. Lend me this day one of your good days. This boy will renew the life of his people. One of your plumes I borrow; Lend me one of your good days. May the nation live, and may there be no adversity. Before the face of the North, let the nation live." To the East: "Sunrise, no other creature may be mentioned. Red-headed Woodpecker, your day is good, they say; Lend me, this day, one of your plumes. This boy will renew the life of his people. Lend me a good day. Let there be no adversity, that the nation may live." To the South: "South, no other creature may be mentioned. Green-head,' your day is good, they say. Lend me this day a good day. Your plume I borrow; With it lend me a good day. This boy will renew the life of his people. Let him have a good day. May there be no adversity, that the nation may live." To the Zenith: "No one else may be mentioned. Great Mystery, you were the first to exist. This earth you created and placed here; Above it you have raised the Indian race. Now I am in despair; I pray that the race may grow strong in numbers; I pray that there may be no adversity. 1 The Mallard.

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78 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Great Mystery, you are mighty; pity me, that the nation may live. Lend me a day. This boy will renew the life of his people. So, Great Mystery, help me, help me with a good day." With a shell knife Work-do shaves the grass towards the centre, working successively from each of the four cardinal points, and finally brushes it to the east, outside of the square. At his bidding the Fire-carrier brings from the Singer's tipi and lays beside Work-do a bundle containing the four cherry sticks, the ear of corn, the eagle-feathers, the two Hunka pipes, and the red and blue paint - all to be used in preparing the altar. The bundle is passed through the sacred smoke. Returning to the Singer's tipi the Fire-carrier receives another skin, which he fills with sage and brings to the waka"-tipi. Spreading it between himself and the altar-space, Work-do calls for the buffalo-skull, which the Firecarrier brings, wrapped in a buffalo-skin given him by the Singer, and lays tenderly on the sage. Work-do as cautiously removes the covering. He now thoroughly works a bit of red paint into a piece of buffalo-tallow, and purifies, first this mixture, then a roll of buffalohair and a braid of sweet-grass. The hair and the sweet-grass he extends to the buffalo-skull, and after offering them to the spirits of the four quarters feigns to mark a line across its face from left temple to right, just above the orbits. After brushing the hair and grass downward over the face of the skull as if washing it, he offers the reddened tallow to the four spirits and paints a line across the forehead of the skull, with others down the right cheek, nose, and left cheek, and a few stripes on the horns. Back of the skull he plants the two forked sticks, lays the third wand across them, and leans the two Hunka pipes from the ground immediately in front of him to the cross-stick. Beneath it are laid two buffalo-skin rattles. The fourth stick with the ear of corn impaled on its tip and the eagle-feathers, one for each initiate, attached lower down, is implanted to the left of the two forked sticks and in a line with them. The altar is now complete. The Fire-carrier enters with the drum, and as the drummers

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Huka-Lowapi, Painting the skull [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 79 gather about it, Work-do announces, "Now is the time to go for the Hunka." Selecting any one of the men present, he bids him, "Come, carry this ear of corn." Two others are appointed to bear the Hunka pipes and the rattles, the pipe in the left and the rattle in the right hand. The procession sets out for the Hunka Chief's tipi, the Corn-bearer leading, the Pipe-bearers swinging pipes and rattles, the drummers beating their drum and singing over and over again: Tuktel Hu"kake tipi so? "Where is the tipi of the Hunkas?" AModerato. > > > > DRUM. 1 See Note on the Indian Music, pages 142-143. ^mii_^ p p f ^ jjrzj 0 ^ ^^A ^ o- if =^! 's1 _ __=i.b >^-.__- a > > 1S > i N"=1 1#- o,,~- -- -,W or - - c WE, _ eSdw-2-r ILX>1 | 1 t112=';i-,fi-8,^{ _ I ---l =_.x — ~.. J * -~ -~ | 1 See Note on the Indian Music, pages 42-43.

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8o THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN > ~ ^..... i4 -.. Aj 1~~~~~~! 96 9 Meanwhile the initiates have been arrayed in their finest garments, and now sit in a row at the rear of the tipi, with the entrance closed. Halting outside, the Corn-bearer recites his war record, then enters, and takes the hand of the Hunka Chief, who rises at once, and together they encircle the fire four times, once for each of the Four Winds. As they step outside other men appointed previously by the parents of the initiates enter one by one to lead out their charges. The party now returns to the waka"-tipi, the Corn-bearer leading the Hunka Chief and followed in order by the other initiates, the Pipe-bearers, and drummers, with a throng of onlookers straggling behind. Again the drummers chant, Tuktle Hu"kake tipi so? Four times the Corn-bearer halts and voices the good-news signal, "Hu-u-u-u-u " Entering the waki"-tipi they march about the circle four times, and the initiates sit in a row, the Hunka Chief at their left behind Work-do. At the left of the Chief sits the Singer. Pipe-bearer and Corn-bearer deposit their sacred implements in their proper places at the altar. The initiates are now to be ceremonially painted and costumed; and as this part of the initiation may be witnessed only by Hunkas, two men hold a large buffalo-skin over the entrance, but for the entertainment of the spectators the Pipe-bearers and drummers pass

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Huka-Lowapi, The altar complete [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX SI into the extended wing, where the former dance to the sound of the drum and the following air: Moderato. DRUM. > > [ >_ > >> > > > A~ rrk Icf Orr-r - j 4 > > > >> > > hair and a piece of red paint. With ceremonious motions he paints the Hunka Chief with a stripe down the forehead to the tip of his nose, and a crescent across the forehead from the left to the right temple. Each initiate is painted the same way. Following Work-do comes the Singer's wife, who removes the outer clothing of each and replaces it with new garments. Work-do removes the eagle-feathers from the corn-stick, and after purifying them and making the sacred motions, he touches them to the top of the Hunka Chiefs head, gives him one VOL. III - 6

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82 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN of the feathers, and passes on. This is regarded as a blessing of the initiates by Work-do. The Singer's wife ties each initiate's feather to the hair on the right side of the head. Then the robe is lowered and the Hunka Chief receives the cornstick from Work-do, holding it with the end resting on the ground. "Now it is ready," announces Work-do, whereupon the Pipebearers step to the front of the buffalo-skull and face the west, waving their pipes rhythmically, while the drummers sing four times: WIiyohpeyata le Huka', echa Ie Hunka. "West is Hunka, indeed Hunka." Then while the pipes are swung successively toward the north, east, south, sky, and earth, and finally over the buffalo-skull, these songs are repeated four times each: Waziyata leg Hunka, echa lIe Hunka. "North is Hunka, indeed Hunka." WYiyohityanpata le Hunka, ech-a le Hunka. " East is Hunka, indeed Hunka." Itokaghata Ie Hunka, echa Ie Htuka. "South is Hunka, indeed Hunka." Wo"nkatuki le Hiuka, echa Wonkatuki " Above is Hunka, indeed Above Ie Hnuka. is Hunka." Le Hunka, echa Makaki Ie Hunka. "Earth is Hunka, indeed Hunka." Le Hunka, echa Hunkaki le Hunka. "Hunkas 1 are Hunka, indeed Hunka." Allegro. > > > > DRUM. ____ > > > > > > > > > > > > R r --- —-.o te bfalo Referring to the buffalo symbolized by the skull.

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Singing deeds of valor [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 83 As the drumming begins afresh the Pipe-bearers dance to the rear of the tipi, one on each side, swinging the Hunka pipes over the initiates, then back to their station by the entrance. This movement is repeated four times to the accompaniment of the following airs: >^, accel. Allegro.> > a tempo. accel. a tempo. F-~1 accel. ^ 2 ^^ a temfo. nt. tempo.F Aj N >s,, >> > > > > > DRUM. > > '> > > > >. >~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~L _ tl** ~ ~ >,~,>:> > > > > E ~~ —~ - ~~ ~,' —[~-L~t-L

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84 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN ^^B^Fa^ r I I: r r> tf > > > _ __ _ > > > > > > > > i.-r,.,.... When the pipes have been replaced, the Fire-carrier brings in successively two wooden bowls, one containing dried buffalo-meat, the other fresh water. Work-do cuts off a morsel of meat for each initiate and for the Singer, purifies them in the sacred smoke, and replaces them in the bowl. It is about this time that the mother or initiate, into the outer passage-way, and the Singer's wife drives them away, an addition to her husband's herd. Work-do dips a stem of purified sage into the bowl of water, approaching it from the west, and with ceremonious motions drops a globule of water on the nose of the skull, repeating the act from each of the remaining three

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Crow Dog - Brule [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 85 sides of the bowl. Then he hands it to the Hunka Chief, who turns to the Singer, saying, "Father, you are to drink this water, and you are to do no wrong; so long as you live we are to be relatives." After drinking a portion of the water the Singer takes the bowl and thus addresses the Hunka Chief: "My son, you are to drink this water, and you are to do no wrong; you are to be my son so long as we live." The Chief then drinks, and passes the bowl along to his companions, each of whom takes a sip, the bowl passing from the last one into the crowd of onlookers, and returning empty to be replaced beside the skull. Work-do holds a piece of meat to the nose of the buffalo-skull, and prays: "Ho, Greatest of Hunkas, you first will put food into your mouth; Afterward, Greatest of Hunkas, we will put food to our mouths. May there be no evil result to our bodies; That we may live, facing the North; that the nation may live." Depositing the food on the ground in front of the skull, he takes the previously sanctified morsels to the Hunka Chief, and holding a single piece in his right hand speaks as follows: "Grandson, put this food into your mouth, and may no evil result to your body. I am a poor man, but having the right to perform this ceremony among the nation, I live. So, grandson, I tell you of it. Whenever an orphan child comes into your tipi, whatever you are eating, take it from your mouth and give it to him. Grandson, when an old man or an old woman comes into your tipi, hasten, take food and feed him. I myself, grandson, I do that. Days are of two kinds; both will be good for you, grandson." After delivering this admonition, Work-do places a piece of meat in the mouth of each initiate, gives a larger piece to the Hunka Chief and another to the Singer, each of whom repeats the formula used when he received the bowl of water. Work-do then takes the cornstick from the Hunka Chief and plants it in its proper position at the altar.

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86 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN By this time the relatives of the Hunka Chief have completed preparations for the feast. The Fire-carrier brings into the tipi three large wooden bowls, one of dog-meat, another of buffalo-meat, the third of some sort of berry-soup, and setting them down at the right of the buffalo-skull he invites all who have been Hunka Chief to enter and partake. This is called Hu"kdki-.hJihopi, Hunkas Assemble; and as those invited enter one by one, the parents of each make a gift to the poor. Work-do places a filled bowl before each person present, serving the initiates first; while outside the wife of the Singer moves about in the assemblage, leaving a vessel of food and a pile of clothing in each group. Work-do purifies a braid of sweet-grass and a roll of buffalohair, and rubs the hair over the red stripes on the skull, as if washing them off, and with the Hunka pipes, the cross-stick, corn-stick, and rattles, all together in his left hand, he brushes downward over them on each of the four sides, symbolically removing the sacred paint. In a similar manner he cleanses the faces of the initiates and ties their feathers again to the corn-stick, which, after removing the ear of corn, he presents, together with the Hunka pipes, cross-stick, and rattles, to the Hunka Chief, whom he addresses thus: "My grandson, you are to have these things. Whenever on any day you feel lonely or in despair, remember these things, and make a feast, my grandson, that you may eat food with the Hunka Chiefs; and take your Hunka child,' fill a pipe, and smoke with your friends. If you do this, grandson, you will become strong and happy, and the wind will not shake the feet of your four tipi-poles. This day has been given to us by old men: this ceremony has been transmitted by old people to the young, and we have come thus far with it. Grandson, it is true, what the old men say. I am an old man now, but I cherish the advice that was given me by the old men, and I have had a long, happy life. Do the same, and you too will live long and happily. My grandson, I have delivered to you the old men's advice. In the future the people will live and grow to great numbers. So I tell you." The bladder containing the tobacco mixture, which still hangs in the tipi of the Hunka Chief.

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Slow Bull's wife [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 87 By this time the feasting is at an end, and Work-do calls out, Metakuye Hu"kac oyasi"! "Relatives, Hunkas all!" which all present repeat in unison. This is the prescribed formula in an assemblage of members of the order. The Hunka Chief now raises the buffalo-skull on its carpet of sage and places it on the ground a short distance back of his own tipi. The other initiates then file out, the parents of the Chief bearing away the skins and clothing given by the Singer. Thus ends the ceremony. The Hunka Chief takes to his tipi the sacred implements that have been given to him. The ear of corn and the eagle-feathers he wraps up with the bladder tobacco-pouch in a calf-skin, laying the bundle carefully away in a quill-worked deerskin bag. The Hunka pipes, the cross-stick, forked sticks, and rattles, he ties in a sheaf which he suspends from one of the wooden pins that hold the tipicover together. When a storm threatens, the mysteries that control the winds must be propitiated; he therefore brings forth the bladder tobacco-pouch, fills the ceremonial pipe, and bids the herald summon the other Hunka Chiefs. The pipe is offered to the Spirits of the Four Winds, the Sky, and the Earth, is lighted and again offered to these mysteries, and then passed around the circle. Sun Dance
In one form or another the Sun rite was practically universal among the tribes of the Great Plains. The Sioux in all their numerous branches; their cousins, the Assiniboin, Mandan, Hidatsa, and Apsaroke or Crows in the north, the Omaha, Ponca, Kansa, and Osage in the south; the Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Blackfeet; the Arikara, Pawnee, and Wichita; the Ute, Shoshoni, and Kiowaall did reverence and made supplication to the mysterious power that comes with the morn and disappears with the dying day. Naturally, among such widely separated groups, extending as they did from the Mississippi to the Rockies and from our northern border well-nigh to the Gulf of Mexico, the Sun rite differed not only in the details of its performance, but even in the thought that underlay

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88 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN it.' Yet so striking were the similarities in practice and purpose, that, while speculation as to the origin of these rites is futile, one cannot escape the conviction that they all flow from a common source. This most characteristic of the religious ceremonies of the Sioux2 was an occasion of thanksgiving, of propitiation, of supplication for divine power. Participation in the dance was entirely voluntary, a mental vow to worship the Mystery in this manner being expressed by a man ardently desiring the recovery of a sick relative; or surrounded by an enemy with escape apparently impossible; or, it might be, dying of hunger, with helpless children crying for food that he could not supply, since some inscrutable power had swept all game from forest and prairie. Others joined in the ceremony in the hope and firm belief that the Mystery, worshipped with such zeal and with such manifestation of valor would grant them successes against the enemy and consequent eminence at home; while always there was present the idea, perhaps subconscious, that the supernatural, even though a beneficent being, must be propitiated against future anger. The silent vow of the worshipper, though as binding upon him as any oath, must be supplemented by a public declaration to the Great Mystery himself. At the earliest flush of dawn he rises and fills his ceremonial pipe, and slowly proceeds to the tipi of the village herald. "My friend," he says, "I bring you this pipe. I desire you to announce to the Great Mystery that I wish to worship him." The two smoke in silence, and the votary returns to his own tipi, followed shortly by the other. The herald fills the pipe, steps outside, and with stem extended upward to the west calls long and loud, "Ha"had"n'"f"!" Four times thus he strives to gain the ear of the Mystery, and then invokes him: " Great Mystery, Grandfather, look this way! Wing Flapper, Soldier, Grandfather, behold me! This young man will offer you a pipe, 1Even within the tribe the method of procedure varied considerably, the difference affecting, for example, such important features as the length of the period of fasting and self-torture, and the sequence of the component parts of the ceremony. This was due partly to local and temporary exigencies, but largely also to the vagaries or preferences of the medicine-men in charge. 2 Wiwdayatk-wa(hipi, They Dance Looking at the Sun.

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After the snow [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 89 That before you he may grow and be strong. Spirit-creatures of the Four Winds, to you will he extend a pipe; A red robe will he raise and bring to you. This day let the nation live." A smoke ends the announcement. In the interval between this and the day of the ceremony many others may express the same intention; but the man who first made known his vow is the Chief Dancer. From now on until the summer solstice, when the dance takes place, the life of the votary is dedicated to the purification of body and mind. He is frequently in the sweat-lodge and drinks quantities of various herb decoctions. He is careful to avoid contact with any unclean person or thing. Fighting is not for him, and calm deliberation characterizes all his acts. Much of his time is spent in prayer and in crying aloud to the Mystery. When the season of the Sun ceremony is at hand, it becomes necessary for the votary to select a medicine-man to preside over the rites. Clad in new moccasins, leggings, and loin-cloth, a thick-haired buffalo-skin thrown over his shoulders, he mounts his horse and, accompanied by a friend similarly garbed and mounted, proceeds, stern-faced and silent, his pipe filled and sealed held ever before him, to the home of the Priest. The horses are not permitted to go faster than at a slow walk, even though the chosen mysteryman live in a village so distant that the entire day is consumed in the journey. During all this time the worshipper must not dismount, and not a drop of water moistens his lips; for this is a part of his sacrifice. News of his coming has already been conveyed to the medicineman, who waits in his tipi with his herald. As the Sun Dancer enters and lays his pipe in front of the Priest, the herald calls out the usual formula, Iyun hahekupo! "All come home!" a summons to those entitled to sit in council. When the assembly is complete, the medicine-man purifies the pipe in the sacred incense of sweet-grass, and prays, holding forth the stem to the west: " O Great Mystery, Grandfather, you will be the first to smoke this pipe. Wing Flappers, you in turn will smoke.

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90 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN This day may the nation live. A blue day you will hold before my face." Then, beginning at the entrance, he holds the pipe for each one present to smoke, and after an intricate series of ceremonious motions returns it to the suppliant, bidding him remain until morning, when his journey of announcement and invitation to the other villages will begin. Morning dawns, and the mystery-man fills and seals the pipe and places red paint before the guest, who rubs it on his palms and smears his face and body. "Now, on your way," says the medicineman, "when you grow thirsty, dismount and drink, for this paint has purified you and made you waka". Therefore you may drink, but not from a vessel; on hands and knees you must drink from the stream." The Sun Dancer and his attendant resume their journey with the sacred pipe, and, coming into the next village, enter the tipi of the chief, who forthwith summons his old men. A medicine-man sits down beside the chief, and with the words, "It is already prepared," makes offering of his pipe to the Mysteries of the Four Winds, the Sky, and the Earth, then carries it about the impassive circle. "What did the Priest say to you?" the chief inquires. "He said they would move to the ground four days thence," answers the Dancer. "Then we will all move at that time," is the response. Food and water are placed before them by the chief's wife, and soon the messengers set forth to the other villages. Two days before the time set for the ceremony to begin the camp of the Chief Dancer moves to the spot selected, where the young men immediately plant green branches two or three yards apart to form a circle perhaps a mile in diameter and open to the east. During this day and the next the bands gather and pitch their tipis in a single large concentric circle outside that of the green boughs. Inside the latter each village erects a tipi for the use of such of its members as are to participate in the rites. Thick branches are piled close around the bottom of the tipi-wall, to prevent the

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No Flesh - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 91 entrance of cool, refreshing air, and in the evening a fire is kept burning. Having once entered their tipi of preparation, the dancers cannot leave it until the actual dancing begins three days later; nor may they scratch the head or body with the fingers, each being provided with a forked stick made for that purpose by one of his relatives. Each dancers' tipi has its attendant, who at sunset on the last day of camp preparation makes ready the sweat-lodge. After a final purification of the body the dancers enter their respective tipis. A part of this night and of the two succeeding nights is devoted to the Imitation Dance, a rehearsal of the Sun Dance songs. The dancers sit in a circle around the edge of the tipi, the remainder of the space being filled with men of such prominence as to entitle them to participate. A great vessel of cooked dog-meat and buffalo-tongues is supplied by the women, but before food is touched, the songs of the Sun Dance are repeated to the accompaniment of the drums. Only the drummers and four women who sit behind them sing, the dancers retaining their places on the ground, but blowing constantly on their eagle wing-bone whistles. The fire is extinguished before the singing begins, and is relighted at the conclusion of the last song. The next day is the first of the ceremony, and the scouts who are to search for the Mystery Tree are selected. In the early morning the heralds ride about the camp-circle, the hodhoka, bidding all men assemble in a chosen spot. There the chiefs select four men, who, dressed in full war regalia, seek out certain noted warriors, men of distinction, their chief a warrior who, while scouting, found the enemy, killed his man, and brought back a scalp with the news. These scouts, six or eight in number, dress and paint as for war, and prepare to search for a tree already marked out by the Chief Dancer's attendant, who, soon after the assembling of the bands, went into the woods and selected a tall, straight cottonwood from eight to twelve inches thick, leaning two poles against it as an indication that it had been chosen for the Mystery Tree. Drums beating and drummers singing, the scouts form in single file and ride four times around the ho6hoka, then away toward the timber, accompanied for

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92 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN a distance by a legion of horsemen dashing around and around them. From the camp comes the song of the drummers, "He has gone again, he has gone again," meaning that the leader of the expedition is once more scouting in the enemy's country. The scouts disappear, and in the direction taken by them, some two hundred yards fr6m the camp, the young warriors set up a bundle of branches to represent the enemy. After a while the absent party reappears, and about half a mile distant halts, while the leader utters the coyote cry; then, single-file, all ride toward the camp in a zigzag line, a signal that they have found the enemy. With one impulse the restless steeds of the impatiently waiting young men leap toward the returning party, sweeping around them four times in a great seething circle. Then back wheels the whole tumultuous horde, thundering down upon the "enemy." War-bonnets stream; weapons are brandished aloft; horses strain eagerly forward. Loud and shrill the war-cry fills the air. For the moment the most ardent wish of every horseman is to reach the goal first, and no risk of reckless riding is too great to be taken in the effort, for he who is first to strike the bundle of boughs with bow or staff and utter the exultant shout, "Ahe! " feels himself assured of achieving an honor of the highest class in his next battle. Meanwhile the scouts have ridden into camp and dismounted. The chief gives their leader a pipe, and says: "Man, you are acquainted with all the creeks. You have been up and down all of them. If you have seen the movement of a coyote, tell me." The leader answers figuratively: "I have seen a small village of the enemy moving toward us, and on the way back there were many buffalo." The scouts disband. In the afternoon the chiefs assemble in the ho'hoka, and the Priest and the Chief Dancer bring two ceremonial pipes, already filled, and present them to the two medicine-men. The one thus chosen by the Priest is to dig a hole for the Mystery Tree, while the other presides at its felling. Each smokes and passes the pipe to the others, signifying his willingness to perform the service requested of him.

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The parley [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 93 Some time during the morning of the second day the medicineman selected by the Chief Dancer fills his ceremonial pipe and sets out for the chosen tree, four chiefs abreast behind him, and a throng of people following them. He sits at the foot of the Mystery Tree and holds his pipe out to it before making a similar offering to the Four Winds, the Sky, and the Earth. He smokes alone. The four chiefs sit in a row at a distance of about fifty yards, and between them and the tree no one may pass. They are now joined by the medicine-man, and two of them summon from the assemblage four warriors of distinction, whom they station in a row beside the tree. Next a virgin is selected and placed beside them. First passing an axe through the smoke of sweet-grass, the medicine-man gives it to one of the warriors, who relates his greatest exploits and strikes one blow at the tree. The other three follow his example, and the girl completes the work. The fall of the tree is greeted with a concerted shout, and the young men rush upon it as if attacking an enemy, striking it with cries of "Anhe! " The maiden proceeds to trim the trunk, cutting off a length of about thirty feet and leaving at the top a fork with its branches and twigs. Some of the men at once place short poles under the Mystery Tree and bear it to camp, stopping four times on the way to give the coyote howl. The fourth start is made at a point about a quarter of a mile from the camp-circle, whence the carriers set out at a trot. Immediately bursts from the edge of the timber a swarm of men and youths, women and girls, the former in another wild charge upon the "enemy," the latter in a more leisurely return to the camp, horses bedecked with branches and trailing vines, and each person bearing at least one green bough to be used in the construction of the dance-lodge. During the felling of the tree, the other medicine-man, the one chosen by the Priest himself, has been engaged in excavating a hole for it in the centre of the ho6hoka, piling the earth to the west. The carriers enter running and deposit the Mystery Tree on the ground, the butt resting on the heap of fresh earth with its extremity directly over the hole. A sheaf of untrimmed cherry sticks is placed beside 1 See page 59.

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94 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN the tree near the crotch. This ends the ceremonies of the second day, and a general round of feasting ensues. The events of the third day centre about the raising of the Mystery Tree. The Priest and the Chief Dancer issue from the dancer's tipi bearing certain ceremonial articles now to be used, and the former ties the sheaf of cherry sticks in the angle of the fork, covering it with an entire buffalo-skin painted red on the inner side. Along the nose of the skin are fastened bunches of eagle-feathers. The medicine-man who superintended the cutting of the tree now holds a piece of buffalo kidney-fat over the hole prepared for the tree, prays silently, and drops the fat therein. The Priest draws four red lines down the length of the pole and suspends from the fork a small rawhide effigy of a man - an enemy - and another of a buffalo. Two deerskin bags hang from the tree; these, as well as the images, are offerings to the sun. Two ropes are now attached to the top, and with men pulling and others lifting, the Mystery Tree is raised slowly and dropped into place amid a deafening shout. The construction of the dance-lodge is next begun; this is simply a leafy screen supported on two concentric circles of forked sticks, with a wall of leaf shields and vines in which openings are so numerous that spectators can find no cause for complaint. An attendant is now despatched for a dry buffalo-skull, which is placed on a bed of sage west of the tree and is painted by the Priest with stripes of red. After the painting the skull becomes a sacred object whose presence will insure an abundance of buffalo in the ensuing fall. Meanwhile a number of men have painted their faces white, and donned war-bonnets and scalp-shirts, if they have attained to that dignity. At the cry of the herald these come trooping into the lodge in single file for the performance of the Dance That Smooths The Ground. As the musicians drum and sing, the participants dance toward the pole, shooting at the two rawhide effigies of enemy and life-giving buffalo, retreating and advancing alternately. Both images are soon brought to the ground amid a storm of war-cries. It is now late afternoon, and from the close of this evening's meal the dancers will abstain from food and water until the end of the ceremony.

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Blue Horse - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 95 The final day dawns, but not before the Priest has arisen and purified his body with sacred smoke. Thus prepared, he paints the Chief Dancer with a black semicircle from the forehead down each cheek, others at the shoulder joints, and full circles about elbows and wrists. The rest of the body is painted red; and a roll of buffalohair is tied to each elbow and each wrist, to the latter being attached also small pieces of human scalp with long flowing hair. A single eagle-feather is fastened in the hair of the Chief Dancer. At daybreak the participants file into the dance-lodge, where they are painted by the medicine-men. They are clad in double aprons of deerskin from waist to knee, and buffalo-skins, the hairy side outermost, about their shoulders and belted at the waist. From the neck of each is suspended his eagle wing-bone whistle, the mouthpiece wound with sage and the other end adorned with an eaglefeather. All having been painted, they arise, dropping their buffalo-skins, and the Priest leads in the Chief Dancer, who takes his place in front of the others, all facing the east. Standing behind the Chief Dancer, the Priest points his whistle to the east and blows a shrill note beside the Dancer's right ear, then another at his left, and a third above his head - three invocations to the Mystery of the Sun. The other participants hold right hands outstretched toward the rising orb. Next the Priest leads them successively to the south, to the west, and finally to the north of the Mystery Tree, following the direction of the sun's course and sounding his whistle toward each point. The dancers now station themselves about the enclosure by villages, their leader between the pole and those assembled on the western side. All face the east, and at the word of the Priest, who stands just west of the painted buffalo-skull, the drummers commence to sing and the dancing begins. As they dance, the performers never leave the spot on which they stand, the movement consisting in a slight upward spring from the toes and ball of the foot; legs and body are rigid. Always the right palm is extended to the yellow glaring sun, and their eyes are fixed on its lower rim. The dancer concentrates his mind, his very self, upon the one thing that he desires, whether it be the acquirement

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96 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN of powerful medicine or only success in the next conflict with the enemy. As the day wears on, this unceasing mental concentration produces that state of spiritual exaltation in which visions are seen and the future is revealed. Each song is chanted four times, and then follows a very brief interval for the singers to prepare for the next - a moment during which the dancers may rest standing, and lower their eyes to the ground. When the zenith is reached, the Priest fills a pipe and hands it to the Chief Dancer, who proffers it to some individual, himself a former principal actor in the ceremony and therefore familiar with the proper mode of piercing the breasts. The pipe is refused. The Dancer attempts to force it upon him, striving to open his hand and thrust the pipe into it. But the hand is clenched. The Dancer then returns to the Priest, but receives the command, "Go again!" Once more, therefore, the trial is made, and yet again, but each time the pipe is declined. At the fourth offering, however, the pipe is accepted with the words "Ho! It is hard, but if you wish it, it shall be done to you;" and the pipe is lighted and smoked. When the Dancer has returned with the empty pipe to his customary station, the man chosen by him secures a picket-pin and splits it into quarters, two of which he reduces somewhat in thickness and to a length of about six inches, making them smooth and triangular. Singing and dancing cease. Over the multitude spreads a hush of expectant emotion, as he places the skewers on the ground beside the Dancer, and standing erect prays: "Great Mystery, this is I who worships. This thing will I do, though it is hard. This young man requests it, and I will do it for him." Then spreading sacred sage upon the ground south of the Mystery Tree, he leads the Dancer thither, lifts him bodily in his arms, and throws him down upon it with some violence. He now selects an assistant, who stations himself at the Dancer's left and begins to whet his knife on a stone. The other then grasps the muscles of the Dancer's breasts and pulls the flesh outward forcibly, while at his bidding the votary cries loudly and continuously, and holds a tuft

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Drying meat [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 97 of sage before his eyes, feigning tears; at the same moment the assistant, chewing a bit of sage, spits upon his knife and thrusts it deliberately under the extended muscles. He next inserts the two skewers, pushing and twisting with considerable force. The Dancer is lifted to his feet, ever crying in a monotone utterly lacking in emotion; blood streams down his body; he is growing weak, and trembles as if about to fall. From the fork of the Mystery Tree dangle two plaited rawhide ropes, terminating in stout thongs, which are now slipped over the ends of the skewers. With his arms about the Dancer's body the assistant pulls him back four times, exerting his strength in drawing the loops tight. The Priest, chewing upon a bit of blue-flag root, now stands in front of the votary and spits toward his body and his face, imparting strength to him. Then after three long notes on his whistle, blown, as previously, beside and above the Dancer's head, he resumes his position at the latter's left, while the people shout their approval of the Sun Dancer's self-sacrifice. Singers and dancers resume their functions; the Chief Dancer blows his bone whistle and extends his palm to the sun, throwing his weight upon the ropes in vain effort to tear himself loose, sometimes even leaping clear of the ground and letting himself fall back bodily. One song' finished, the dancers turn to the south, and a little later to the west, following the course of the sun, right hands outstretched, whistles shrilling, voices wailing. About mid-afternoon the Priest gives five small sticks to the Chief Dancer, who throws them among the spectators; each of the sticks is a token of a horse to be given by the Priest to the fortunate one who secures it. Then with his arms about the Dancer, he throws himself back in the endeavor to tear the skewers free; but by this time the flesh has so dried and hardened as to resist the strain, and the elastic rawhide ropes hurl them from their feet. If after four trials the flesh fails to give way, the Priest resumes his former station and fills a pipe, which he lays on the ground as a number of the Dancer's relations advance, each leading a horse 1 For torture-songs of the Sun Dance, see page I43. VOL. II- 7

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98 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN packed with buffalo-robes, tanned skins, bags, or parfleches stuffed with pemmican. "We want you to cut the flesh of our boy," is their greeting. Then, while members of his own family take charge of the horses, the Priest bears the pipe to the man that assisted in piercing the Dancer, who accepts it and smokes, while the Priest throws off the ropes and lays the Dancer on his back. The assistant then cuts away the flesh, leaving a small part that can readily be torn through; and the Priest again raises the man to his feet and readjusts the ropes. Once more the wild song bursts forth, and the Dancer, moving slowly at first as he summons all the energy of his weakened body, suddenly hurls himself back and falls helpless and unconscious as the skewers rend the flesh. The Priest lays him full on his back, while the assistant cuts away the ragged edges of the wounds. Again the song is taken up, the Dancer, again conscious, supporting himself upon a staff and swaying his body in rhythm. It is now the time when other dancers may be pierced. Any one of them, wishing to make this offering to the sun, takes his pipe to one of the old men, who, after smoking, throws him down, pierces his breasts without ceremony, inserts the skewers, and adjusts the ropes. Such dancers are customarily not pierced deeply, but if oneseeks the aid of a man who performed the more severe sacrifice of his body, he, too, must endure the same treatment as was meted out to the Chief Dancer. The self-torture continues until the sun sinks, some freeing themselves as the afternoon wears on, others requiring the added strength and weight of the Priest. Each, as he effects his release, rises and dances with what vigor he can summon. Frequently, as an additional sacrifice, a Sun Dancer has a number of buffalo-skulls, or even of buffalo-heads, attached by a rope to the muscles of his back; and there have been instances of suspending a man in mid-air by the muscles of the hips and shoulders. As the sun nears the horizon a profusion of food is distributed among the spectators; but the dancers remain standing, gazing at the sun, and at the conclusion of the feast they return to their preparation tipis, the Priest accompanying the party of the Chief Dancer. After the sweat-bath, they sit side by side in the rear of the tipi, and

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Returned Scout - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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r-Ji vtirsrtvE Lib5 r.ar THE TETON SIOUX 99 the Priest, offering a piece of dog-meat to the Four Winds, the Sky, and the Earth, repeats a prayer: "Great Mystery, you existed in the beginning. We have finished our ceremony. After you have eaten, these young men will partake of food. Give us help, that they may become strong and many. The meat is put into the Chief Dancer's mouth, and other pieces are given to his companions; and after similar consecration, water is served to each one. The chiefs congregate in the tipi, and the feast of dog-meat and pemmican concludes the day. The Mystery Tree with its offerings remains standing, an object of veneration and awe: for they belong to the Sun, they are things waka". The Ghost Keeper
Before beginning the story of the Ghost Keeper, the narrator smoked, pointing his pipe to the Four Winds, the Sky, and the Earth, saying that this was the rule, and to omit it would bring bad fortune to him. He said: "This is a very sacred ceremony, and in the old times it was believed that telling about it would result in a man's being struck by lightning. This ceremony is one of those brought by White Buffalo Woman." If a man's near relation - son, grandson, sister, brother, father, or mother -dies, one or more old men come to him and say: "Your son is dead and you will see him no more on earth. He has gone to the ghost.1 We advise you to keep his ghost for a while as a token of respect. We hope he is not gone with something in his mouth." 2 The relation having expressed his wish that the ghost be kept, the old men go among the people and select a man who has dreamed about a ghost. He is the Ghost Keeper, YFanadhi-yuha, and he appoints someone to cut a lock of hair from the body. The 1 Wanaghi yata iyaye. Ghost to he has gone. 2 If a man dies and his ghost is not kept, he will "go to the ghost" with ordinary food in his mouth, instead of the sacred food offered by the priest in the ceremony.

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I00 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN man so chosen makes incense of sweet-grass, and moistening a piece of sinew with the spittle produced by chewing a bit of blueflag root, purifies it in the sacred smoke; likewise a knife and a buffalo-skin bag. The helper now spits on his hands, and after purifying them in the incense, rubs them four times downward over his body from head to feet; then again holding them in the smoke he places them on his mouth for its purification. Approaching the body, he separates and twists a lock of hair on the forehead, and with deliberation ties the sinew about it in a single knot. Not a word is spoken or a movement made by those assembled at this solemn moment. The helper addresses the body: "Ho, Grandson, you are about to lose your relatives; you will make them poor. Nevertheless they hasten to remove a lock of your hair. You will have a tipi-lifter of your own, two sun-holes and a family of your own.1 Do not take it to heart; your relatives will follow you. Hurry! Go!" He then severs the lock and bursts forth into protracted weeping and loud lamentation, joined by all the assembled people. He ties the hair to a braid of sweet-grass, places it inside the outer cover of the buffalo-skin bag, which he ties securely,. and lays it on the ground beside the body. Then he takes it into the tipi of the bereaved family. A relative brings a tanned buffalo-hide, from the centre of which an assistant cuts a piece about two by three feet; in this he wraps the bag, tying the bundle with thongs in the middle and at the ends. It is now fastened near the top of a tipi-pole, which is leaned outside against the tipi, where it remains four days. During this period the Ghost Keeper must provide a red-painted buffalo-robe, knife, tobacco, kinnikinnick, tanned deerskin, sweet-grass, red paint, blue paint, a fresh buffalo-hide, and food. On the fourth day the prominent men are summoned to a feast in the tipi of the Ghost Keeper, and he then appoints one of them as the Work-do, his servant, whose duties will consist in waiting on the Keeper. At the same time the Ghost Keeper's tipi, JYana'ghi1 Referring to the Ghost tipi to be erected for the ghost.

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Good Day Woman - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX 1OI yuha-tipi, is being erected by his family. It faces the east, and in its rear is a couch of skins and blankets. Now begins the portion of the ceremony called Wanagjhimaheiyeapi, Ghost Put In. The men assemble in the Ghost tipi, and Work-do removes the sacred bundle from the tipi-pole and places it on the couch. He then brings in three short poles of spruce for the tripod, and a cherry wand for the fire-stick. At this point the Keeper sends for a Priest, tYaechu", who takes his place in the position of honor in front of the couch. At the door sits Work-do, and on the north side of the tipi, the Keeper. In the centre burns a low fire. The Priest orders a coal and makes incense in the usual manner, while a ceremonial pipe is filled and sealed with buffalotallow by any of the men present, and laid before the couch, the bowl toward the north. The Priest next sanctifies an axe in the sacred smoke, and strikes the ground on each of the four sides and in the centre of the altar space. With a knife he removes the turf from the space, a square of about three feet, levels the ground, and draws a shallow furrow around the edge with an opening to the east about eight inches wide. The pipe is purified and supported upon a braid of sweet-grass within the altar space, while the Priest repeats the following prayer: "Earth, chief of nations, you have existed from the beginning, they say; pity me. Earth, chief of nations, for you I hold this pipe toward the earth; pity me. Earth, chief of nations, your face is vast, they say. This young man chief makes haste to smooth your face for you.1 Mystery, red offerings together with shells he will spread over your face. Earth, chief of nations, pity me. Above you four nations,2 with human voices audible, will live. Earth, chief of nations, this pipe you first will smoke; pity me. Afterward the chiefs of both kinds 3 will smoke it. Earth, chief of nations, with the face toward the north let the nation live." The pipe is lighted, passed about the circle, and returning to the Priest is emptied and rubbed downward with sage. The Priest 1 The Priest preparing the altar space. 2 The Four Winds. 3 Both chiefs and Ghost Keepers.

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I02 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN deposits the ghost-bundle upon the plot, and, the Fire-carrier having placed the ember beside it, he passes it through the sacred smoke and unties it. On the rawhide are spread out the red robe and other ceremonial objects provided by the Ghost Keeper. The Priest throws open the ghost-bundle and places the hair and sweet-grass in the inner recess of the bag, which he fastens, and lays together with the paints, deerskin, and sweet-grass upon the red robe, in which they are folded and firmly tied. About the whole the rawhide is wrapped and secured in three places, a part of the thong forming a pack-string. The Priest now bids Work-do bring food, a wooden bowl of which he deposits near the altar as a symbolic offering to the ghost. A small portion in a horn spoon is then passed through incense and held over the altar while these words are repeated: "Ho, Grandson, even a little ghost is intelligent, they say. You have made your relatives poor; nevertheless they make haste to tie up a little food for you. Now a mystery-thing is going over the Ghost Trail, is going; now they have cooked for you and send the food in to you. This food will I bring to you, but I am loath to do it, Grandson. Now, where your Grandfathers are gathered, there you have arrived. Now your Grandfathers are coming to meet you; as all creation has a longing of the heart for the pipe that lies on the earth-plot, so they raise you to embrace you. Grandson, look back for the last time; behind you life will spring up from the fertile spots made by Hunka,1 as your Grandfathers perhaps have told you. Whichever way the wind is blowing, on the lee side of me at dawn I shall awake to see our Hunka on the move, cutting a long deep trail in the ground. Grandson, I am unwilling. Nobody ever had a day like this of yours, they say. In the face of a red day you live to put food into your mouth, so they say, Grandson; using the blue sky above as a plume for your head-dress, you live to partake of food. The white-robed old men,2 your relatives, love you most dearly; perhaps already you have come to sit among them. This 1 Hunka (see pages 71, 82 footnote) is here figuratively the buffalo, and the "fertile spots" (awdptaye) are the patches of rank vegetation that mark the places where buffalo have been killed. 2 Men who have performed the office of Ghost Keeper and hence have the right to wear white buffalo-skins.

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He Crow - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX IO3 food I will bring toward the ground for you, Grandson, though I am unwilling. You first put this food into your mouth, Grandson; make your mouth large and put food into it, Grandson. Send it forth and scatter it abroad for me, Grandson. Afterward we chiefs of both kinds will put it into our mouths; remembering our bodies, we will partake, Grandson. May we live without sickness, Grandson. On level ground we will make a step with our faces to the north. Pity us, that the people may live." The ceremonial tipi now becomes the home of the Ghost Keeper for a period sometimes as long as half a year: a home he never leaves, save on errands peculiar to his office. A fire burns constantly in the centre, and at one side on the hard, bare ground is spread a single robe, the Keeper's bed: for the luxurious couch in the place of honor belongs to the ghost. Here during the day the old men congregate, those who have been Ghost Keepers sometimes remaining throughout the night, smoking, dozing, and talking over the times of long ago. No light jest breaks the solemnity of the Ghost tipi. At dawn each day Work-do replenishes the smouldering fire and deposits a glowing ember on the altar, and places beside it a vessel of food passed through the door by the Keeper's wife. One of the old men - the Priest of this rite, if he be present - consecrates a morsel by exposing it to the curling incense, repeating the prayer last given, and thrusts it into a hole made in the ground with his pipe-stick, finally covering it with earth. This is for the ghost. "All is ready," he announces, and the Keeper's wife enters, purifies hands and body in the sacred smoke, and carries out the tripod with its ghost-bundle, to set it in its customary position before the tipi. Thrice daily is food provided in this manner. At sunset, as the incense rises from the altar, the Keeper's wife once more sanctifies her body and brings in tripod and bundle, carrying the latter on her arm as if it were an infant, and depositing it on the ground behind the altar. In the Ghost tipi a special pipe is used; its wooden stem is painted red, and it belongs to the Ghost Keeper, who is always the one to fill it and to start it about the circle. The pipe is passed from

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I04 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN south to north, the mouthpiece held slanting toward the ground. The tobacco-pouch, too, wherever the deerskin is unadorned with quills, is painted red, likewise the faces and upper bodies of the men who enter the Ghost tipi. The Ghost Keeper bears only pipe and tobacco-pouch, never a weapon, for he is a peacemaker. If two men fall into serious dispute, he fills and offers to them his pipe; and so highly is his office respected, so sacred is he considered, that his words are always obeyed. He lights the pipe, the erstwhile enemies smoke, and peace is restored. When the camp moves, the ghost-bundle is carried on a gentle pack-horse, and the Keeper goes in advance of all save the scouts, even the chiefs following him. When he stops, all stop, and one of the chiefs hastens to bring a buffalo-chip upon which the Keeper may rest his pipe. Before it is lighted and passed to the chiefs, he utters a prayer: "This day let my people hurry to see face to face a moving band of Hunka [i. e. buffalo]. This day, therefore, you first smoke this tobacco. Let my people with glad hearts behold a good day." The Ghost Keeper selects the camp-ground, and the Ghost tipi is erected first; there is a stringent rule that none may pass in front of it. The young men returning from the hunt bring the choice parts of their meat to the Keeper's wife, who prepares them for the frequenters of the Ghost tipi. When death enters the camp, the Ghost Keeper goes with his pipe to the tipi of the mourning family, followed by one, two, or three of the old men. All weeping ceases as he takes his place beside the head of the family and silently hands him the lighted pipe. In a moment or two the Keeper speaks: "My friend, you have lost your son. It is very hard for you, but I have come for him." "Yes," says the other, "you are right. I would have had a hard life, but fortunately you do me this favor. I shall live happy among the people. I thank you, my friend; my heart is good. You will now take my son on his own horse, with all his possessions." "My friend, that is right," responds the Keeper. "I am glad

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Making camp [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX IO5 that you are willing for me to take your son, for this is a great rite, one of the sacred rites of the people. In the beginning the Great Mystery created us Indians. He created us on the earth, and the life is good, my son. We are to make this life long upon earth; the life that the Great Mystery has given us, it is ours, and we will make it long. My son, it is proper that you make a great camp-circle, within which all the tribe will live and be glad.2 This is a great thing, and you will do it; so do not forget all the acts of kindness, my son. The nation will hear of your good deeds and will rejoice." The ceremony of removing the lock of hair is next observed, and the Keeper bears the new bag to the Ghost tipi, where one of the old men attaches it to a pole leaning against the structure. Meanwhile the second favorite horse of the dead person has been packed with his personal belongings and other gifts from the family, and led to the tipi of the Keeper's wife. The head of the family is now summoned to the Ghost tipi, where the Keeper combs his hair and binds it with strips of otter-skin in two braids, paints his face red, and presents him with new clothing, tobacco-pouch, and pipe. This act is called Yafhaiyapi, Paint Him Red, and he is now to weep no more. The second ghost is treated in the same way as the first, the ceremony of Ghost Put In occurring on the fourth day; but on this occasion are admitted to the Ghost tipi all members, male and female, of the mourning family, all who participated in the feast of the first Ghost Put In, and all who have previously officiated as Ghost Keeper, or, in the absence of any such, one member from his family. Each, as he enters, must present a gift to the Keeper. The ghost-bundle is taken from its tripod, purified, and opened, and the new bag, duly sanctified, wrapped with the other in a large piece of finely tanned buffalo-skin painted with alternate stripes of blue and red, between which the white skin shows through. The old rawhide covering is discarded, its place being taken by a beautiful quill-worked deerskin fringed at the ends. As before, food 1 Wichoichagh1eki walhiyelo, "It is one of the lives;" that is, one of the five ceremonies brought by White Buffalo Woman. See page 59. 2 Referring to the great tipi of the last day, and the gladdening of the people with presents.

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io6 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN is consecrated, offered to the ghost, and distributed among the people. Now, so long as the Ghost tipi stands, the family of the Keeper bend their efforts to collect quantities of clothing, tanned skins and parfleches, sweet-grass, tobacco, and five buffalo-larynges, and to the preparation of a quill-embroidered tobacco-pouch with a V-shaped indentation at the bottom. Two pipes, their stems ornamented with horsetails and feathers exactly as are the Hunka pipes, are made by Work-do. These Cha"no"p-h'aka, Branched Pipes, are the permanent property of the Ghost Keeper, and are used in ratifying peace treaties with other tribes. All this is in anticipation of the ceremonies of the final day. On a certain day Work-do summons the heads of all the bereaved families, to whom the Keeper announces his readiness to complete the rites of JYana'ghi-yuha; and having received assurance that they too are prepared, he calls into the Ghost tipi various men of prominence, whom he thus addresses: "My friends, I have now collected many articles of value, and I announce to you that I am going to complete this ceremony and dismiss the ghosts.' If this is not a good place for the performance of the rites, then move to some more favorable spot." The camp leaders thereupon cause the village to be reestablished in a spot undefiled by human feet. A great quantity of meat and marrowbones, freely given by all the people, is collected and brought to the Ghost tipi by members of one of the societies called to the aid of the Keeper. Bones are crushed and boiled, meat is pounded and stuffed into bags of animal tissue by industrious women with faces painted red by the Ghost Keeper and bodies clothed in gala dresses given by him. As many as ten or fifteen balls of pemmican, each weighing about four pounds, are thu~s prepared for the morrow. At nightfall Work-do lays ten sticks, such as are employed in making arrow-shafts, beside the Priest, who passes them through the sacred smoke. Five are given to the chiefs, who sit on the south side of the tipi, and five to the Ghost Keepers on the north; peeled 1 icho'han iyaye wakiyY"ktelo. Deed go I shall let.

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Kills in Timber - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX I07 and trimmed, they are returned to the Priest. The Keeper selects one stick for each horse he intends to give away, and those so chosen, painted red by the Priest, are laid aside. All this night the Ghost Keepers remain in the tipi, smoking, conversing in subdued tones, never sleeping. At earliest dawn the village herald calls aloud to the society members to assemble and go forth to borrow the two largest tipis in the camp, and erect them as one in front of the Ghost tipi. A profusion of food collected by the pemmican makers is consecrated in the sweet-smelling incense by the Priest, and the Keeper, rising, invokes each ghost by name, adding, "He is going to open his sacks to-day." Then, while the feast is being prepared, the Keeper's wife arranges another couch for the ghost in the new tipi, and the participants -Work-do and Priest, former Ghost Keepers and chiefs, all except the Ghost Keeper himself - file in from the Ghost tipi. The Keeper's wife places the ghost-bundle on the couch, and a moment later reenters, accompanying her husband; she now paints the chiefs' faces red, but on the faces of the Ghost Keepers she draws a broad streak across the lower cheeks and mouth, another across the temples and forehead, two short ones from the temples over the cheekbones, and lastly a narrow band along the bridge of the nose. Thus marked, they represent White Buffalo Woman. The Priest's face is painted by the Keeper, from whom he receives new moccasins, leggings, and robe. After clearing away the turf for the altar space with the prescribed ceremony, the Priest fills and seals a pipe, and hands it to the Keeper, and the two repair to the tipi of another priest designated as Itacha-kiyapi, Used For Chief. To the latter is presented the pipe, representing the best horse in the Keeper's herd, and, greetings exchanged, Work-do enters to make the necessary preparations for incense. The Priest lights the pipe with a braid of sweetgrass and, after taking two whiffs with the bowl pointing westward, turns the stem to Itacha-kiyapi, who likewise puffs twice. This act is repeated toward each of the remaining world-quarters and the sky, and the Priest rubs the pipe downward with sage, finally presenting it to Itacha-kiyapi.

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io8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The party now returns to the ceremonial tipi, where the Keeper paints the newcomer and gives him new clothing. The Priest brings the ghost-bundle to the altar, passes it through the incense, and, after purifying his hands, carefully turns back the folds of the embroidered deerskin and the painted buffalo-skin. The small bags, of which there may be one or a half-dozen, each containing its lock of hair, are arranged in a row between him and the altar. He then gives a new axe and a filled pipe to Work-do, who takes them into the timber, and coming to a suitable sapling, offers to it the lighted pipe - an honor that must be shown a tree when necessity demands that its life be destroyed. After smoking, and emptying the ashes at the foot of the tree, he cuts it down and trims off a length of about five feet. With the same solemnity a sapling is felled for each ghost, and the short poles are carried to the tipi. Selecting a helper and painting his face red, the Priest cuts from a rawhide ten strips about three inches wide and the length of an arrow-shaft, and in each makes five square indentations extending to within half an inch of the farther edge. Each strip is now painted blue on both sides, perforated at the ends and middle, and attached by these three holes to one of the arrow-sticks, an eagle wing-feather fluttering from its tip and another standing upright on the pointed end of the stick. From the red buffalo-skin are taken ten pieces an arrow-shaft in width, and tied with thongs to the three holes in the backs of the blue rawhide strips, the whole forming a sort of pennant. The ten are thrust into the ground in a row behind the ghost-bags as offerings to the ghosts. At this point the Priest calls to his side a man who is to be the Ghost Painter, and sanctifies the poles that have been provided by Work-do. These poles Ghost Painter trims and points at the lower end, and from a buffalo-skin he cuts an equal number of strips about eight inches wide and two feet long, wrapping one with the hair inside about the top of each pole. With black paint he marks eyes, nose, and mouth on the skin, and plants the effigies about three feet apart in the earth a short distance behind the altar. Each is clothed in the garments of its sex, and moccasins are placed on the ground at its base. They now represent the ghosts; in fact they are

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Standing Bear - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX IO9 called wanda'hi, and they are treated as if they were the living bodies of the departed. After the painting of the ghosts, the Priest rolls up a white buffaloskin, places it, east and west, across one edge of the altar, and, using a stick in order to avoid touching it with his hands, unrolls it so that the space is completely covered. Priest and Ghost Keeper at the western, and two others at the eastern corners, take hold of the robe and stretch it out evenly. The Priest then lays upon it the five buffalo-larynges, and, pushing them with the stick, moves one to the edge at each cardinal point, and the fifth to the centre. Beside each of the four is placed an eagle wing-feather. Four children enter and sit around the altar, each holding a corner of the robe while the Priest repeats the prayer used by the Ghost Keeper whenever he smokes with the chiefs.1 As the children depart he makes incense, sanctifies the kinnikinnick and tobacco leaves, and upon a wooden block furnished by Work-do he cuts up a pipeful with a new knife. Ceremoniously he fills the pipe. In the meantime the man who assisted in the preparation of the offerings to the ghosts has been making ready a smooth, round, pointed stick, which he now delivers to the Priest; and the latter, placing the point on the ground near the altar, bears down forcibly with both hands and gives it a single twist. Should the ground prove so hard that the stick does not penetrate, he and his helper begin to wail loudly, for this is a portent of the death of the Priest before the season's close. At the same time he gives another twist, a third, and a fourth, by which time the stick has been forced into the earth. Holding a braid of sweet-grass about the lower end, he draws the stick from the ground, slipping its point through the sweet-grass to prevent any loosened earth from adhering, and consequent ill luck coming upon him. Beside the hole thus made, the Priest lays the forked tobacco-pouch, and after purifying his hands in freshly made incense, drops four pinches of the tobacco mixture into the hole and fills it with earth. By this time the food has been prepared by the women outside, and Work-do places before each ghost-effigy a wooden bowl piled 1 See page 104.

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IIO THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN high with balls of pemmican. The Priest consecrates the food with the usual prayer, then places a small portion in a hole and covers it with earth. The mourners are now permitted to place bowls of food for the ghosts of their dead relatives, and the moment is given up to lamentation and embracing of the ghost-effigies. The bowls of food and the clothing of the effigies become the property of Ghost Painter, but before removing the pemmican he passes a bowl about the circle, all uniformly refusing, except the Ghost Keepers, who take one ball for each time they have acted in that capacity. One of the offerings, too, is given to any Ghost Keeper who may request it. The heads of the bereaved families now stand behind the effigies, and the Priest places consecrated food in their mouths, after which their outer finery is distributed among the chiefs. As the mourners file out, the Ghost Keeper and his wife receive food from the Priest and present their outer clothing to some needy person. The Priest enfolds the buffalo-larynges in the white skin and gives the roll to the Ghost Keeper, and the latter delivers the ghostbags, with a valuable present in each case, into the care of the families of the dead, in whose memory they are carefully preserved in parfleches. The ghost-effigies remain standing until the following day, when the Ghost Keeper's wife places food before them, and certain old men come singing and remove them, depositing them in lonely spots among the hills. As the effigies represent those who have died, this disposal is symbolic of burial. Within a short time after the close of the rites, the Ghost Keeper bears the white buffalo-skin far from the camp, to the west or north, and conceals it in a hole or cave. This act is called Pte-sa'-ha-onyanpi, The Losing Of The White Buffalo-skin, and none may follow the Keeper on his mission, for the white skin is a sacred offering to the Mysteries.

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Little Hawk - Brule [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX III Folk-tale
Weyota and Iktomi
Long ago there lived an old woman all alone in a tipi far from the tribal camp. Why she remained in that remote and solitary place, no one knew. The people were destitute, for no large game was to be found. Yet every day came Waziya and killed a buffalo or a deer near the tipi of Old Woman, and each time after butchering an animal he always rubbed the blood into the ground with his feet, that the people might not have even that to sustain life. Then he would load upon his back every particle of the flesh, hide, and bones, and depart for his home in the north. One day Old Woman stood by watching Waziya cut up a buffalo. As he rubbed the blood into the ground, a small clot, unnoticed by him, was kicked aside toward her, and quickly stooping she picked it up and hastened to her tipi. She placed it on the ground and sat looking at it intently. After a while she said thoughtfully, "I do not know what to make out of this blood. I wish it were a man." Immediately, and to her great astonishment, there stood before her a beautiful boy. " Hinun! " exclaimed Old Woman. "You are Blood-clot Boy, and you are my grandson!" And Wey6ta-hokghila became his name. He grew rapidly, and became expert with the bow. The elder daughter of the chief was called Chokaptiki, because she lived in a tipi of her own inside the camp-circle, and on account of her unusual beauty she was wooed by many young men. Her younger and less comely sister was named Hakaktaki. Knowing of the wonderful skill of Wey6ta as an archer, and having heard of certain remarkable things he had done, the chief believed him to be i The myth of Blood-clot Boy, varying more or less in detail, is common to a number of the plains tribes, including the Pawnee, Arapaho, Atsina, and Blackfeet.

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112 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN waka", and searched in his mind for a way to make a son-in-law of him. Every morning a red eagle flew over the village, and every noon a red fox ran across the camp-ground. Confident that there was but one person whose arrows could wound them, the chief caused his crier to announce that whoever shot the red eagle and the red fox should have Chokaptiki for his bride. The news stirred the determination of all the young men to win the beautiful daughter of the chief, and morning and noon they gathered at a certain point and discharged their arrows at eagle and fox, but all in vain. "Grandmother," said Wey6ta one morning, "make me new clothing, for I am going to court Chokaptiki." "Hinun!" breathed Old Woman; but she set about the task, and on the day when his beautiful garments were finished the young man donned them - moccasins, leggings, and buffalo-robe. Slinging his wildcat-skin quiver and his bow-sheath on his back, he started for the village. Soon he met Iktomi. "Ho, grandson," called Spider, " whither go you?" "I am on my way to the camp," replied the youth, "to court Chokaptiki." At that moment a prairie-chicken sailed past and alighted heavily in a nearby tree. "Grandson, shoot that prairie-chicken for me," begged Ikt6mi, and Wey6ta obligingly drew out his bow and an arrow and sent the shaft through the bird. It fell, but was caught on a lower branch, and the young man began to climb the tree, when Ikt6mi interposed. "Take off your fine clothing and your necklaces, grandson, lest you harm them in climbing." Weyota therefore removed his new garments and necklaces, and with bow and quiver deposited them on the ground. Then he ascended the tree and threw down the dead bird, but as he started down Ikt6mi called softly, "Stick! Stick! Stick!" "What did you say?" asked Weyota.

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Ring Thunder - Brule [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX II3 "I was telling you to come down quickly," was the answer. The young man continued to descend, and when he was near the ground, Iktomi cried loudly, " Stick! Stick! Stick! " And Weyota stuck fast to the tree, unable to go up or down. There he remained like a great gnarl on an oak, while Iktomi appropriated his clothes and weapons, and thus equipped proceeded to the village. On a knoll not far from the tipi of Chokaptiki he sat down, and the people, recognizing the weapons of Wey6ta, informed the chief that the wonderful archer had come. Four leading men were despatched to bring him to the chief's tipi, and taking a white buffalo-robe they spread it before Iktomi, begging him to sit down upon it. Thus he was borne into the tipi of the chief, who, certain that Weyota, and none other, could fulfil the terms of the contest, gave the beautiful Chokaptiki to the impostor. The next morning the people assembled in great expectancy to see the chief's son-in-law shoot the red eagle; but to the surprise of everybody, when the bird came soaring overhead his arrow went wide, turned, dropped, and stood quivering in the ground. " My robe was in the way," explained Iktomi. At noon there was another throng of eager spectators, but a second time they were disappointed, for the red fox ran through the camp unharmed. The ready tongue of Iktomi, however, quickly offered a plausible excuse. The chief, thoroughly chagrined and discouraged by the repeated failure of his son-in-law, began to think that perhaps the people had overestimated the skill of Wey6ta, had been mistaken in regarding him as waka". Chokaptiki, on the other hand, was inordinately proud of her husband. One day an old woman left her tipi on the outskirts of the village, where she lived with her grandson, and with a rawhide rope she went toward the timber for a bundle of firewood. Weyota saw her approaching and transformed himself into an ugly, ragged little boy. She stopped in astonishment at the strange sight of a child grown fast to a tree. VOL. III - 8

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II4 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Grandmother," said he, " cut me loose from this tree." "Hinun! " she exclaimed. "This is something wonderful! " Carefully she cut him away from the bark and took him home, where he became a playmate of her grandson. One day they were aroused from absorption in their games by a great clamor in the direction of the chief's tipi. Wey6ta inquired the meaning of it, and when he was told about the eagle and the fox, he boasted, " I will shoot both of them after a while. My friend," he continued, " let us go and cut sticks to make arrows." They did so, and then made a sheaf of small arrows. When their grandmother saw that, she began to warn them never to go in the direction of the home of Waziya, and she told them how he was killing all the game and starving the people. " Ho! " said Weyota. "He shall see me close after a while." " Beware! Beware! " warned the old woman. Not many days had passed when he proposed to his little friend that they search for Waziya, and they set out at once. It was not long before they found his tipi, which they entered unceremoniously. Only the wife of Waziya was there. "No one is permitted to enter here," she protested fretfully, but Wey6ta crossed to where a long bow hung. He adjusted the string and drew it back until the cedar cracked in the middle, then replaced the broken weapon on its tripod. When the boys returned home they related their adventure to their grandmother, who repeated her warning. A few days later Wey6ta told his comrade that he was going to the hills to look for buffalo, and bade him harness the dog to the travois. From a high ridge they saw beyond an abundance of buffalo, and Wey6ta waved his robe to the camp, the usual sign that buffalo had been sighted. When the signal was noted, the people came swarming up into the hills, surrounded the herd, and slaughtered the animals with arrow and lance. While they were busily butchering, Waziya and his children arrived and passed from group to group, robbing them of their meat. When he came to where the two boys were cutting up the buffalo they had killed, he cried,

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Elk Boy - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX lI5 " Do not eat any of that meat! " "When I was not here," said Weyota, straightening up, " you treated the people thus, and starved them; but now that I am here I shall not permit it!" "Whence have you come," inquired Waziya, surprised, "you that speak so impudently?" "I am going to protect these people," was Wey6ta's only answer. "You are only a boy," taunted the other, "and you are trying to talk like a man. Do you want me to point my finger at you?" " Point your finger at me if you wish," challenged the boy. "You talk too much I" exclaimed Waziya in disgust, and extended his forefinger at Wey6ta; but it was immediately thrown out of joint. He put out another, but that too was dislocated, and so, one after another, all his fingers were crippled. Then, when he was helpless to use a weapon, Weyota gave the word, and the people set upon him and his children with clubs. They killed all except one, who escaped into a rocky crevice, and became Frost. On another day Wey6ta said, "Grandmother, go to the tipi of Chokaptiki and say,' Ikt6mi, my grandson has sent me for his clothes.'" " Hinun! If I go and say that," she protested, "they will beat me to death!" Nevertheless she obeyed. When her words were heard, Iktomi cried, "Who is it that calls me Ikt6mi? Depart, lest I beat you to death!" The old woman ran to her tipi and told what had occurred, but the boy sent her back again on the same errand. A second time she was frightened away, and then Wey6ta gave her this message: "Ikt6mi, my grandson has sent me for his clothes. If you do not give them up, he is coming for them himself." When the impostor heard that threat, he reluctantly took off his stolen finery and gave it to the old woman. In view of what he had done to Waziya, the chief began to think that perhaps the ill-favored little boy who lived on the edge of the village was the real Wey6ta.

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II6 THE NORTH AMERICAN. INDIAN So in spite of his apparent youth Wey6ta received Hakaktaki, the chief's younger daughter, for his wife, and the two were settled in the tipi with Chokaptiki and Ikt6mi. The elder sister openly expressed her scorn of the new couple, and especially of her brother-in-law. "I wish you would take your boy-husband," she would say to Hakaktaki, "and go to some other tipi to live, for if you remain here he will get us very lousy." One morning when the red eagle flew over the camp, Wey6ta drew an arrow and sent it through the bird's breast. The eagle drew in its wings and fell to the ground on the opposite side of a hill. At noon he shot the fox, and its skin he suspended from the tripod at the head of his bed. The interior of the dwelling glowed with the bright redness of it, and jealousy took the place of scorn in the heart of Chokaptiki. "They say ugly things are lucky," she remarked. "Your boyhusband is very homely; perhaps that is why he is so lucky. But I suppose it was an accident that he shot the eagle and the fox." To all her jibes Hakaktaki and her husband made no reply. A few days later Wey6ta set out to find the body of the eagle, for it seemed to him that he had inflicted a mortal wound. On the ridge beyond which the bird had fallen he overtook an old man with a pack. "Where are you going, grandfather," he asked, "with that bundle on your back?" "This is my medicine-bag, grandson, and I am going to a village over this ridge to doctor an honored child, who is ill with a wound through his breast. I have visited him several times, so that he is almost well, and this is my last journey to doctor him." "Grandfather, what do you do when you reach the summit of this hill? " asked Wey6ta. " As soon as I arrive at the top," said the old medicine-man, "I walk zigzag back and forth, and sing. All the people run away and conceal themselves; then I enter the tipi where lies the honored child, and doctor him. When I come away, the people return to their dwellings."

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Spotted Elk - Brule [photogravure plate]

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THE TETON SIOUX I"7 "Which song do you sing, grandfather?" inquired Wey6ta. "This is the song, grandson: 'To doctor I come, to doctor I come, to doctor I come.' " Having learned the secret, Weyota clubbed the medicine-man into insensibility, seized the bag, and ran to the top of the ridge. There he walked back and forth, singing the medicine-man's song, and people came running out of the tipis that stood in the valley below, and hid themselves in the hills. Weyota hurried down the slope, and entered the tipi of the patient, where, as he had expected, he found the red eagle. Without pausing he crossed to the bed, wrenched the creature's head off, picked up the body and his arrow, which was lying across the sacred earth-spot, and returned to the village. When the red eagle-skin appeared beside that of the fox, Chokaptiki's jealousy knew no bounds. On the following day Wey6ta took his wife on a journey. After a while they came to a wide river, so deep that the water was blue. As they sat on the bank he said to Hakaktaki, " Walk straight into the water, and I shall wait here until you come out." As she refused to do it, he arose, took her by the arm, and threw her into the water. She screamed in terror, but soon sank. A long time elapsed before she reappeared, but she came out of the water without difficulty, and her beauty was wonderful. Her clothing too had been completely transformed by the mysterious water, and was now more gorgeous than any garment she had ever seen. "Now I am going in," said Weyota. "Wait here for me; do not go away." He leaped into the water, and after a while he came forth a tall, handsome young man, splendidly garbed. When they returned to the village they were treated as strangers, until they revealed their identity. Then the chief knew certainly that this was Wey6ta, the wonder-worker, and that the husband of Chokaptiki was Ikt6mi, who had deceived him. Filled with rage, he sent men to kill the trickster, but the latter, scenting trouble, made off to the hills and concealed himself in a cave. Chokaptiki now became possessed of a mad love for her brother

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I 8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN in-law, and desired that he take her also for a wife; but custom required that the consent of the sister first married be obtained, and to all her tearful entreaties Hakaktaki turned a deaf ear. " You despised him because he was a homely boy," she said. " Now that he is a handsome man you wish to be a wife of his, but I will not permit it. Besides, he might make you lousy! "

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His Fights - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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The Yanktonai

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A river camp - Yanktonai [photogravure plate]

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THE YANKTONAI T HE Yanktonai constitute, with the Yankton, the so-called middle division of the Dakota, that body which, in later historic times, has made its home along Missouri river. First mentioned in I680 by Hennepin as occupying the region north of Mille Lac in eastern Minnesota, this branch of the Dakota began from there a westward movement that eventually brought it to the Missouri at a point, tradition tells us, near the mouth of White river in South Dakota. No definite date can be assigned to this migration. It of course consumed many years, ending probably not later than I750, for not long thereafter-about I770 or I775 -they were established on the Missouri in such numbers as to attack and almost exterminate a strongly stockaded Mandan village near the site of the present Bismarck, North Dakota, two hundred miles north of White river. And inasmuch as the clear Mandan tradition of the slaughter speaks casually of the victors, without the expression of the surprise and consternation that would have been caused by the sudden appearance of hostile newcomers in the land, it may be concluded that the Yanktonai were not then strangers in the region. There in the Apple Creek country of North Dakota they remained until reservation days, raiding to the north upon Mandan, Hidatsa, Arikara, Cree, and Assiniboin, and to the northwest upon Blackfeet, Atsina or Gros Ventres, Apsaroke, Cheyenne, and even so distant a tribe as the Nez Perces; while in the south their war-parties encountered the Omaha and the Pawnee. Their hunting parties, too, pushed far up the Missouri, ever pressing on the rear of the Assiniboin until, about the year I863, was negotiated a peace that suffered only two interruptions. Four years later hostilities with the three tribes of village-dwellers -Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara -

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122 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN ceased, and in I869 the last roaming band of Yanktonai was brought within reservation bounds. In few aspects do the Yanktonai differ greatly from the Teton. Although they have no knowledge of the myth of the White Buffalo Woman, to whom the Teton ascribe the origin of their five principal religious rites, they nevertheless observed the same five ceremonies of Foster-parent Chant, Sun Dance, Vision Cry, Ghost Keeper, and Buffalo Chant. Most important, next to these, was the Mystery Dance of the fraternity of medicine-men, an institution early adapted by the Santee, Yankton, and Yanktonai Dakota from a similar Algonquian one, but not existent among the Teton. The purpose of the organization was to afford the opportunity to demonstrate the strength of each member's medicine, and the dance, held annually, resolved itself into a contest among the various wakd" powers of the medicine-men. While dancing the participants struck one another with their medicine-bags, and as one man fell in acknowledgment of another's superiority, the spectators expressed their approbation by lusty shouts. Into this order a new member was initiated by a ritual. Here he was first instructed in the performance of an act of legerdemain, and then one of the older men flung his medicinebag at the candidate, who fell, ostensibly unconscious, to be quickly restored by the use of the same wonderful medicine. When a member had obtained a new medicine, either by revelation or by purchase, he at once tested its virtue, tying little bags of it to the wrists or moccasins of a relative in order to determine whether it would protect him in battle, if that were the purpose of the medicine. When the efficacy of the medicine had been proved, he gave the Wlaka"-wohanpi, or Sacred Feast, inviting the other medicinemen and perhaps their families. Only those who were free of defilement were permitted to attend the feast. Each brought a large wooden plate, which, after certain prayers and songs, was piled high with food, and as the host began to sing rapidly the guests were required to eat with equal rapidity, until no morsel remained. The members of the middle branch of the Dakota family were distributed in I907 as follows: Yankton - under the Yankton agency,

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Gray Bear - Yanktonai [photogravure plate]

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THE YANKTONAI 123 South Dakota, I716. Yanktonai-Upper Yanktonai under Fort Peck agency, Montana, 1145; scattered among other Sioux (including the Cutheads at Fort Totten, North Dakota), about i50; Lower Yanktonai under Crow Creek agency, South Dakota, 1028; Upper and Lower Yanktonai under Standing Rock agency, North Dakota, about 2500. Total population of Yankton and Yanktonai, about 6500.

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I

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Yellow Horse - Yanktonai [photogravure plate]

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The Assiniboin

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4

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Camp life - Assiniboin [photogravure plate]

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THE ASSINIBOIN T HREE centuries ago the seven divisions of the Dakota were dwelling in the region between the headwaters of the Mississippi and the western end of Lake Superior. About the time of the landing of the Pilgrim Fathers, a band of the Yanktonai, deserting their tribesmen in anger, says tradition, over wrong done to their chief's wife, moved away to the north and east, until, after indefinite wandering, they established a temporary home on the shores of a wooded lake. Thus was born the Assiniboin tribe, first mentioned as distinct from the Dakota by the Jesuit Relation of I640, and located by the Relation of I658 on "Lake Alimibeg," later identified as either Rainy lake on the northern boundary of the present State of Minnesota, or else Lake Nipigon, north of Lake Superior in the direction of Hudson bay. Into this territory the Assiniboin were received hospitably by the powerful Cree, and became, as their new-found friends long had been, bitter enemies to the Dakota. Drifting westward, by 1670 they had reached Lake Winnipeg, where, with the aid of their allies, they dispossessed the Blackfeet and established themselves on its shores and along the Saskatchewan and Assiniboine rivers. Here among the inlets of the lake and on the never-ending stretches of river they became so expert in the use of birchbark canoes that one band received the appellation "Paddlers." Gradually they separated, the two divisions becoming so distinct by I744 as to be noted under different names. One band continued to hold the valleys of the two northern streams, and became known as Stonies, while the other pressed southward to the Missouri, ranging east and then south along its course as far as Apple creek. There they were checked by the oncoming Yanktonai, their brothers of generations before, by whom they were forced back to the north.

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128 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN In common with other tribes of the Missouri the Assiniboin fell prey to the scourge of the smallpox, which in I838 spread to their camp, at that time in the country to the east of Fort Buford, North Dakota. Fully one-half of the occupants of their four hundred tipis succumbed. On the upper Missouri they continued to make their home, sending war-parties westward as far as the Blackfeet and Apsaroke, and southward against Mandan, Hidatsa, Arikara, Yanktonai, and Teton, and harassed in turn by the constant attacks of their enemies, more particularly of the Teton. For the Assiniboin were not so formidable as were many other tribes hostile to the Teton, and their camps became a favorite objective of young warriors ambitious for the honors of war. Neither physically nor mentally do the Assiniboin appear to be the equal of the Dakota. Thunder and Sun received the deepest veneration, and of course each individual paid devotion also to his own medicine, his tutelary spirit, which might be that of an animal or of an inanimate natural object. Besides the two great mysterious beings there was Anu"k-ite, Double Face, vaguely described as a spirit which appeared to devotees in the Sun Dance and told them he was searching for those who did not make sacrifice to him. He was quickly appeased by offerings of bits of flesh cut from the arms or the tips of fingers. Double Face came also to members of war-parties, and though his two faces were exactly similar, his voices were unlike, and by this difference warriors were enabled to know whether success or failure awaited them. Chief among the Assiniboin religious practices was Watichagrhe, Make A Home, a name probably referring to the nest built for the Thunderbird. The ceremony was allied to the Sun Dance of other tribes, but is perhaps not properly called a sun-rite, since Thunder, not Sun, was the being principally invoked. Whatever man in the course of a year first dreamed of the ceremony gave public notice of his vision, and when the sun had about attained its most southerly point, he called into a tipi certain noted warriors, whose compassion and aid he implored as he cried and laid his hand on their heads. These men the next day went into the woods

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An Assiniboin lodge [photogravure plate]

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THE ASSINIBOIN I29 for the sacred tree, which was brought in the same day and erected as the central supporting post of a lodge made of a framework of poles covered with skins. This Mystery Tree was about thirty feet high to the fork, in which was lashed a bundle of sticks, the Thunder Nest. In the soft bark near the top were carved figures of Thunderbird, a flash of lightning, and Double Face. At sunset of this second day began the dancing, which continued until the same time of the fourth day, women, who sometimes participated but never were pierced, dancing in the west quadrant of the lodge and the men in the other three quarters. Two typical songs used at this stage of the Assiniboin Sun Dance are as follows: WakinCyan chan-wakan kn? nOtahan kawinghapi. Thunder tree-mysterious this close about hovers round. Allegro vivo. DRUM. REFRAIN. -, - f_ > > e I ~;'dVO ^ II I-: - > I> > 7- > >_ an _II.,^r r * live err l~*Mr or I > > VOL. IIL-9

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130 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN REFRAIN. ^_ft r; r ft r 1Qt J ^ r ^- -I ___ ______ _ ___ 0..?'] o1 ~ f C ~'= ~ C- C - - ot -O I Cha -waka" knO ma ktiy-wakty. Tree-mysterious this I recognize. 4llegro vivace. __ _ - - I- - ] DRUM.: ---<-~ ---- ^. n -L —4,..,,-_, -- m It _,D> > > p P _~z zz' _ _____ _ __ - I — ~ ^ ~ 1-='A A -P I '1 A C, -C ' C ---C I W ~ ~ ~ ~ -IX y

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Long Fox - Assiniboin [photogravure plate]

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THE ASSINIBOIN 131 1> 2 I _ 0- - -I - lil'. ---I ---[: -— I About the midde o th third dy t w i ttl r t P / other critical times had made vows to do so were pierced through the muscles of the breast and tied to the rawhide ropes that hung > > > from the pole, while the singers wildly chanted such songs as the following: Anu4k-ite token' eya hIntahanTh echin wakitta. Double Face whatever he says if that way so he determines it. Allegro vivace. DRUM. themuclo... tied h- > > > tha h i[ I. I I " - j1: AP IbzI AP I!I ow! 'OF I ~or!!I or! —! l'~: --- —1[~ l~ll?l --- t~-l --- —~ —:l~~. I Zta

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I32 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN t. ' I: oloo.o..-I-ol~ oi:__ [- A "->- ~., I I —z- t I — c ~~~~~~~Lr '~~~~~~~~~~A AP,. ~~1~,,, / __ _ _ _ ~_, ~: Inside the circle of the other participants they danced until to each had appeared the spirit to whom the vow had been given. This was not so frequently the Sun as it was the Thunder. Then if they had not previously torn themselves free, the ropes were thrown off. The rites of the Ghost Keeper were performed in almost identically the same manner as among the Teton, and a Foster-parent Chant, obtained from the Mandan and Hidatsa during a friendly visit to their village, was practised under the name Cha n6op-kozap, Wave The Pipes.1 Medicine-men received their power from spirit sources through the medium of visions, and in their practices made use of songs, plants of waka" strength, and jugglery, such as sucking the disease out through the affected part. Many herb-medicines and their appropriate songs were bought from the Cree. Of Algonquian origin also was Wogichihichapi, They Awaken One Another, the medicine ceremony of a society which included both men and women. When a sick person was to be treated, a long tipi was set up, and the members, each carrying the waka" skin of some animal, sat in two rows along its sides, singing, and making motions as if to throw the skins at the patient. At a climax in songs and motions he fell in a swoon, from which he was revived by piling the skins upon his body, thus drawing out both the powerful medicine and the illness. Another heritage from their long association with the Cree was 1 As Mandan and Hidatsa use Arikara words in the songs of this ceremony, the Assiniboin, having borrowed it from those tribes, do likewise.

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Good Voice Hawk - Yanktonai [photogravure plate]

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THE ASSINIBOIN I33 the practices of the Yae'chonsa, who for a price would engage to bring disease or death upon the enemy of him who sought their service. Their power was obtained through dreams, which must be kept secret, and whose commands it was essential to obey implicitly. The 1faechonsa in his conjurations made an image of birchbark, or, after the forest country had been abandoned, of rawhide, punched four holes through the vital parts, and buried it in a freshly raised mound on a hilltop. These things were of course done secretly. No man dared openly avow himself Yaecchonsa, for tribal sentiment would have cost him his life; but he could be known to the few for whom he practised his magic, and through them by rumor to the tribe, without causing malevolent designs against him. For a similar reason any organization they may have effected - and the Assiniboin of the present day declare they were organized -was necessarily secret. Previous to the outbreak of smallpox among them in 1838 the Assiniboin population was variously estimated to be from six thousand to ten thousand. In 1907 there were 1217 Assiniboin in the United States: 656 at Fort Belknap agency, Montana, and 561 at Fort Peck agency, Montana. The various small bands of the tribe in Canada aggregate 873.

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Flying Shield - Yanktonai [photogravure plate]

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Appendix

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t~ ~~~ ~~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

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APPENDIX Tribal Summary
The Teton Sioux
LANGUAGE - Siouan. POPULATION - Pine Ridge reservation, South Dakota: Ogalala, 6688. Rosebud reservation, South Dakota: Brules, Upper Brules, Miniconjou, Ogalala, Two Kettles, 5011. Cheyenne River reservation, South Dakota: Blackfeet (Sihasapa), Sans Arcs, Miniconjou, Two Kettles, 2540. Lower Brule reservation, South Dakota: Lower Brules, 485. Standing Rock reservation, North Dakota: Blackfeet (Sihasapa), Hunkpapa, about 800. Total population of the Teton Sioux, about I5,500. DRESS - Men wore hip-length leggings, loin-cloth, and moccasins, all made from tipicoverings softened by weathering and by long exposure to smoke; for ceremonial or festal occasions finer garments of deerskin richly embroidered with dyed porcupine-quills. Customarily no shirt was worn, the upper body, when necessary, being covered with a buffalo-skin belted at the waist but not fastened in front. Those who had performed certain prescribed feats in war were entitled to wear shirts adorned with scalp-locks. The war-bonnet of eaglefeathers arrayed in a circlet about the head and extending in a flowing train even to the heels was worn on special occasions by warriors; but this form came into use only after the introduction of horses. In suitable weather boys up to the age of about ten years went naked. The hair in a small circle about the crown of the head was braided and tied at the end with a thong- the so-called scalp-lock. From this circle to the temples extended two diverging lines of parting; the hair between them, hanging over the forehead, was cut at the level of the eyes and curled upward by frequent wetting; the remainder hung in front of the shoulders in two braids wrapped with strips of otter- or beaver-skin. Women wore deerskin dresses reaching half-way below the knee, with elbow-length sleeves open at the armpits and tied with thongs on the upper and under sides. Leggings extended from ankle to knee, and moccasins were ornamented with quillwork. In winter a buffalo-robe was worn for additional protection, and both women and men wore moccasins of buffalo-skin with the hairy side inward. Dresses for other than ordinary wear were fringed at the bottom and under the sleeves, and ornamented with designs in quillwork. Earrings were pieces cut from clamshell, sometimes many of them in a string; massive ornaments made by stringing cylinders of bone were hung about the neck. The hair was parted in the middle from forehead to nape of neck, each half hanging in front of the shoulders in a braid tied at the end

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I38 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN with a thong. The hair of children was parted in the middle and braided on each side with stiffening of strips of rawhide. DWELLINGS - The tipi, a portable structure consisting of a framework of poles covered with buffalo-skins tanned almost white, which, however, turned brown with use. Inside was hung a curtain to deflect upward the air that entered under the loosely pegged tipi-cover. At the peak was the smoke-hole, with two flaps extending outward for regulating the draft. The two ends of the cover were fastened together in front with wooden pins. When dogs were used as pack-animals the tipi was about ten feet in diameter, requiring six or seven skins; after the advent of the horse sixteen or more were used. PRIMITIVE FOODS - Besides furnishing material for clothing and dwellings, as well as many utensils, the buffalo was the principal source of food. Many other animals and some birds were eaten, as taste or necessity demanded, and berries and roots of many sorts were gathered for food by the women. (See the list in the Vocabulary, pages 153, I54-5.) ARTS AND INDUSTRIES - The principal handicraft was the preparation of skins by tanning on one or both sides, or by merely scraping off the hair and drying into rawhide. The tanned skins were used in making tipi-covers, clothing, and bags and other receptacles of various kinds. Besides deerskin pipe-bags and several forms of deerskin bags for holding personal trinkets and small articles of clothing, were the so-called parfleches of rawhide in which were packed pemmican, dried cherries, and berries of many sorts. Designs were painted on parfleches, and embroidered in colored porcupine-quills on deerskin bags and clothing. Tipis were sometimes painted with colored earths in representation of personages or objects seen in dreams. Bows were of ash or cherry, backed with sinew; arrow-points of steel, earlier of bone, and more anciently of stone; war-clubs and axes of naturally shaped stones further adapted to their use by pecking, and fitted with handles of rawhide or of wood; knives of clamshells bound to wooden handles; circular war-shields of rawhide shrunken thick and dried in convex shape; spoons of mountain-sheep and buffalo horn softened and shaped by heat; bowls of natural protuberances on trees hollowed by burning and scraping; pipes of catlinite with stems partly stone and partly ash, or entirely ash. Fire was made primitively with the drill, the spindle being of ash, the base of yucca, with sand at the point of contact. Food was boiled in water heated with stones in a skin or in a buffalo-paunch. GAMES- Cha'-haka-unpi ("use branched pole") was their form of the almost universal hoop-and-pole game. The pole was five or six feet long, and to it at intervals were lashed four crosspieces bent in crescent shape. The hoop, about eighteen inches in diameter, was of twisted rawhide wound with deerskin. The method of count was simple. Tap-kapsichapi ("ball bounce") was a game of shinny played by either men or women. The ball, tapa, tanned skin stuffed with buffalo-hair, was quite hard and elastic. Each player used a stick, tap-ichapsiche ("ball-bouncer"), about four feet long and crooked at the end. Goals were marked by two trees or poles about twenty yards apart, and the course was as much as half a mile long. Contests were usually between bands. Ha'pa-pecho'pi ("moccasin strike"), a guessing game in which small twisted strips of deerskin, one red, one blue, were concealed in one of four moccasins, was a favorite diversion.- In all games gambling was the motive. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION - Of the Teton there are seven separate and distinct bands: Ogalala, Brule, Miniconjou, Sans Arc, Two Kettle, Blackfoot (Sihasapa), Hunkpapa. Each band had its own head-chief and lived in general apart from the others. The bands were subdivided into gentile groups, each with its chief, itacha. The council, ominlichiye, meeting in the tipi-6kihe, was assembled to consider questions of public moment. Chiefs were elected at a general council of warriors, and continued in active office until old age unfitted them for war, or loss of wealth for the demands of hospitality. Before the Teton came under the influence of

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APPENDIX I39 traders, chieftainship was not hereditary. Chiefs were influential rather than potent, although through their Akichita, the so-called Soldiers, they were able to control their respective bands in many ways, particularly as to moving camp and hunting buffalo in summer and fall. In each band the Soldiers were selected in the spring by two Soldier Chiefs, Akichita-itacha, themselves appointed by the tribal chief. Their headquarters, the tiyo-tipi, was one of the important centres in the camp, and was kept well supplied with meat by the other members of the band. Disobedience to the orders of the Soldiers in breaking camp or surrounding buffalo was punished by cutting up the offender's tipi, maiming or killing his horses, or even himself. There were several organizations, okolakichiye ("have each other for friend"), chiefly military in purpose, and lacking the feature of degrees seen in similar societies of some other plains tribes. Cha"te-ti'za, Brave Heart; Pehi'-ptechela, Short Hair (the original name was Tata'kawapahaon, Wear Buffalo Head-dresses); Miwdtani, Mandan (formerly called Hinha'fhu"wapaha, Owl-feather Head-dress); Tokala, Kit-fox - these are said to have been the societies as they existed in former times. In later years others were formed, some of them borrowed or purchased from other tribes. None long survived the beginning of reservation life. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION - Descent is through the male line. A bridegroom sometimes pitched his tipi among those of his wife's gentile relations, and was called wicha-woh'a ("man buried"); if the bride came to live with her husband's people, she was called wi'-wokha ("woman buried"). The gentile system is so disintegrated that no authoritative list of the gentes can now be obtained. Such lists as have been given in recent years are largely those of modern local divisions. Formerly endogamous unions were impossible, and there was a rigid custom governing the measure of intimacy permissible between relatives of each degree. For example, a man could not address or even look at his mother-in-law or her sisters (a taboo of very general vogue), but could communicate freely with his wife's sisters, and her brothers were his most intimate associates. A man, old or young, might not remain even a moment alone with his sister. Men acted with restraint toward their sisters' mothers-in-law and the sisters of the latter, but with the daughters of these they associated on terms of freedom. Men treated with the greatest respect their children-in-law. The father's brothers are called ate, "father," and their children "sisters" and "brothers," elder or younger as the case may be. His sisters are called to"wi" (corresponding to aunt), and their daughters and sons hankafhi and taha"Thi respectively (corresponding to cousin). The mother's sisters are ina, "mother," her brothers lekihi (corresponding to uncle). Husband and wife owned in severalty their personal property, which was usually distributed according to the desire of the owner expressed before death. A widow returned with her children to her parents, pending another matrimonial alliance, and a widower left the children under the charge of his mother-in-law, unless he had other wives living, in which case they might care for the motherless ones. MARRIAGE- A wife was obtained by sending presents to the family of the girl, who, if they deemed the suitor worthy, accepted them and sent gifts to his family. The girl was then sent to her lover's tipi, becoming his wife by that act. Since horses have been in their possession the usual betrothal gift was four to ten of them. Very frequently the suitor, after exchanging with his sweetheart love-tokens of sweet-grass placed in little fringed deerskin bags, to be worn at the end of the hair-braids, would steal her from her tipi at night and at once take her home as his wife. This act was regarded as rather creditable to the man, but less so to the girl, who had given herself away without the usual bestowal of presents. A man's wives were limited in number only by his ability to win and support them. He might, with the consent of his wife, take a very young sister of hers and keep her until she attained maturity, when she became a wife. All dwelt in the same tipi, and if a deposed favorite created discord by her jealousy, she was unceremoniously sent back to her parents. Often a runaway wife was killed by the

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I40 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN husband, and a meeting between the husband and the paramour usually resulted in a fight. If the deserted husband were a man of prominence, members of the Short Hair sodality sometimes took to him a ceremonial pipe and several horses, which latter were given to him if he smoked in token of his intention to condone the wrong. There was no prescribed punishment for adultery, but the guilty man was apt to be set upon, unless the Short Hairs intervened with the pipe. CULTURE HERO - Iktomi, Spider, is the myth-character about which a great body of folktales centres. Before any other creature he matured and spoke, and went about the world bestowing names upon every living creature and inanimate thing. In his constant travelling he met with innumerable misadventures, each of which is the subject of a tale. Iktomi is hardly, as some have pronounced him to be, the personification of evil: his acts are far less often malicious than mischievous, or merely ridiculous, and were undoubtedly ascribed to him by the story-tellers for the purpose of pointing a moral to the children. He is frequently introduced as a foil to the transformer, a youth who, under various names, appears in well-nigh numberless myths as a poor, ill-favored boy, only to emerge from his self-assumed obscurity as a handsome, irresistible miracle-worker. For an example, see WEY6TA AND IKTOMI, page I II. CEREMONIES - There were five principal religious rites: iwanayank-wachipi, Sun Dance; Hanbdle-cheapi, Vision Cry; Wanaghli-yuha, Ghost Keeper; Tatanka-lowanpi, Buffalo Chant (a puberty ceremony for girls); and Hunka-lowa"pi, Foster-parent Chant. All were instituted by a mythical person, Pte-san-winyan, White Buffalo Woman. The dances of the societies had no special religious significance, and there was no ritualistic healing ceremony: each medicineman proceeded as his spirit-helper had taught him in a vision. MEDICINE-MEN- The wich6aha-waka" (" man-mysterious") obtained power from some spirit-creature in a vision. All men fasted for the purpose of experiencing visions, and practically all saw visions, but not all became medicine-men - only those whose tutelary spirits revealed, in addition to such other things as songs and modes of painting, plants and amulets that subsequently proved potent in curing illness of body and mind. Pezthuta (" grass-root") is the name applied both to the material substance administered to the patient, and to the mysterious influence exerted by the healer. The healing practice is wapiya, and each medicine-man had his own method of procedure, called by the name of the spirit-animal that gave it: as, Mato-wapiya, Bear Healing Ceremony; Tatdnk-waplya, Buffalo Healing Ceremony. The herbs, roots, and charms were kept in a cylindrical rawhide pouch, w6piye, which, when not carried, was suspended from a pole outside the tipi. Payment was received for treatment, which was by conjuring and mental suggestion, far more than by herbs of any therapeutic value. Coups - The recognized war-honors were four in number: striking one of the enemy, whether dead or alive; killing an enemy; taking a scalp; capturing a horse. Coup could be counted by the first four men that struck any individual of the enemy; that is, four honors could be taken from each hostile warrior. One who had led four war-parties and in each case struck one of the enemy first was regarded as a chief. If in addition he had been wounded in battle, had his horse wounded or killed, captured a horse, and served as chief of scouts, he was permitted to wear a shirt ornamented with scalps. BURIAL - As soon after death as possible relatives combed the hair of the deceased, dressed the body in fine clothing, and painted the face red, and after a small lock of hair had been cut off for the Ghost Keeper, they wrapped the body tightly and securely in several skins. A person of the same sex as the deceased made a platform in a tree, carried the body thither, and lashed it to the scaffold. Mourning relatives and friends followed. A buffalo-bladder filled with pemmican was tied in the branches, or a bowl of boiled meat placed on the ground,

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APPENDIX '41 and the favorite horse was killed to carry the spirit to the south. This form of burial continued until about i88o. Warriors killed in battle were sometimes prepared for burial and left in a tipi near the scene of the conflict. AFTER-WORLD - As to the home of spirits the Teton say little except that it is in the south. NAMES FOR INDIAN TRIBES English Teton Apache Chi'chaki'ze Apsaroke, or Crows KaW~hi-wichigha Arapaho Arikara Assiniboin Atsina, or Gros Ventres Blackfeet (Raven Man) Mahpiya-to I Palini HWhe Shku'tani Siha'-sapa ranktonai Kahih-wichfigha Mahpiya-to Padini HWhe Hiahi-to Siha'-sapa Assiniboin Ka'hi-toka (Raven Enemy) Mahpiya-to Palini Wat6pana 2 Hahi-to1wa' (Waterfall Village) Sihi-sapa (Black Foot) W6-wichig'hta (Blood Man) Shaihiyana I't6-tokiye (Paint Face) Bloods We'-wicha'$ha Cheyenne Chippewa Comanche Flatheads Hidatsa Kiowa Mandan Navaho Nez Perce's Omaha Pawnee Piegan Pueblos Shoshoni Shahiyela Hahi-to'wa' (Water-fall Village) Si'te'htlla-wichi~ha (Rattlesnake Man) Nati-billecha (Oval Head) Hewaktokta Wita-pahitu (Island Hill) Miwitani Shini-gialegiMegha (Striped Blanket) P6'ghe-htll6ka Omaha Schili 3 Ighiigba-otila (Rock Dwellers) Peibi-wokeyotila (Grassthatch Dwellers) Shahiyana ChiP-haha-to' (Live In Woods At The Falls) Tahi'-wichigha (Hair Man) Ta-bildaska Hiewiktokta Miwitani PO6gh6hdid6k6 Schidi Pikan Pi-mdaska (Flat Head) Hlewiktukta Mayatana P6ho-hi1doke (Nose Hole) Pikina Shd"ghu'-wichia'ha 4 1 Malipiya-to, Blue Cloud, in allusion to the blue earrings worn by this tribe. 2 JJat6pana, Paddlers: the name by which the Assiniboin at Fort Peck reservation call themselves. The Canadian Assiniboin, commonly known as Stonies, they call JJat6palinatonwa. 3 Schili: a Sioux pronunciation of the Caddoan Skidi, a Pawnee band. i Shu'Yhun-wicha'ha: the first part of the word is doubtless an attempt to say Shoshoni.

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I42 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN English Sioux Blackfeet Brules Hunkpapa Teton Lak6ta Siha-sapa Sichai-ghu Hu"kpapa Miniconjou Mini-ki"woihu, Miniko6hu Ogalala Sans Arcs Two Kettles 1 Santee Yankton Yanktonai Ute Winnebago Ogilla Itazip-cho Owehe-no"pa Isa"yati Wichiyela Wichiyela Sapa-wichasha ranktonai Dak6ta Siha-sapa Sicha"-ihu Hu6kpapa Mlni-ka"woihu Okdidad Itizip-cho Owehe-nonpa Isi"ati Ihank-tonwa" Ihank-to'waana Sapa-wichasha Assiniboin Nak6ta Siha-sahena (Black Foot) Sichan-hu (Singed Thigh) Hu"kpapa (Those At The Entrance Of Camp) Mini-kinwozhu (Plant Beside Water) Okinnan Itasip-cho (Without Bows) Oohe-no"pa (Two Boilings) Isaiati Ihank-tonwan (Village At The End) Iha"k-tonwanna (Little Village At The End) Sapa-wichaihta (Black Man) Ho-ta"ke (Strong Voice) Note on the Indian Music
In preparing for publication the songs given in these volumes, the subject has been regarded from the viewpoint of the student of music rather than of the artist; that is to say, no attempt has been made, however interesting it might have been, to arrange the songs in conformity with the musical canons of the white man. The aim has been to record them, so far as this can be done in our musical notation, exactly as they are sung by the Indians, with regard to accent, rhythm, and metrical division, so that any one, reading them carefully, may be able to form an accurate idea of Indian music as it is actually rendered. In comparing the music of the Indian with our own, some important differences may be noted: First, the Indian produces the tone farther back; he sings from the throat. Secondly, the sustained tones (not sustained, however, after our manner of singing) that are nearly always found at the close of the different sections of the song of a plains Indian, are not of fixed length: the singer prolongs them, more or less, at pleasure. In this respect it seldom happens that any song is rendered in exactly the same manner by different individuals. Thirdly, the plains Indian does not admire a sustained tone as it is known to the white man; he considers it dull, lifeless. When any long note occurs, he usually divides it, by con-tracting the muscles of his throat, into many shorter notes, producing an effect somewhat similar to a strong but rhythmical vibrato. The notes into which the longer one is broken up are usually of the length of what might be called the unit of the song. For instance, in a song in 1 The names beginning with Blackfeet and ending with Two Kettles are those of the seven divisions of the Teton, whom collectively the Yanktonai and Assiniboin call Titonwa", Prairie Village. The word is unknown to the Teton themselves, who have no collective name for the seven bands. All tribes of Sioux use the term Dakota, or Lakota, to designate those who speak one of the Dakota dialects, excepting the Assiniboin. The latter, however, include themselves under the term (Nakota).

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APPENDIX I43 6/8 time they will be eighth notes; in common time, quarter notes; or if the melody move in eighths, the notes also will be eighths. On the last note of a song the voice falls, either sinking slowly or dropping abruptly. The songs are here given in the actual pitch at which they were sung. International pitch is used. When a number of persons sing together, as at a dance, a higher key is generally chosen. Often the song is taken at so acute a pitch that the first part will be sung in a high falsetto. This, combined with the throaty tones, sometimes produces to a foreign ear the effect of the howling of coyotes rather than of singing. In reading these songs, when eighth or sixteenth notes are connected with slurs, it is to be understood that the longer note of which they are parts is articulated only very slightly; absence of slurs indicates a somewhat more distinct articulation. Eighths or sixteenths written separately are used only where there are actual words, or when in the articulation of a longer note there is a sharp break in the tone. The dropping of the voice on the final note is indicated by a slanting line, thus, \, longer or shorter as the note is uttered by the singer. In establishing the bar lines, the laws of melody and accent have been carefully followed. In many cases it would have been possible to divide the entire song into measures of equal length, but this would have been purely mechanical and hence would have obscured the musical sense of the song. Of harmony, as we understand it, the plains tribes have no conception, their songs being sung in unison, except when the women chant an accompaniment to the air of the men, and only here and there are the voices in harmony. The plains Indian is apt to finish his song, even if a love song, with two or three yells. Old men say that in former times many of the dance songs had no words, having been sung with only meaningless syllables. The earnest student will find in these songs a wealth of emotion and musical significance with which they will hardly be credited at first reading. E. F. TWO TORTURE SONGS OF LAKOTA SUN DANCE Moderato. DRUM. t, -.: m i W:j..,' —, > >, >^^lt^^^^j^^^ ra - IJ', ~']i _ ' " _ k k,~~~~~~~~~~n W ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~" Ior,, -'- ~"'' -:[, i ',~ ~ J,~.J 'l

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I144 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN gb j j. j=/_ -- i: =_in ] tc-tt J; ^^ wq-r~-n.. i~~ m aR~~vRU126 ra - 69 6 9 II:~T~.......No 14 a i r ig 11-t - n- >. '_ >.. >.. I69 6> o >>. j > _ > I~~' '~ ---,. i I, — ' I o o 5, i.| i ii [ ~..r.. r --- ' ' - JIm.....N a4 a- N aN aN N aW a —E> Ino/,.,,,]~,4td, ~,,4.i. -,, —,_.._~ 12 *~_._.!_~ ~-L,-.,, ~,,~ ~I_~ m,? ~?,? __ r.,,,? ~ ~. r.,.~?[j.~. ~__.?, ~ r., _,._~[j~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 bEm:-, d"o — ~. ~.- -~i~'F- ', -"IA2-~, *..:

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APPENDIX 145 > > > > 7 >,~~~~~ _ Mystery-great pity me; his horse komak 'uwo; hecha wa..htewala. and him too give me; that is what I wish. DRUM. ___, - -- vzz~ z~zd, V f- L t.a^ "-al t l aye ^ taf-' ~" 7> > -- +> > I - VOL. IVOL. III- IO

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146 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN >^f: r _ > > > >> > > n f-t- 4- S ^ ^ -^ ^ ^ X __> >> l -^^ CC Ic c-.. I -iv^ C __x Ig 1 T. r- IDRUM. r: r ^:, _ ~ L L_... _ [ jj ide v 1 —4-~... -~. ~. I.4;.;? 4.[ l~~b C C C;AS IG:;: C; 1-= SM!IC X~~~~ ~-!-I~,~.-..):2mNtNttN9 1 X..... ' "> >,,~

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APPENDIX 147 >"~ X ~> ~ -'-~ m 1 I --— _ _ m J m- - m I m, 'I 311 A llegro. La La i >fi -L AP - - r P,DRUM. > > _> > ], " -, I v - |! Ir - ---- 3 3 3 8 L- j - r - _ _ ~ —^ i ^ —I....:1 ---- r!-=F —' i --- —_.,'-"- i -' —__________________ ~ ~ 3 8 8 8 ^==H=^-s- _~_;x ~ ---~':l- ~ —h- ~ —,~ —I'-g y —tlta > >..r —_,,, —]

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148 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN > > 3 8 8 3 > > > > > > F F BRAVE HEART SONG- CHANT-TI"ZA Chante-ti'za kola ehane iyacye; Heart-hard (my) friend long ago has gone; miye ehakewaon. I survive him. DRUM. > > > > > > > > > > > > > >A>'- -T > _. > > > -- -- / rn --- 7 >I'-!- > __> > > > > > > > > > > ' ' 2 '4 t I II ~ ''n ' I 1J I, Ti1 7I]TI:4 L~r~~~~~

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APPENDIX 149 rA. --- _- > - - > > > > > > > > > > > — ^ F- f F_1J =LSE —.>IS C J.l -- IJ J!m1 > > > > > > > > > > > > > > >_ a —:- I my Mi A I,. m SITTING BULL'S WAR-SONG1 Mnka' sitomYni chaihe'mayatapelo; Earth all over they name me; beliheichiyawao yelo, b'lihe chiyapo. I am doing all I can, you must do your best. Moderato. >> > > > > g vTrp: ___ | tna > 1 _ r 1- t L# ' ' m. C- ' 'll m r =^4 ' ~ = C Il ' F'_ 1 This song was used by Sitting Bull when the warriors, mounted, sat awaiting the word to charge. Riding back and forth along the line, he would repeat the song in a high, shrill voice, concluding with these words, rapidly spoken: " Tata"k-iyota"ke Bull-sitting kte kill miyeeelo; I am okichize war chan, ta'ku whenever, something b liheichiyapo. " you must do your best. wachami-wao6welo; I always wish;

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I50 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN >^ ^ ^ ^ I L 0.,, f) ito- lln - IF t il tr C pr Ci J kn^1-o 1. *.*-_ - LOVE SONG Iwa"yaka, hinknawayechi walitewa/hni; Look, my husband I do not love; okiyakana kichMwao'kte. tell him (my lover) I will live with him. Moderato. > 4t- r r Ir_ MP r c - f >,, I-v,I > > > > 7 3,> > > > E r r tr > r rJ Ic r; rrmI c rf- Il — - _ --: —

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APPENDIX 'I5 Hunka-Lowanpi Prayers
Waka"-ta'ka, niye tokeya nichaihache; [ Mahpiya kile yakaihache na maka kile yakighache. I Wahupa-koza, niye tokeya nichaiha; ] Tan6kise anikichita na tan6kise wichaiha niyitapika, keyapiche. I A"petu wa"zhi waihte omiyakukte, ochichilote. Iyika" ikchewichiaha ichihmayaye. Wana matikunishniyelo; | Tka hokshila waghte kile h6choka apikiyInktelo. Cha, Wakai-tanka, wanminyankayo; 6oshimalayo, | Oyite waninktelo — Waziyata itechokaya oyate waninkte.' *x-. - -x - ** Wichaiha tuktel yacha"na wowahechon kiksuya, I Na tuktel yacha"na hokihikigfina. | Hokghi-i-ipotak iyinka; cha eyapelo. [ Wana le a"petu-ki, watonpika, ite ataninghniya" yahinonkelo. I Tiwihe tawa nichiya yahino"ke; I Wiyapahiche tawa nichiya yahino'ke; I Tugh6huta t6pa tiwa nichiya yahinonke; [ Wiyuholoke n6opa cha tawa nichiya yahinonke; | Ho tuhiuhuta kah6nhonze ghni hinhannaki h6chokata ite tainyakiylkte. | Le waghpaika-ki niye tokeya iyata yeyikiyI"kte; I Ohakap hukai 6himini michiyeki washpiaka-ki iyata yewakiyinkte. Waihpiaka kile iyata yewakiylnkte, na ite waziyata kiyi oyite waninkte. [ Onghimalaye.2 * *k * * * X Wamaikashka tuwa tokal-kepichakachas, Wahipa-koza, niye toka nichaghache. | Hokshila kile h6choka apikiyinkte; | Cha nita a"petu wa"nhi omayakukte, I Kahaitukegh oyite wanfiktelo. I Chaihpi kile makita kiya chichi pahakta. Tka tiku w6wahtani wanichinkte, oyite waninktelo.3 * * * * * Le a"petu-ki wamaika~hka tuwa tokecha kepichashni,Wa'bfli-gileghka, iyotan wash'ika. | Anpetu kile niti a"petu wa"zhhi omayakukte. | Hokghila kile h6choka apikiyl"kte. Nita hinyinkazhiche wa"nzhi ochichilotelo; | Niti a'petu washte omayakukte. I Oyate waninktelo, takuni w6wahtani wanichi'ktelo. | Waziyata kiya oy wanktelo.4 *x- *. * *a * Wiy6hi'ya'pata, a'petu kile wamaikaghka tuwa t6kecha kepichaghni. I Ka'kecha, apetu waghte nitiwa, keyipelo; I Apetu kile nihinyakazhiche wa"zhi omayakukte. I Hokshila kile hochoka apikiyIkte. I Apetu wanzhi waghte omayakukte. I Taku w6wahtani wanichI1kte, oyite wani"ktelo.5 It6kagha, wama kashka tuwa tokecha kepichaghni. I Pa-gh6"ta, apetu waghte nita keyapi. I Apetu kile a"petuwashte omayakukte. I Nihinyakazhicha ochichilotelo; Anp&tu washte oginai omayakukte. I Hokghila kile hochoka apikiyI'kte. I A"petu wanihi waghte ogtna apikiyInkte. | Wowahtani wanichI kte, oyate waninktelo.6 *x * * *xTuwa tokecha kepichashniyelo. I Waka'-ta'ka, niye tokeya nichigha. | Makochi kile yakighe na ahiyagdnakelo; I Iyaka"l ikche-wichiaha ichihmayayelo. | Wana matakunighni1 See page 72. 4 See page 77, To the North. 2 See page 74. 5 See page 77, To the East. 3 See page 76. 6 See page 77, To the South.

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I52 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN yelo; | Ikche-wichaiha ota imachaghi"kta wachi"yelo; I Taku w6wahtani kiheni wachinshniyelo. I Niye w6wagh'ake luhiyelo, Wakin-tanka; 6nghimalayo, oyite waninktelo. I Apetu wanihi omayakuktelo. I Hokihila kile h6choka apikiylnktelo. J Cha, Waki"-tanka, 6makiyayo, anpetu wa"nhi washt6 on 6mayakiyinktelo.1 * * * * * Iho, Hunka Wichagha-yatapika, washpinka niye tokeya iyata yeyaylnkte; | Ohakap, Hunki Wichagha-yatapika, iyita ye6nkiyapikte. i| hupe wokahe wanilya; I Wa6nkte ite waziyata; oyata waninktelo.2 Dakota Vocabulary
ANATOMICAL TERMS English Teton ankle-joint i-shka-hu arm i-st6 blood we bone hu-hu chest cha"t-ku chin i-ku ear nan-kpa; n6-ghe elbow i-ghpi eye i-ghti face i-te finger na-psu finger-nail 9ha-ke foot si; si-ha hair pe-hi" hand na-pe head na-ta; pa heart cha"-te knee chan-kpe leg hu lip i-ha lungs cha-ghu mouth i neck ta-hu nose pa-su; po-ghe nostril p6-ghe toes si-pi-hun-ka toe-nail si-ghi-ke tongue che-zhi tooth hi 1 See pages 77-78, To the Zenith. 2 See page 85. Yanktonai 6-ki-he; i-ghka-hu i-st6 we hu-hu chant-ki i-ku na-kpa; no-he i-st6-pa-zho i-4hta i-te sa-shte gha-ke si-ha pa-ha na-pei pa chan-tei chan-kpe hu i-shti cha-ghu i ta-hu po-he p6h-o-hido-ke si-pi -kpa si-ha-gha-ke che-zhi hi Assiniboin 6-ki-h6 i-st6 we hu-hu cha"t-ki in-ku non-he in-spa-se in"-hta 1 -t1 in-te na"-psi-hu gha-ge si-ha pa-ha nan-pe pa cha"-te ta-hai-ke che-cha in-ghti cha-ghi i ta-hu p6-he poh-chin-cha sio-ka-sa si-gha-ge che-zhi hi

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APPENDIX '53 ANIMALS'1 English antelope* badger* bat bear, black* bear, grizzly* beaver* buffalo* buffalo (bull) buffalo (cow) buzzard chipmunk* coyote deer* dog* eagle elk (bull)* elk (cow)* fish* fox fox, kithawk jay mink moose* mountain-lion mountain-sheep* otter owl prairie-dog* rabbit* rabbit, jack-* raccoon* raven skunk spider squirrel* turkey* turtle* wildcat wolf Teton ranktonai ta'-hcha-sa'-la ni-glhe'sa' 1i6-ka h6-ka wa-ha"-ksi-cha wa-ha -ksi-cha ma-to ma-t6; siha-ke'hu-te chi-pa cha'-pa pte pte pte pte he-cha' he-chata-~hna'-he-cha ti-ghna-he-cha mi-ghle-cha; ma-ya'-ghle mi-ya-ghde ti-hcha ti-hcha Ahd-ka ghd'-ka wa -buli wa'1-bcidil he-hi-ka e-ha'-ka ho-ghl ho-hn Aho-ghil-la 1fo"h-na to-kai-la to-ki-na che-tin che-tin Zin-tki-to Zin -tkai-to 'i-ku-sa" ni-ku-sa n ta 2 ta he-ch i-shka-ya-pi he-chi"-bka-pi pta n ptan hi -h" hi"-ha" piS-pin -za pIS-pi"-z ma-~hti"cha-la ma-ghti"-cha-na wi-chi-ti-gtile-gha wi-chai ma"-ka' ma"-ka zi-chai zi-chi' wa-gl~lk'4hun zi-zi-cha ke'a ke'a A4ssiniboin ho-ki hu-pa'-wa-k~i-kda-ka wa-ha"-ksi-cha ma-t6 chai-pa pte ta-ta"-ka pte he-chi' ta-4bna-he-cha 9Iiu"k-ch6-ka-na chi"-ta-hcha gbdi"-ka wa"n-bld'i he-hai-ka he-ha'-ka-wi-y6 ho-hi" to-kai-na che-ti" si-tka'-na-to ta h6'-ki-ghka hi"-ha" pis-ta"-ka ma-gEtlfi-sa-pe-na wi-chi' ka"-~hi ma"-ka he-hi-ka-ka-na si-chi' wa-kdd-kghu' k ea 1 The names of animals used as food are indicated by stars. 2 Probably the form ta was a generic name for horned animals; it appears not only as the word for moose, but as a component part of the terms for buffalo, deer, antelope (in Assiniboin).

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' 54. THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN CARDINAL POINTS English west north east south zenith Teton wi-y6'-hpe-ya-ta wa-zi-ya-ta i-t6-ka-glha-ta wan-kain-tu ranktonai wa-zi-ya-ta 1 wi-y6-hp6-ya-ta wa n-kan-tu A4ssiniboin wi-y6-hp~-yam wi-y6-hi11-ya'-pam h6-tam (down-stream) in-t6-kah wa'-kim COLORS black blue brown gray green si-pa to ghi h6-ta cha'-kpa'-pe-zihi iha-minai iha 16l-ta ska zi si-pa to ghi h6-ta pe-zhi-to; t6,-zi; t6-sa-pa iha-minai 9ba dd-ta ska zi si-pa to hi-tkai h6-ta to a-hi-tka 9ha ski'-na hi pink red scarlet white yellow PRIMITIViE FOODS 2 acorns artichoke beans buffalo-berries carrots cedar-berries choke-cherries corn 6-ta p a'-gh'i o-man'i-cha ma-gbtin-cha-la-pu-te 6 Aa-hi-ye-la tin-psi-la cha'-pa' wa-gflm'i-za u-ta pa'-h'i o-mtlnil-cha gha-hi-ya-na tie-psi-na ha11-ti-tka cha ap wa-h6-wa-pa (native) wa-kil1mi-za (of trade) 6n -k~hu-kihu-na ti-ku-9ha-9ha-na ghai-hi-ya-na tipsi-na cha _pa' wa-Ucmdn -ha-za I. I 11 I I currants wa- wi-w-cha-gflna-ghka wa-zi-wic ak a~ k a-t- ot-h gooseberries wi-cha'-g~ina-ihka wi-chi-kqina-~hka wi'-chi-kd6-Thka grapes chu'-wvi-ya-pi-he chu'-wii-ya-pi-he ch '-tka June-berries wi-pa-zu-ka wi-pa-zo-ka wi-pa-zu-ka' onions pghin pfhiin cha-m6 n-zi'-tka 1 It will be noticed that the Yanktonai apply the Teton terms to directions one quadrant earlier (referring to the clock-dial) than do the Teton themselves. Directions with them are relative to that of the Missouri river, and after they passed the great bend in their migration they continued to call the quarter from which the river flows wazliyata, north. The Assiniboin terms show some confusion. 2 See also under the head of Animals.

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APPENDIX '55 English pemmican plums potatoes raspberries red haws rose-hips sand-cherries strawberries turnips Teton wa-si-ni' kan-ta ta-ki'-he-cha-la ta-~hpa" wa-zihd'-9te-cha-1a tl -psi-la r'anktonai wa-ki'-pa-pi; wa-si-ni' kian-ta biid6 ta-ka -he-cha-na ta4hp in Assiniboin kian -ta ta-k in-he-cha wa-zihii-ghte-cha tin-psi-na wa-ih6'-ghte-cha ti -psi-na HANDICRAFT arrow arrow-point arrow-shaft bow deerskin dress head-dress house leggings loin-cloth moccasins pipe pipe-bag protection-string (of women) quiver shirt spoon sweat-lodge water-vessel wa-hf'-kpe wa n-si-ka i-ti'-zi-pa ta-hcha-hai chu-w'i-gtlna-ka wa-pi-ha ti-pi hon-skai che-gianai-ke hit1-pa cha'-n6 n-pa cha'-t6-iihu-ha o-pi-pa-kil-hta wa -zhu 6-gille i-ni-ti; ho-i-ni-ka-gbe wa-16-glha-mini-ya-ye wa-hi'-kpe wa n-si-ka i-ti-zi-pa ta-hai sa -ksa -ni-cha wa-pi-ha ti-pi ho'-ski' che-kihina-ka hi n-pa chan-n6'-pa chan-k6-zhu-ha o-pi-pa-ki-hta wa -ihu O-gfldi chi n-ghkai ch6-ha wa-hi'-kpe mas-h'i wa as-ga i-tai-si-pa ta-t6-ga-ha sa'-ksi'-cha wa-pi-ha wi ho'-ski' cho-kiini-ka hi n-pa cha'-n6'-pa win_-ihu chu-i-ka-na-ga ki-gbkai i-ni-ti-pi ch&g~ha NATURAL PHENOMENA ashes charcoal cloud darkness day earth fire fog forest ice cha-h6'-ta cha-hill'i ma-hpil-ya o-i-yo-kpa-za a P-ptu ma-ki' pe-ta ch6O'nwo-he-ghma chia-gh a cha-ho6-ta cha-hild'i ma-hp'i-ya ho-wil-yo-kpa-za ia-pa ma-ki' pe-ta chi'-gha cha-ho6-ta cha-hildi ma-hpil-ya a-6-kpa-za a -pa ma-ki' pe-ta chu-p6' cho -wa -cha chia-gh a

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156 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN English lake light lightning meteor Milky Way mist moon mountain night Pleiades rain rainbow river rock sky smoke snow star sun thunder water wind Teton bale o-zhan-zhan wa-kin-yan tun-wan-pi; wa-kain-gtli wi-cha-hpi hin-hpa-ya Wa-na-ghi Ta-chin-ku ml-ni-w6-za ha-he-pi wi pa-hi han-he-pi An-p6 Wi-cha-ki-ya-pi maghai-zhu wi-gimun-ke wa-kpa-la i -ya ma-hpi-ya gho-ta wa wi-cha-hpi wi wa-kin-yan mI-ni ta-te Yanktonai bade o-zhafn-zhan wa-kan-ktldi wi-cha-hpi hin-hpa-ya Ma-hpi-ya Wa-kin Tan-i ml-ni-wo-za ha"-he-pi wi in-ya'-he han-he-pi Wi-cha-hpi Pta-yan-ke man-gha'-hu wi-ktmun-ka wa-kpa-na i-ghiu-ha; i -yan ma-hpi-ya gho-ta wa wi-ch-hlpi wi wa-kin-yan mi-ni ta-ti Assiniboin ml-ni-ya-ki-pa 6n- han -han wa-kan-kuldi wi-cha-hpi hi"-hpa-ya Ma-hpi-ya Chan-ki-hu chu-po ha-he'-pi wi in-yan-he han-he-pi Wi-chi-hpi Pa-ghei Yon-ke-na ma-ghia-hu ma-ghai-hu-ktmun-ka wa-kpa i -ghe-ghan ma-hpi-ya gho-ta wa wi-cha-hpi wi wa-kin-yan mi-ni ta-te NUMERALS one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve thirteen fourteen fifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen wan-zhi n6o-pa ya-milni to-pa za-ptan ghi-kpe gha-k6-wi' gha-gtil6-ghan na-pchi"-yun-ka wi-kche-mtna a-ke-wa"-zhi a-ke-no-pa a-ke-ya-mdni a-ke'-to-pa a-ke'-za-pta" a-ke-iha-kpe a-ke-gha-ko-wi" a-ke-iha-gAlo-gha' wan-zhi nun-pa ya-milni to-pa za-ptan gha-kpe gha-ko-win gha-gildo-han na-pchin-wan-ka wi-kche-mtna a-ke-wa"-zhi a-ke-non-pa a-ke-ya-mlni a-ke-to-pa a-ke-za-ptan a-ke-iha-kpe a-ke-gha-ko-win a-ke-ha-gldo-han wanch n6 -pa ya-mulni t6-pa sa-pta hai-kpe gha-ko-wi" sha-kdo6-han nan-pchun-wan-ka wi-kche'-mna a-ke-wa"n-hi a-ke-non-pa a-ke-ya-mani a-ke-to-pa a-ke-sa-pta a-ke-gha-kpe a-ke-9ha-ko-win a-ke'-gha-kido-ha"

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APPENDIX '57 English nineteen twenty twenty-one thirty forty fifty one hundred Teton a-ke'na-pchin-yun -ka wi-kch6-mcna-nOn-pa wi-kch&-mina-non -paa-k6-wa -ih wi-kch6-mina-ya-ma1ni wi-kch6-mtina-to-pa wi-kch6-mlana-za-ptan ranktonai a-ke'na-pchi'-wa'-ka wi-kch6-mi~na-nUn-pa wi-kch6-mtna-nu'psam-wa n-zhi wi-kch6-mtina-ya-mi~ni wi-kch6-mi~ina-to-pa wi-kch6-miqna-za-ptan o-piWin -ghe A4ssiniboin a-kI'-na'-pchu'-wa'-ka wi-kche-mtina-no'-pa wi-kch6-mtlna-no _pasim-wa n-zhi wi-kch6-mitha-ya-mt~ni wi-kchc'milna-to-pa wi-kch6-mtina-sa-pta PERSONAL TERMS aunt to'-WI baby ho-k~fhi-cha-la boy ho-k~hi-la brother, younger my mi-s6O-ka-la your ni-s6n-ka-la his or her - son -ki-ku brother, elder (masculine pronouns) my mi-ch'i-ye your ni-chi-ye his chi-ye'ku (feminine pronouns) my ti-bill6 your ni-ti-bidlo her -ti-bidl6-ku enemy t6-ka father my -a-te your -ni-ya'-te his or her - at-kd-ku girl wi-chi'-cha-la man wi-cha'-ha; wi-cha' man, old wi-chi-lhcha-la medicine-man wicibaaka mother my -i-nai your ni-h6nh his or her - h6 n-ku people (tribesmen) o-ya'-te people (strangers) o-yi-te to6-ke-cha person wi-cha'-gba to'-WI' ho-ks~hi-cho-pa ho-kghi-na ni-sUi-ka-na Su n-ki-ku chi-ye' ni-chi-ye chi-ye'-ku ti-ba~d6-k t6-ka a-te ni-ya'-te at-kLi-ku wi-chi -cha-na wi-cha'-hcha i-na ni-hiin h 6'n-ku o-ya-te o-yi-te t6'-kcha wi-chi-gha n In to -WI ta-ku-ghki-na ho-k~hi-na MiSdn -ka ni-sd n-ka i-y6-sii-ka-ku mi-ch'i-na ni-chi-na i-yb'-chin -chu-na mi-til-mtido ni-til-mcdo to-ka a-teI ni-ya'-te at-kd-ku wi-chi -cha-na wi-chi-hti-ya-na wa-a-do-wa~p wa-e-cho'-sa i-na ni-htin i-y'-hun -ku o-ya-te o-ya-te to-kan

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158 158 ~~THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN English Teton sister, younger (masculine pronouns) my ta'-kih'i your ni-ta"-kghi his ta'-kihi-tku (feminine pronouns) my mi ki-ta"-ka-la:.,n 1 — I your ni-ta -ka-I her ta'-ka'-ku sister, elder (masculine pronouns).ia I my mi-ta"-ke your ni-ta"-ke his ta'-ke'-ku (feminine pronouns) my -chu'-we' your ni-chd"-we her chu'-we'ku Yanktonai nita"-k~hi-n ta'-khi-tku ta'-ke' ni-ta"-ke ta'-ke'ku chu'-we' chu'-we'ku ni-dt-kihi d6-k~hi-tku wa-gh'i-chu' WI -ya~ Assiniboin ta'-kgh'i-chu mi-ta"I-ka ni-ti'-ka i-y6-ta'-ka-ku i-y6-ta'-ku-na ni-chd'-na i-ye'chu'-ku-na mi-d&-k~hi ni-d&-kshi i-ye'-d6-k~hi-chu wa-gh'i-chu' wi~ -yap uncle my your his or herwhite man woman le-k~bhi ni-le'k~hi le-kghfl-tku wa-Effii-chu' wi -ya~ TREES ash box-elder cedar choke-cherry cottonwood elm oak pine spruce willow pse-hti' cha'-4hd'-ihka ha'-te' cha'-pa'-hu wa-gha-cha' pe-cha' ii-ta-hu wa-zi wa-zf-hcha-ka choh-wi'-zihi-cha; wa-hp6-po-pa cha11-i~hd'-hka ha'-te' cha'-pa'-hu wa-ha-cha' pe-cha' wa-zi wa-zi- hcha-ka choh-wa"-zihi-cha; wa-hp6-po-pa cha'-su'-ta cha'-9Mh-ghka wa-t6-ya-k~a chan-pa'-hu wa-hchi'-cha pe-cha~ cha aw-pa cha aw-pa-cha~-h cho-ha -zi-cha; ch6 n-gha-gha-na MISCELLANEOUS autumn food food (cooked) kinnikinnick large small pta'-ye'tu wo-yu-te wa-ihpa"-ka cha'-gha'-gha ta'-ka ch'i-ka-la; ch'is-chi-la pta'-y6-tu w6-yu-te wa-ihpa"-ka cha'-!fhia-gha ta'-ka pta'-ye'tu w6-yu-te w6-yu-te-ihpa' cha11-di-hu ta'-ka ch'i-ka-n a; ch'is-chi-na chd-ghi-na

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Winter-count, first period [photogravure plate]

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APPENDIX '59 English Teton ranktonai Assiniboin spirit (human) wa-na-ghi wa-naf-hi wa-na-hi spring we-tu we-tu we-tu summer billo-ke-tu bido-ke-tu mtido-ke-tu tobacco cha -li chan-di chan-di winter wa-ni-ye-tu wa-ni-ye-tu wa-ni-ye-tu High Hawk's Winter-count
I. The upper figures of a man and a woman represent the race six hundred years after the beginning. Already the bow was in use, but it was made of an inferior wood. At this time the people made fire, symbolized by the blue. They also caught coyotes and compelled them to draw the travaux. Then they learned to stake out a hide over an excavation and thus boil meat in water heated with stones. The large central drawing illustrates the primitive custom of making camp around the buffalo herd. Some of the men still carry the tipi-poles and coverings on their backs, while one figure holds one of the large blue shells that they used as knives - shells obtained from the Great Water beside which they lived. Inside the camp-circle two young men are running round and round the herd, each with a sacred arrow. The numerals (an addition by one of High Hawk's educated sons) are said to show the number of buffalo killed in various hunts. 2. I540. White Buffalo Woman came to the camp to instruct the people.2 The entrance to the circle is at the east, and at the west stands the tipi-6kihe, which she entered with twelve good men. There she took from her pack the sacred pipe and four kernels of corn. She said: "I am a woman. I say no evil words, and my circle is good. Inside my circle if any one utters evil words or does any evil thing he shall not remain. He shall die. I have brought this pipe for you to keep. Corn will come from the east, and if you will use it right you shall live by it; but if it is not planted right it will not grow. Blue cloud will rise in the east. You will see it and will live as long as it lives. From the south will come words of different kinds, but they will be of no good to you. From the west will come another blue cloud, and there will be a beast with four legs. By it you will live. A yellow cloud will come from the north; that will be my breath.3 Under it will be a cloud of red, the blood of the buffalo that you will kill." At daybreak on the fourth day she disappeared; nobody saw her go. Before she 1 The notes accompanying the interpretation of the count under each date, beginning with I624, are introduced for the purpose of rendering clearer this interesting ideographic record of High Hawk. The notes are based on a comparison with the Lone Dog wintercount (covering the years i8oo-oi to 1870-7I) and the Battiste Good winter-count (ostensibly commencing with the year 931, but actually with 700oo-o0), reproduced, with interpretations, by the late Colonel Garrick Mallery (Tenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, I893), together with many data of an historical character. The reader is referred, for additional information and further comparison, to other native calendars also recorded by Mallery (Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, I886). The Battiste Good count is referred to in the following notes as the B. G. count, and that of Lone Dog as the L. D. count. 2 Before speaking further of White Buffalo Woman, High Hawk prayed thus: "Great Mystery, look upon us, Indian and white man. With him I will grow up, with him I have talked. The words of mother White Buffalo Woman I shall now tell. Therefore I pray." 3 The snow that comes from the north and brings the buffalo down with it.

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I60 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN departed she directed the people to send two young men to the top of a nearby hill. From there they saw a vast herd of buffalo, in the centre of which was a white cow. The people encircled the herd and killed all, the cow last. They kept her hide. At this time the people still employed the old method of boiling meat, and the old inferior bows. The horse was the beast that was to come from the west, upon which they were to depend. In the drawing Ptehlnchala-chann6npa, the Calf Pipe, is shown with blue smoke curling upward; the kernels of corn are indicated by the four marks within the circle, and the clouds by those outside. 3. 1570. On one side of the camp surrounding a herd stands a man bearing in one hand a set of counting-sticks, and in the other the sacred Calf Pipe, from which issues blue smoke. Thirty years have been counted since the coming of White Buffalo Woman. On the opposite side appear White Buffalo Woman and the Calf Pipe. 4. I600. The Keeper of the Calf Pipe has marked off sixty years on the countingsticks. Certain men have dreamed, and painted on their tipis the medicine that came to them. 5. I6Io. Seventy years have passed since White Buffalo Woman came. Above is represented the first Sun Dance. It was observed by Pahiwichuwa, Charging Nose, who one day ran wildly about the camp and fell senseless. He revived and said that he had seen a vision in which the Sun had told him to institute a dance of a certain kind. He was to make twelve scalp-shirts. In the dance as he raised his hands to the sun they turned black, and with them he painted his body. 6. 1617. During the interval of seven years fifty-four offerings were made to WaAhichu"-wakad. When such offerings were to be made, the Keeper of the Calf Pipe would call together a small number of good men and with proper prayers and formalities open the bundle and expose the pipe before the Mystery, Wahkichu"-wakai"..7. I624. A horse was found among a herd of buffalo, and orders were given not to kill it. It is quite probable that horses were at least seen by the Dakota before this time. Horses were introduced in the present United States nearly a century earlier, by Coronado in the west and by De Soto in the east, both of whom traversed the region drained by the Mississippi and its branches in I54I-42. See also the date I68o, when horses are said to have been first used for riding; I687, when they were regularly used in hunting buffalo; 1709 (note), when Omaha horses were captured, and 1715, when enemies (the French) came mounted. 8. I631. An enemy was found in a herd of buffalo trying to capture a horse; he was killed. 9. i638. During the last seven years eight offerings were made to Wahlichun-wak6n. 10. i645. Proper reading not known by High Hawk. I. i652. Proper reading not known by High Hawk. 12. i659. Proper reading not known by High Hawk. 13. i666. Eight white men came to the shore of the lake and were given the name MYniw6Thichu", Water Mystery. The party referred to under this date is possibly that of Father Claude Jean Allouez, who, on August 8, I665, departed from Three Rivers, Quebec, with six Frenchmen, accompanied by "more than four hundred savages of divers nations, who were returning to their homes." Skirting the southern shore of Lake Superior, Allouez reached its western extremity. This point was a famous trading centre about which were then gathered refugee Tionontati and Hurons, three bands of Ottawa, Sauk, Foxes, Illinois, and Chippewa, to the number of eight hundred warriors. At this time they were at peace with the Sioux, which accounts for Allouez having seen some of these during his visit, but the difficulties between the Dakota and the other tribes broke out afresh in the

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Winter-count, 1540 [photogravure plate]

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APPENDIX I6I winter of I670-7I. White men had been already among the Sioux, however, for Radisson and Groseilliers spent the winter of I661-62 as guests of honor of the Dakota of northern Minnesota. These Frenchmen were the discoverers of Mille Lac. Duluth and his party left Montreal in 1678, and in the following year took possession of the Sioux country in the name of France. Mille Lac, the Mdewakan of the Dakota (whence the name of the Mdewakanton division of the Santee, whose "Spirit Lake village" was thereon), he called Lac Buade, from the family name of Count Frontenac. According to the tradition of the Chippewa, that tribe drove the Dakota from the shores of the lake shortly after the former had first received firearms, and the Dakota were forced to leave the region between I760 and I770. I4. I673. Proper reading not known by High Hawk. 15. I680. Horses were first used for riding. Compare 1624. It was in this year [I680] that Father Louis Hennepin, with his two companions, was taken captive by the Dakota of Mille Lac. I6. I687. Horses were now regularly used in buffalo hunting. 17. i694. Proper reading not known by High Hawk.1 Through the efforts of the French traders among the Chippewa of Lake Superior the Count de Frontenac in I695 ordered Le Sueur to build a fort on an island in the Mississippi, just below the mouth of the St. Croix, in order to effect peace between the Chippewa and the Sioux. In the same year (July 15) Le Sueur arrived in Montreal with Teeoskahtay, or Tioscate, a Mdewakanton from Mille Lac, the first Dakota to visit Canada. He fell ill there and died. 1701. Two men killed in the buffalo hunt. 1702. Three boys killed by enemies while fishing. Who these enemies were it is impossible to determine, and the same is true of other dates, as the Dakota tribes were at war with every other within striking distance, especially with the Sauk and Foxes, and in 1700 Le Sueur met a Dakota war-party on the Mississippi near the mouth of the Missouri on its way to punish the Illinois. In October Le Sueur built Fort L'Huillier at the junction of the Minnesota and Blue Earth rivers, near the present Mankato, Minnesota, which was abandoned in the spring of I702. The B. G. winter-count gives the same record for this date (170I-02). 1703. Some buffalo broke through the ice on a lake, and the year is called "Break-throughthe-ice-camp winter." The winter of I702-03 is recorded with the same event in the B. G. count. So many buffalo broke through the ice and became frozen that enough meat was supplied to last a year. I704. Much meat was cached and camp moved. Later they returned and found it, so the year is called "Plenty-of-buried-food winter." The B. G. count (1703-04) calls this the "Burying winter," or "Many-hole winter," because they killed a great many buffalo the preceding summer and cached the meat for winter use. Compare I750. 1705. Enemies killed fourteen. The figure represents a Lakota, and the red indicates that he was scalped. The B. G. count (1704-o5) calls this "Killed-fifteen-Pawnee-who-came-to-fight winter," but the record is not very reliable. 1Thus far each pictograph contains a central drawing of the camp-circle about the buffalo herd, in all cases practically identical with the three reproduced. Thenceforward each year is represented by a drawing similar to the small ones shown in the reproduction of the count for the years 170I-I727. VOL. III - I

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i62 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN I706. Enemies killed seven. Red war-paint. The winter of I705-06 in the B. G. count is interpreted "They-came-and-killed-sevenDakotas winter." 1707. Killed one Hewdktokta (Hidatsa) whose snowshoe was broken. The same episode is noted in the B. G. count for 1706-07. 1708. First time the Lakota saw a yellow kettle and a gun. Both were brought by a runaway wife-killer after two years' absence in the north. Further light is shed by the B. G. count (I707-08) on this important event: A man named Corn killed his wife and fled, remaining away a year. When he returned, he brought three guns, the first the Dakota are said to have seen, and informed his tribesmen that the English, who had given him the guns, wanted him to bring his friends. Fifteen Dakota accordingly went with him and brought back a lot of kettles, which also were the first they had seen. The Dakota had no guns in I666 when seen by Allouez, although a "trader" had been among them, from whom they obtained a large number of small bells. The Dakota had been driven back by the Hurons, armed with firearms, in the preceding year. When Hennepin and his companions were captured by the Dakota in I680, some of them sought to kill the fathers, but wiser heads deemed it best that they take the captives to their village and thus put themselves in relations with the French whereby to obtain firearms. 1709. One horse stolen from the Omaha. The B. G. count (I708-09) notes the bringing home of Omaha horses. I7I0. One horse stolen from the Hohe (Assiniboin). The sign above the horse is for Hohe. Noted also by B. G. in his count of I709-10. Mallery says: "The Dakota [pictographic] sign for Assiniboin, or Hohe, which means the voice, or as some say, the voice of the muskox, is the outline of the vocal organs, as the Dakotas conceive them, and represents the upper lip and roof of the mouth, the tongue, the lower lip and chin, and the neck." The Assiniboin were allied with the Cree against the Dakota. 17II. Three enemies and three Lakota killed. The year is called "Killed-three-ofeach-other winter." The same event is noted by B. G. (17I10-I). 1712. Four Lakota killed. A burial tipi is represented. B. G. gives a satisfactory explanation of the principal occurrence during this season (1711-I2), which he calls "Four-lodges-drowned winter." When the thunders returned, the Dakota were still in their winter camp on the bottom lands of a large creek, and a sudden rise of the stream swept away four tipis with their occupants. I7I3. Killed two Palani (Arikara) while they were trapping eagles. The same event is noted in the B. G. count for 1712-13. 1714. Much moving about. B. G. notes for the winter of I713-I4 that the Arikara came by night and shot a man asleep in his tipi. 1715. Enemies on horses came to attack them. This was the first time a war-party came mounted. Noted by B. G. as the "Came-to-attack-on-horseback-but-killed-nothing winter." This was the year of a French expedition against the allied Dakota and Sauk and Foxes,

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Winter-count, 1680 [photogravure plate]

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APPENDIX i63 brought about by the attempt of the latter to obstruct passage of the Mississippi. The Indians entrenched themselves, but eight hundred French troops, with cannon, proved the undoing of the natives, who were soon ready for peace, which was effected at Montreal. By 1717, however, these allied tribes again were at war with the French, continuing until 1726. Meanwhile the Chippewa and the Dakota had been at peace, but war broke out between them in 1725 and continued for about forty years. I716. Another attack, in which the lance was used. Noted by B. G. as the "Came-and-attacked- on-horseback-and-stabbed-a-boy-near-thelodge winter." I717. A buffalo-dreamer died while the others were out on a hunt. The "Much-pemmican winter" (1716-17) of the B. G. count. Buffalo were plentiful. I7I8. Fifteen horses taken from the enemy. The B. G. count refers to the horses as having been captured from the Assiniboin. 1719. Six Palani killed. They had only one horse. Recorded by B. G. as "Brought-home-Pawnee-horses winter," the "Pawnee" here meaning the Arikara, as the pictographic sign for the latter (an ear of corn) is given. There is no reference to the killing. 1720. Snowshoes used on a buffalo hunt. The same event is mentioned by B. G. as if its occurrence were unusual. 1721. Three men died of starvation. Noted also by B. G., but as three lodges instead of three men. 1722. Buffalo hunt on snowshoes. B. G. gives the same and explains that it was even a better winter for buffalo than that of 1719-20. 1723. One man killed in his tipi. The drawing shows arrows sticking in the tipi. B. G. notes for this winter (1722-23) that the snow was so deep that only the tops of the tipis were visible. 1724. Much buffalo-meat hung in the trees. This winter (I723-24) they set up more sticks than usual as scaffolds for drying buffaloheads, hides, and entrails, besides the meat, according to B. G. 1725. A man named Black Man died. The same event is recorded by B. G., who calls the man Blackens Himself. He was in the habit of blacking his whole body with charcoal. 1726. A hundred Omaiha killed. They had only one horse. Explained by B. G. as "Brought-home-ten-Omaha-horses winter," without reference to the killing. 1727. Killed two Palani. The Arikara made an assault on the Dakota village, and the two who were killed ran among the lodges without arrows. 1728. Fighting with Palani. B. G. calls this "Killed-six-Assiniboin winter," but as the identification of the tribe is uncertain, the signs for both the Arikara and the Assiniboin are given.

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I64 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN 1729. One horse taken from the Omaha. The symbol in the B. G. count for this year (I728-29) indicates the taking of Hidatsa horses. I730. Palani killed eighteen Lakota hunting buffalo. In his count for this winter B. G. is not so inclined to admit defeat for the Dakota, but says rather that a Dakota war-party surprised and killed two Pawnee (the Arikara symbol is not given) and their wives while buffalo hunting alone. 1731. A party of Lakota and enemies camped near each other. Again B. G. tells a different story - that two bands of Dakota, separated a long time, by a strange coincidence selected the same place to camp and thus met. 1732. One Omaha killed. This is the "Came-from-killing-one-Omaha-and-danced winter" of B. G. (We might prefer to call it "George-Washington-born winter.") I733. Horses taken from the Hohe. B. G. notes the same event. 1734. Three Hohe killed. B. G. notes the same event, but being doubtful of the tribe, gives the signs for both Assiniboin and Arikara. 1735. Many died of measles. The same occurrence is noted by B. G., who explained the disease as an eruptive one accompanied with intestinal pains. Mallery suggests that this may have been their first experience of smallpox. 1736. Five Lakota killed. This event is noted also by B. G., a war-party of Dakota having been chased by some enemies. The tribe is not recorded. Verendrye's son and his party were killed by the Sioux in this year. I737. One Palani horse taken. Noted by B. G. as the "Brought-home-Pawnee-horses winter." 1738. Seven Hohe came in a boat and were killed. We note a variation in the two counts for this winter, that of B. G. being interpreted: "Killed-seven-Assiniboin-bringing-them-to-a-stand-under-a-bank winter." The boatshaped daub in the B. G. pictograph signifies a bank. 1739. Four starved. The four referred to went on the war-path. (B. G., I738-39.) 1740. Stray horses found. The horses had thongs around their necks, and evidently had strayed from some other tribe. 174I. A man alone on the war-path brought back a scalp. The entry of B. G. varies slightly, since it refers to the winter of 1740-41 as "Thetwo-came-home-having-killed-an-enemy winter." 1742. An attack by the enemy. The attack was made on some women gathering turnips (pomme blanche), but they were not harmed.

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Winter-count, 1701-1727 [photogravure plate]

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APPENDIX I65 1743. The people moved, but before camp had been made the men went on a buffalo hunt. Enemies charged around the camp. The women there (some were out picking berries) told them the men were hunting buffalo and they ought to go and fight with men, so the enemy went, found the latter, and drove them back. The attack was made by a hundred of the enemy, the Dakota killing many with their spears and putting the rest to flight. (B. G., 1742-43.) I744. Omaha killed four Lakota in a tipi. The Omaha came at night and wounded many but killed only one, says B. G. The Dakota were all camped together. I745. Eight horses brought back from the Omaha. The "Brought-home-Omaha-horses winter" of B. G. 1746. Plenty of dried meat. "Many-drying-scaffolds winter." It was even a better year for buffalo than 1723-24. I747. One Hewaiktokta killed. The killing of the single Hidatsa is noted also by B. G. 1748. Many men frozen while on buffalo hunt. The same event is recorded in the B. G. winter-count, which suggests, however, that only one man was frozen. I749. Killed two fishermen. B. G. notes nothing of the killing, but explains that the season was made noteworthy because numbers of fish were found frozen in the ice, on which the Dakota subsisted all winter. 1750. Much food buried. The principal occurrence of this winter is the same as that noted in the B. G. count, in which it is called "Many-hole-camp winter," meaning that much food was cached. Compare 1704. I751. A white cow killed. B. G. notes that two white buffalo cows were killed. 1752. Omacha killed two Lakota in a tipi. The Dakota were surprised at night by the Omaha, who shot into the lodge. 1753. Killing of a hundred Omaha. This is the "Destroyed-three-lodges-of-Omaha winter" of B. G. The number killed is not given. This was seemingly in retaliation for the killing of the two Dakota in the preceding year. 1754. Enemies charged on a hunting party. Two on each side killed. "Killed-two-Assiniboin-on-the-hunt winter." No mention is made by B. G. of the two Dakota having been killed. 1755. Attack on a Paldni village. The two records are at variance for this year. According to B. G. the Arikara came at night, and standing on a bluff overlooking the Dakota village shot into it with their arrows, killing one man and alarming the entire camp by their shouts.

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I66 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN 1756. Two Palani killed. They belonged to a hunting party which was surprised by a Dakota war-party. 1757. Two killed by enemies. An entire band of Dakota was attacked and routed by this unknown enemy. I758. A party of Lakota charged by the enemy retreated into an ambush. B. G. calls this "Went-on-the-warpath-on-horseback-to-camp-of-enemy-but-killednothing winter." This, Mallery thinks, may have been the first mounted war-party of the Dakota to make a foray. 1759. Killed two Omaha. The Omaha had come to attack the Dakota camp. Such attempted retaliation by the various tribes resulted in almost unceasing hostility and is traceable throughout the winter-counts. 1760. Schili (Pawnee) and Lakota met and the leader of each side was killed. This was "War-parties-met-and-killed-a-few-on-both-sides winter." The enemy on this occasion is recorded by B. G. as the Hidatsa. It was about this time that, defeated by the Chippewa, the Santee abandoned the Mille Lac country and took up their residence on the Mississippi and the Minnesota. At the same time the Teton moved from Big Stone lake to the Missouri. The pressure of the Chippewa was now felt in earnest. I761. Hohe killed two. This time the Assiniboin attacked the Dakota. 1762. Killed six Palani. The same event is noted by B. G. 1763. Many people were caught in a prairie fire and their thighs were burned. Before that time they had had no tribal name, in fact were not a tribe or band. Thereafter they were called Sicha"-ghu. These are the Dakota called by the French Brules. Doane Robinson (South Dakota Historical Collections, II, 26, I904) notes the tradition as communicated to him by Alex Rencontre in I900: "The Brule Tetons received their name from the circumstance that the warriors of the band made a foray against the Arapahoes, but the latter on their approach fired the prairie, catching the Dakotas in the flames so that many of them were severely burned. Their plight when they returned home was a source of great amusement to the balance of the tribe, who called them Sichangues (burnt thighs)." The episode is noted by B. G., who does not mention the Arapaho. "They were living somewhere east of their present country when a prairie fire destroyed their entire village." Many of their children, as well as a man and his wife, and many horses were burned to death. Numerous other versions of the story are current among the Teton; in fact one seldom finds two sages agreeing as to just how the Brules became involved in the prairie fire. 1764. Plenty of dried meat. The same circumstance is noted by B. G. I765. Twenty horses taken from Hohe on the hunt. One had a saddle. B. G. notes this event also, adding that the Assiniboin were asleep at the time, it was storming, and the horses had their packs on and were tied.

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APPENDIX 167 I766. Killed three Palani. According to B. G. four Arikara were killed during an attack on a Dakota camp. This was the year that Jonathan Carver visited the upper Mississippi, meeting the Mdewakanton at the mouth of the St. Croix and spending the winter with the Wahpeton two hundred miles up the Minnesota. I767. Sixty horses taken from the Hohe. One spotted horse. These are said by B. G. to have been all the horses the Assiniboin had; they were on an island in the Missouri from which the Dakota cleverly stole them during a snowstorm. 1768. Because enemies had been coming at night the Lakota began carrying bows when they had occasion to go about the camp after dark. B. G. also records this as the chief event. I769. Enemies killed two with lances while buffalo hunting. The interpretation of his winter-count by B. G. is that a man who had gone over a hill just out of the village was run down by two mounted enemies who drove their spears into him and left him for dead. I770. Enemies on horses attacked a camp with lances. The camp was attacked on both sides by this unknown mounted enemy and two women were killed. I771. Another attack by horsemen with lances. No one was killed, but some of the lodge-coverings were spoiled by being cut. 1772. Plenty of food. This was because many buffalo had broken through the thin ice of the river and were floating past when the Dakota swam out and towed them ashore. 1773. In an attack on the Hohe two prisoners were taken, a man and his wife, who afterward were killed. The same event is noted by B. G. 1774. Killed two Palani boys who were wrestling. The same event is noted by B. G. 1775. An attack by Hohe. B. G. notes that the Assiniboin were cowardly, however, and soon retreated. 1776. Another Hohe attack. On this occasion the Assiniboin, being thoroughly aroused, made a brave attack. I777. A man named Owns A Club killed. According to the B. G. count this was the "Killed-with-warclub-in-his-hand winter." I778. Doubtful. Probably means much moving about. The "Spent-the-winter-in-no-particular-place winter," according to B. G., hence supporting the interpretation of the High Hawk count. 1779. Two Palani killed. The figure represents a Lakota. While the man was lying dead the people played games about his body, as indicated by the rings. Noted also by B. G., who says the Dakota's companions hid his body, but the Pawnee found it. The insult and disgrace were such as to make the occurrence notable. The winter is given as 1777-78 and I779-80 in other counts.

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i68 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN 1780. Epidemic of measles. The disease mentioned by B. G. is smallpox, which was accompanied with intestinal pains. 1781. Epidemic of measles. Smallpox also, but without the symbol for the pains, in B. G.'s count. 1782. An attack by enemies. According to B. G. the name of the tribe is not known, but it is the last time they ever attacked the Dakota. They were mounted. 1783. A war-party went out, but the enemy came and killed a man who wore a red blanket. This is "Killed-the-man-with-the-scarlet-blanket-on winter" of the B. G. count. The name of the enemy is not known. 1784. Little Soldier, Akichita-la, frozen to death. "Soldier-froze-to-death winter" of B. G. 1785. An Ogalala tried to have himself regarded as a magician by pulling a cedar-tree from the ground, but it was found to be only a branch that he had planted in a hole. The charlatan had attached a stick crosswise to the base of the tree with the elastic ligament from the neck of a buffalo, and when he pulled the tree up it sprang back in place. Some young men dug up the tree and exposed the trick. 1786. Ohatzi, Shade, was killed by a Shahiyela (Cheyenne). B. G. calls this "The Cheyennes-killed-Shadow's-father winter," and the interpretation intimates that Shadow was the first Dakota to use an umbrella. At this time the Cheyenne probably lived on the Cheyenne branch of Red river, in North Dakota. I787. A leader named Pichi-maza was killed. The pipe shows him to have been a chief. "Iron-Head-band-killed-on-warpath winter" of B. G. 1788. Hokshi-kahlowa' dreamed of a clown. Went on the war-path, but in the fight turned and shot two of his friends, who killed him. This is "Left-the-heyoka-man-behind winter" of B. G., heyoka meaning that the man's mind was disordered. The Flame's count is interpreted "clown." I789. Many crows frozen to death. The same event is recorded by B. G. The death of the crows is said to have been caused by the intense cold. 1790. Two Hewaktokta came in a boat and were killed. This is given by B. G. as "Killed-two-Gros-Ventres [Hidatsa]-on-the-ice winter." 1791. White men came and "carried the flag around the nation." Most of the winter-counts record the same event. The party was evidently a company of traders, as no known military expedition passed through the country before the time of Lewis and Clark (1804-o6). Four Bears, a Two Kettle Sioux born in 1834, related in 1907 the following tradition, which quite probably refers to the event in question: "The nation was living in the eastern forest. To a large camp composed of Two Kettles, Miniconjou, and Sans Arcs came a party of white men, who said that they belonged to a nation ruled by a woman. They wished certain chiefs to go with them to see the villages of the white people, and selecting from the Two Kettles my grandfather, Two Lance, Wahutkeza-nonpa; from the Miniconjou, Cut Ear, Nankpa-ksela, and Ring Thunder,

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APPENDIX I69 Wakinya"-changi2leshka, and from the Sans Arcs a man whose name I do not know, they took these four away with them. It was then the time of greening grass. In the following winter the four chiefs were brought back on sleds drawn by dogs that wore bells. Black men carried the beds. My grandfather had a medal, which was afterward buried with him." Evidently this was one of many parties sent out by British trading companies for the purpose of securing the goodwill of the Indians of the Northwest to the detriment of the infant States. According to the calendar of American Horse, an Ogalala, the first trader to visit the Sioux was Good White Man, probably Loisel, or Loiselle, whose post, on Cedar island in the Missouri, below the present Chamberlain, South Dakota, was the first one established on the river within Sioux territory. See 180I, I8Io. 1792. Saw a white woman. The white woman evidently made an impression on part of the Dakota at least, as B. G. also records this as the event of the season. 1793. White soldiers and Lakota went against Palani, without success for either side. Impossible! The B. G. count says they encamped near the Hidatsa this winter, all the while being engaged in constant warfare. No mention of whites is made. If such accompanied the war-party they were no doubt traders. I794. An enemy with long hair was killed near the Platte. This is "Killed-a-long-haired-man-at-Rawhide-Butte winter" of B. G., who places the occurrence at Rawhide Butte, eastern Montana. The Dakota attacked a village of fifty-eight (Cheyenne?) lodges, killing every inhabitant. "After the fight they found the body of a man whose hair was done up with deer-hide in large rolls, and, on cutting them open, found it was all real hair, very thick, and as long as a lodge-pole." 1795. Little Face, Ite-chikala, was killed by the Palani. According to the B. G. count the man killed was a Pawnee (or an Arikara). His "face was long, flat, and narrow, like a man's hand, but he had the body of a large man." I796. Lakota went against the Palani and killed one. They stood his frozen body up and placed a paunch of frozen water in his hand. In the B. G. count the circumstance is reversed, the victim being a Dakota who was killed by a Pawnee. I797. A stiff-legged man was killed. This man was doubtless Wears The War Bonnet, who was wounded in the abdomen this winter but did not die until years later, as noted by B. G. 1798. They captured a Hohe woman, who said she was WFakan-ta'ka-winyan, Great Mystery Woman, and must not be killed. So they took her with them, but later freed her. From that time they knew that word. The same event is noted by B. G., who calls it "Took-the-God-Woman-captive winter." The tribe is said to be unknown, but the woman, it will be noted, spoke the Dakota tongue, as the interpretation of High Hawk's count indicates. The statement that this was the beginning of their use of the term Wakca-tanka corroborates other evidence, and the testimony of many old men, that the name was coined by early missionaries as a translation for Holy Spirit. Note that in earlier times the offerings deemed worthy of record were made to Wafhichu" (or FWaAhichun-wakan), not to Wakan'-tanka. See 1617, 1638, I666. In The Flame'swinter-count thewoman was an Arikara and was killed while gathering pomme blanche (Psoralea esculenta). 1799. Many women died. This epidemic, said to have been due perhaps to puerperal fever, is noted likewise by B. G. and others.

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I70 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN I8oo. A man named Never Eats made many offerings. The man referred to in the B. G. count is called Don't Eat Buffalo Heart, and the symbol of the winter is represented with a heart above the man's head, connected by a line with his mouth. The name was probably a dream name and indicates a personal taboo. I80o. A white trader came. It is impossible to determine with certainty the various traders who had been among the Dakota during these years. From other winter-counts it is learned that Good White Man was so called on account of his fair dealings; that his first trading trip among the Dakota, and indeed the first time one of the Brule bands had ever seen a white trader, was in the winter of 1794-95, when he was accompanied by two others and promised the Indians that if permitted to proceed unmolested he would return with weapons, as gifts, to enable them to kill buffalo; that in 1797-98 Good White Man sent Little Beaver and others to trade; that in 1799-1800 Good White Man returned and gave them guns; that in I8oo-oi Good White Man, the first to do so, came to live among the Dakota for purposes of trade; that the following year "a trader brought them their first guns"; that in 1803-04 Little Beaver made another trading trip among them; that in I8o5-o6(?) the Dakota held a council with the whites on the Missouri below the later Cheyenne River agency, near the mouth of Bad river. In these we recognize Lewis and Clark, who, under date of August 30, 1804, note that they observed "some few fusees" among the Dakota, and, in a table, that the Brules traded at Loisel's post. At this time the Dakota had many flags which Good White Man had given them with their guns. In 1805-o6 nine white men came to trade, according to Cloud Shield. From historical sources it is known that the elder Pierre Dorion, or Durion, who, with his son by his Yankton wife, served as interpreter for Lewis and Clark, had been among the Dakota for twenty years, or since about I784, having moved from St. Louis to Cahokia in I780; and we have already seen that Loisel had established his post and captured the trade of the Brules years before Lewis and Clark visited him on Cedar island in the Missouri. According to the counts, Little Beaver was killed and his house burned by an accidental explosion in the winter of 1809-io. Loisel died in 1804, and when his post was visited by Lewis and Clark on their return journey in August, I806, although unoccupied, fires had been used in the post within a fortnight. It would therefore appear that Loisel, the first trader among the Dakota, was probably the Good White Man, and that Little Beaver was his employee and successor. Contemporary history states that a trading post on Isle au Cedres was burned in 181o, thus tending to verify the Indian record. It is probable that Little Beaver was one Tabeau, Tebaux, etc., as he was with Loisel in 1804. It is likewise probable that the younger Dorion, or Durion, was called Little Beaver, for intelligent descendants in their conversation with Indians call their mixed-blood ancestor by that name. 1802. Epidemic of smallpox. In Lone Dog's winter-count, illustrated and elucidated by Mallery, the pictograph under this date (I80I-02) is interpreted to signify smallpox. Reference to this wintercount, which begins with 8oo-01o, will be made under the abbreviation L. D. The epidemic of smallpox in this year is noted also in the B. G. winter-count, as well as in the counts of The Flame, The Swan, White Cow Killer, etc. I803. Took some horses from Palani, but one had iron shoes. L. D. pictures a horseshoe, indicating that "a Dakota stole horses with shoes on," but the Arikara are not mentioned. B. G. calls this "Brought-home-Pawnee-horseswith-iron-shoes-on winter." The "Pawnee" here, as in other cases, were probably the Arikara. The Dakota had not seen horseshoes before. The Swan and Matosapa both explain that the horses were American and that they were stolen by the Blackfoot Dakota (Sihasapa).

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APPENDIX I7I 1804. Horses taken from Palani, one having curly hair. The L. D. count notes the stealing of "some curly horses" from the Crows, while B. G. says they were taken from the Pawnee (Arikara?), and Matosapa that they were Arikara horses. I805. The figure represents a hunka-cha'n6npa. (See page 75.) The ceremony was held by a war-party, and the pipe was decorated with horsetails. "The Dakota had a calumet dance and then went to war." - L. D. The pipe, says Mallery, was ornamented with feathers (evidently the tail-feathers of the golden eagle) and streamers. Some of the appendages represented in the L. D. pictograph, as well as in that of B. G., are certainly designed for feathers. As a matter of fact both horsetails and eagle-feathers were attached to Hunka pipes. B. G. gives the same incident. For the Lewis and Clark expedition, see note under i8oi. I806. Eight Lakota killed. These Dakota were killed by the Apsaroke, according to the L. D. count. The B. G. count does not mention who the enemies were. I807. A Lakota went out to trap eagles, but was killed. There is confusion here between the counts, as that of L. D. records the killing of an Arikara by a Dakota as the former was about to shoot an eagle. "The Arikara was shot in his trap just as he put his hand up to grasp the bird." (Compare I809.) In the B. G. count the hunter was a Dakota. See also the other calendars recorded by Mallery. I808. A Lakota wearing a red shirt was killed. "Red-Coat, a chief, was killed." - L. D., also The Flame and The Swan. The pictographs of L. D. and The Swan represent the victim with two arrows in his body. Other counts say that Red Shirt was a Hunkpapa Dakota and that he was killed by the Arikara. The B. G. count agrees with that of High Hawk. 1809. The father of Blue Blanket, Shina-to, was killed by the Palani. Compare I807. The L. D. count is thus interpreted: "The Dakota who had killed the Ree shown in this record for I806-o7 was himself killed by the Rees." The B. G. count calls this "The Pawnee (Ree)-killed-Blue-Blanket's-father winter," thus agreeing with High Hawk. The Arikara and the Ree are of course the same, the latter form being a contraction of Arikaree. Three other counts call the Dakota who was killed, Broken Leg. I8Io. A white man named Little Beaver lost his house by fire. The counts vary as to the identity of the individual, one calling Little Beaver a chief who set fire to a store, another referring to him as an English trader, another as a French trader, another as a white trapper. See I791, I8oI. i8II. A horse brought back with feathers in his tail. B. G. records the same incident as having occurred beyond the South Platte, where a band of horses were stolen. L. D. regarded the medicine-making of Black Stone as the most important event of this winter. 1812. Stray horses captured. The B. G. count notes the capture of wild horses with braided reatas, in the sand hills, while L. D. records the killing of a great many Hidatsa in battle. See 18I3. i8I3. Chankut-tanka, Big Road, killed by Palani. L. D. (1812-13) gives a lasso, or reata, signifying that "wild horses were first run and caught by the Dakota." The event probably occurred early in the winter of I812, as it

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I72 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN is recorded under this year in the winter-counts of High Hawk and B. G. For 1813 the B. G. calendar records the killing of the father of Big In The Middle, referred to in other records as Big Waist, and Big Belly. 1814. Six Palani killed. B. G. notes the same incident, but L. D. records a fatal epidemic of whooping-cough. I815. One of the Vita-pahatu (Kiowa) was killed, his head being broken. "The Dakota killed an Arapaho in his lodge" (L. D., I814-15). Like High Hawk's count; that of B. G. says the victim was a Kiowa. In both the other records the man is represented with a tomahawk cleaving his head and blood gushing forth. I8I6. The Itadzp-cho (Sans Arcs) lived in a large tipi. The interpretation of the L. D. count (I815-I6) states that the Sans Arcs made their first attempt at an earth-lodge; this was at Peoria Bottom, Dakota, when Crow Feather was chief. The B. G. count calls this "The-Sans-Arcs-made-large-houses winter." 1817. The Itadzp-cho again gathered in one tipi. "Buffalo belly was plenty" (L. D.). "Lived-again-in-their-large-houses winter" (B. G.). I818. A white man named "Josie" built a house of dry logs. This was Joseph La Framboise, recorded as "Choze" in the B. G. count. Framboise's fort, or post, was established in 1817 at the mouth of Teton, or Bad, river, South Dakota, and was therefore the forerunner of Fort Pierre. See the other counts, which somewhat confuse this post with the one built two years later. It was constructed of drift logs taken from the Missouri. I8I9. Epidemic of measles. The same event is recorded by L. D. for the winter of I8I8-I9. B. G. calls the epidemic one of measles. The Brules were now on Little White river, about twenty miles above the later Rosebud agency. I820. "Josie" built another house. Other counts state that this post was built by Louis La Conte at Fort Pierre, or near Fort Pierre, while B. G. says "Choze" erected this one also. Perhaps La Conte was La Framboise's employee. 1821. A war-dance in which all wore crow-feathers. The L. D. count notes for the winter of 1820-21 the gift of a war-dress by La Conte to Two Arrow for his bravery. B. G. notes the making of ornamental bands from strips of blankets, and deer-hoof rattles tied to sticks with beaded strings. I822. A falling star. Various Dakota winter-counts note this "star shower" in the winter of 1821-22, as well as the great meteoric display in November, 1833. See the count for 1834. The year was made memorable also by the fact that whiskey was now sold to the Indians for the first time without stint. The traders, on the abolishment of the government trade, began their deadly work, and the debauchery of the Dakota was now well under way. Battiste Good, the calendrist, and Red Cloud were both born in this year. 1823. A white man named "Peelen" had his feet frozen. The L. D. count notes that a trading-house was built by a white man called Big Leggings "at the mouth of the Little Missouri or Bad river." The B. G. winter-count calls this the "Peeler-froze-his-leg winter," Peeler being a white trader who was so named because of

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APPENDIX I73 his habit of whittling a stick. White Cow Killer's record designates this the "White-manpeels-the-stick-in-his-hand-broke-his-leg winter." The trading-post referred to was at the mouth of the present Bad river, South Dakota, and consequently in the vicinity of Fort Pierre. Bad river, in addition to being called the Teton, was known also as the Little Missouri, thus causing confusion with another stream bearing the latter name in western central North Dakota. See I8I8, I820. 1824. White men and Lakota attacked the Palani. This was the expedition of Colonel Henry Leavenworth against the Arikara in 1823 in punishment for killing or wounding twenty-three men in an attack on General William H. Ashley's trading party at the Arikara village on the Missouri between Fort Sully and Fort Rice. Leavenworth departed from Fort Atkinson (Council Bluffs) on June 22 with two hundred and twenty men of the Sixth United States Infantry, eighty men of trading companies, two cannon, a howitzer, and some small swivels, and reached the Arikara villages August 9, having been joined on the way by seven hundred to eight hundred Dakota, five hundred of whom were Yankton. The Arikara occupied two villages, one of seventy, the other of seventy-one earth lodges, palisaded and enclosed with ditches. The Dakota made the first attack, August 9, but were driven back by the seven hundred Arikara warriors, most of whom were armed with rifles obtained from British traders. The regular troops then advanced, but nothing decisive was accomplished until the next day, when the terrifying artillery was employed, and a large number of the Arikara, including their chief, Gray Eyes, were killed. The rest then sued for peace. During the main engagement the Dakota gathered and carried off all the corn they could find. All the Dakota winter-counts record this important event. 1825. Two Lakota killed while out picking berries. The most noteworthy event of this year according to L. D. was the killing of all the horses of Swan, chief of the Two Kettles. The B. G. count notes that a Dakota war-party in this year surprised and killed two Pawnee who were gathering plums, a statement somewhat at variance with High Hawk's entry. I826. A flood on the Missouri killed about three hundred. A white man had a cabin in the bottom. All the counts note this occurrence, that of B. G. calling it "Many-Yanktonais-drowned winter." The river bottom at a bend of the Missouri was suddenly submerged when the ice broke, and many women and children were drowned. 1827. Six of a war-party ate spoiled meat and died. Both the L. D. and the B. G. counts mention this incident, the latter referring to it as "Ate-a-whistle-and-died winter," in allusion to the gas created by the spoiled meat, which produced tympanites. 1828. Buffalo hunting on snowshoes. B. G. refers also to buffalo hunting on snowshoes this winter, but L. D. records the stabbing of Dead Arm by a Mandan. I829: Lakota killed one hundred Hewaktokta. Other counts note the building of a house by a white man named Shardran, or Chardran, but B. G. regarded the killing of the Hidatsa as of more consequence, especially as he makes the number two hundred. Evidently the white man referred to was Francois A. Chardon, who for many years lived among the Osage but afterward entered the employ of the Hudson's Bay Company. He hunted with Catlin in 1832, was at Fort Union in I833, whence he took a force and established Fort Jackson at the mouth of the Big Muddy. He was a member of Prince Maximilian's party in I833, and in I837 we find him at Fort Clark. In 1843, with Alexander Harvey, he was placed in charge of Fort McKenzie, above the mouth of the Marias. In I844, after killing thirty Indians there by shooting them with a cannon, he was forced to leave, building Fort Chardon near the Judith, and in I845 was transferred to a lower post. He died at Fort Berthold in I848.

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I74 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN x830. Spotted Face, Ite-gsledshka, killed his son-in-law. B. G. records the same murder and gives the details; the name of the man is here Speckled Face. L. D. notes the killing of a Yanktonai by a Blackfoot (Siksika) band. 1831. Many white cows killed. B. G. likewise notes the killing of the white buffalo cows, while L. D. records a bloody battle with the Crows in which twenty-three are said to have been killed. American Horse states that in this year wagons were seen for the first time; they were brought by Red Lake, a white man, who freighted his goods in them. In the following winter he was killed and his new house burned by an accidental explosion of gunpowder. 1832. A Lakota going to a hilltop to scout was killed by Kangfhi-wichafha (Crows). The same killing is recorded by B. G., who says the Dakota was watching for buffalo in the Black Hills. L. D. and others, evidently regarding the killing of a tribesman an everyday occurrence, note for this year the murder of Kermel by Le Beau, his employer. Le Beau was known to the Dakota as Gray Eyes. The murder occurred on Big Cheyenne river, below Cherry creek. I833. A chief was killed. This chief was evidently "Stiff Leg With War Bonnet On," given in the B. G. count as having been killed in an engagement with the Pawnee on Platte river, in which the Brules killed a hundred of the enemy. L. D. and several others seem to have regarded the "killing" of Lone Horn's leg as a more important episode. Under the name Ha-wonje-tah, The One Horn, he is described by Catlin, who painted his portrait at Fort Pierre in I832. Compare 1853, note. I834. "Moving" stars. This meteoric phenomenon was of such marked importance to the Indians that it not only forms the subject of practically every Dakota winter-count for this year, but fixes a sure tally date in reckoning the occurrence of events generally. White Shield says it "rained stars." The "star shower" was observable throughout North America shortly before daylight November I2, 1833 (winter of I833-34). It is noted also in the Kiowa annual calendar of I833-I892, interpreted by Mr. James Mooney (Seventeenth Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, pp. 260-261, I898), and on several counting-sticks of the Pima Indians of Arizona (Russell in Twenty-sixth Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 38, I908). I835. Lakota killed a Shahiyela. B. G. also notes the killing of the Cheyenne, who at night stole into the village near the present Pine Ridge agency. L. D. records the killing of the chief Medicine Hide. 1836. Two Schili leaders killed. B. G. calls this the "Killed-the-two-war-party-leaders winter." A Dakota war-party met one of the Pawnee and killed two of their leaders, whereupon the rest fled. L. D. notes for this year that Lame Deer, later a celebrated warrior, shot a Crow (Assiniboin?) with an arrow, then drew out the arrow and shot him again. On this point see the other counts. 1837. Fighting across a frozen river. Interpreted by B. G. as a battle with Pawnee on the frozen Platte river when seven of the latter were killed. L. D. notes for this year the death of The Breast, the father of The Band, a Miniconjou. The Breast was chief of the Two Kettles; his son died on Powder river in 1875.

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APPENDIX I75 1I838. A fight among the members of the Broken Arrow band. The year was evidently marked by no very important event, since L. D. and others record a successful elk hunt in which a hundred were killed, and B. G. notes the killing, by soldiers, of a Santee named Spread Out. The Broken Arrow band referred to by High Hawk was evidently a band of the Teton. I839. Five men killed, their leader being Crazy Dog, Shunka-witko. The Pawnee in this year, according to B. G., came and killed five Ogalala. L. D. notes the building of an earth lodge for Iron Horn, or The One Iron Horn. 1840. A hundred Schili killed. The High Hawk count is verified by B. G., who states that all the Dakota united in an expedition against the Pawnee, and although a hundred of the enemy were killed, the Dakota warriors nearly perished from hunger. On the other hand L. D. records the killing of "an entire village of Snake or Shoshoni Indians." Others say they were Arapaho. 184I. Five of the band of Little Thunder, Waki'yan-chikala, were killed. B. G. notes also the killing of "five brothers" of Little Thunder in an encounter with the Pawnee, B. G. being the only one to escape - naturally to this annalist the most important event of the year. It was in the summer of 1841 that the Arapaho met a party of Pawnee on the upper South Canadian river and killed all of them. L. D. records the making of peace between the Dakota and the Cheyenne. The latter had recently moved from the Sioux country to the Arkansas river. 1842. Pointing At Them made a big offering. Called by B. G. "Pointer-made-a-commemoration-of-the-dead winter." Noted by L. D. as the winter in which Feather In The Ear acquired fame by stealing thirty spotted ponies. According to others the horses belonged to the Crows. I843. Enemy killed four. B. G. notes for this year that the occupants of four Shoshoni lodges were killed and many horses were brought home. L. D. records the raising of a large war-party by One Feather against the Crows. 1844. The Schili returned a captured sacred arrow. This important event is noted also by others, including B. G., who explains that the Dakota captured the arrow from the Pawnee, and the Cheyenne then redeemed it by paying a hundred horses. The stealing of two sacred arrows from the Cheyenne by the Pawnee aroused tremendous resentment among the former, as they were among the most cherished possessions of the tribe, forming a part of the "sacred bundle," the tribal palladium. The incident will be treated in a future volume devoted to the Cheyenne. For the story as recorded by Dr. George A. Dorsey from Pawnee information, see American Anthropologist, Vol. V, I903, pp. 644-658. Under this date L. D. records the making of buffalo-medicine by the Sans Arcs. I845. Thirty-eight Ogalala on the war-path killed by the enemy. The Ogalala were on the war-path and met this loss at the hands of the Apsaroke (B. G.). For the Apsaroke account, see Volume IV, page 80. L. D. notes only the building of a "pine fort" by the Miniconjou, meaning probably that they erected their tipis in the pine woods to afford protection against the snow. I846. Measles in a camp situated at the foot of a hill. B. G. records this as the "Broke-out-on-faces-had-sore-throats-and-camped-under-thebluff winter" - a succinct and graphic way of describing the same occurrence. L. D. notes only for this winter that the Dakota had an abundance of buffalo-meat.

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I76 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN 1847. Lives In The Winter broke his neck. The same incident is illustrated by B. G., who calls him Winter Camp and explains that he was thrown from his horse while on the hunt. L. D. notes the death, during this winter, of Broken Leg, a Brule. I848. Mud Hen broke his leg. This is the "Teal-broke-his-leg winter" of B. G. L. D. notes the killing of Two Man. I849. A Kagfhi-wich{a'ha (Apsaroke) hermaphrodite was captured and killed. The killing of this Apsaroke berdash is noted by B. G., who records also the capture of eight hundred horses from the Dakota, seven hundred of which were recovered. This probably occurred late in the winter, as it is noted in the entry for 1850 in the L. D. count, which explains that the Crows stole the horses from a Brule corral. According to L. D., Humpback, or Broken Back, was killed this winter. 1850. An attack on some Kanghi-wichi/ha at a bluff. This is the "Brought-the-Crows-to-a-stand winter" of B. G., referring to an encounter between the Apsaroke and the Dakota at Crow Butte, near Camp Robinson, Nebraska. The Apsaroke took refuge on the butte and were surrounded by the Dakota, who were confident of capturing them the next morning; but the enemy escaped in the night, much to the chagrin of the Dakota. It was doubtless about this time that the horses were stolen and retaken, as alluded to in the L. D. count for I849-50. I851. Smallpox. The "Big-smallpox winter" of B. G. L. D. pictures, for the winter of I850-5I, a buffalo containing a human figure, referring to the supposed delivery of a human foetus from a buffalo cow. 1852. First issue of annuities. The "First-issue-of-goods winter" of B. G., who explained that "the Dakota were told that fifty-five years after that winter they would have to cultivate the ground." This distribution of goods occurred near Fort Laramie, following the "molasses and crackers" treaty of September 17. Ten thousand Indians were estimated to have been present, including Dakota, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Apsaroke, Assiniboin, Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara. Each chief was given a general's uniform and a gilt sword. L. D., in noting "peace with the Crows" this winter, probably refers to the Fort Laramie treaty, the Apsaroke at this time being the most implacable enemies of the Dakota. 1853. Many horses died in a blizzard. The "Deep-snow-used-up-the-horses winter" of B. G. During this winter the Nez Perces came to Lone Horn's lodge at night, according to L. D. Lone Horn was the father of Touch The Clouds; a Miniconjou, but was not the chief of this name mentioned under 1833, note, as the latter was killed by a buffalo bull, according to Catlin, shortly after the painter's visit. 1854. On a hunt Mean Bear, Mato-ochifhicha, was frozen. This is the " Cross-Bear-died-on-the-hunt winter" of B. G. Death was due to some intestinal affection, according to this count. L. D. and others note for this winter the interesting historical fact that "Spanish" blankets were first introduced by traders. Various Spanish hunters and trappers were in the northern country in the early days, the most celebrated of whom was Manuel Lisa of New Orleans, who organized the Missouri Fur Company in I806. Compare I859, note. It will be recalled that Lewis and Clark found Mexican silver dollars in possession of Indians of the Nez Perce region in I805.

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APPENDIX I77 I855. Spotted Tail took eighty-five thousand dollars from the stage. Thirty soldiers killed. Five Hohe killed. B. G. notes this as the "Killed-five-Assiniboin [Hohe] winter," but unquestionably the most important event was that alluded to as the "thirty soldiers killed" in the High Hawk and other counts. In consequence of a misunderstanding in regard to a lame cow abandoned by an emigrant party and which the Dakota had innocently appropriated (according to one story), Lieutenant Grattan killed Startling Bear, or Brave Bear, commonly known as Conquering Bear, about ten miles east of Fort Laramie, August I9, I854, whereupon the Brules massacred Grattan and the thirty men of the Sixth Infantry under his command. In the following August, General W. S. Harney started from Leavenworth, Kansas, with part of his force, gathering the remainder at Fort Kearny, in all numbering twelve hundred. Proceeding on his expedition he reached Blue river, a branch of the North Platte in western Nebraska, where he learned that the Brules, under Little Thunder, were encamped in Ash Hollow, where they had been annoying emigrants that very day. The next morning, September 3, Harney deployed his troops, trapping the Indians completely. No opportunity was given them to surrender, and the engagement that followed has been characterized as a "shameful affair." The Indians fought desperately, losing one hundred and thirty-six killed; nearly all the remainder, with their entire property, were captured. The L. D. count dismisses this winter (I854 -55) with the bare statement that Brave Bear was killed. Spotted Tail's robbery of the stage no doubt refers to the attack on a mail-train of Missourians, under Captain Gibson, in June, I855, on Deer creek, thirty miles below the North Platte bridge. Two Indians rode up and asked for the captain, and when he was pointed out one of them shook his hand while the other shot him dead. Spotted Tail acknowledged himself to have been one of the leaders in these attacks. The amount of the booty secured is no doubt grossly exaggerated in the High Hawk count. i856. Many offerings. B. G. designates the winter of i855-56 as that in which "Little-Thunder-and-BattisteGood-and-others-taken-prisoners-at-Ash-Hollow-on-the-Blue-creek," when one hundred and thirty Dakota were killed by the white soldiers. Also called "Many-sacrificial-flags winter," the latter referring to the council held by Harney with the various Dakota tribes at Fort Pierre in March, I856. Harney was known among the Dakota as Putin-ska, "White Beard," or "White Mustache." 1857. A white trader came to a camp at the foot of a hill. According to the B. G. count this white trader was known as Bad Four Bear, and the pictograph represents him as sitting in front of B. G.'s tipi under a bluff at Fort Robinson, Nebraska. They traded for furs all winter. According to the L. D. count Four Horn (said by one to have been Sitting Bull) was created a medicine-man this winter. American Horse records the fact that annuities were issued at Rawhide Butte. i858. A winter hunting party. The "Hunted-bulls-only winter" of B. G. The count of L. D. notes the killing of a Crow woman, who was pierced by four arrows, showing that the peace treaty of I851 was not long-lived. The American Horse count for this year notes that "Little Gay," a white trader, became a little too gay by measuring out gunpowder from the can in his wagon while smoking his pipe - with the usual result. i859. A trader brought blankets. The blankets were of Navaho manufacture, as shown by the B. G. count. Cloud Shield explained that they were brought by John Richard, who purchased many wagonloads of them from the Mexicans. Lone Horn (One Horn, a Miniconjou) made buffalo-medicine, according to L. D. and others. See I853, note. VOL. III- 12

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I78 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN 1860. Big Crow killed by the Kanghi-wichasha. The L. D., B. G., and other winter-counts note this occurrence. Big Crow received his name from having killed an Apsaroke of unusual size. 186I. Smallpox among the children following the return of a war-party. The "Broke-out-with-rash-and-died-with-pains-in-the-stomach winter" of B. G. This winter was a notable one also to the Kiowa on account of smallpox, which had been contracted in New Mexico. It was in consequence of this epidemic, says Mooney, that the Arikara abandoned their village lower down the Missouri and removed to their present location near Fort Berthold, North Dakota. As recorded by L. D. the winter was noteworthy because Elk That Halloes Walking, a Miniconjou, made medicine. See 1877. 1862. A KangChi-wichadha named Spotted Horse was killed after stealing horses. According to L. D., buffalo were so plentiful that they came close to the tipis. B. G. notes that Spotted Horse and another Crow came and stole many horses from the Dakota, who followed and killed them, and recovered many of the horses. The Apsaroke frequently relate the story of the death of Spotted Horse, who, though in the prime of life and rising rapidly to a position of power in his tribe, leaped from his horse and fought on foot while his friends escaped. 1863. KagChi-wichafha scalped a boy. B. G. says the Crows came to the lodges and "cut up" the boy while the people were away. According to L. D., Red Feather, a Miniconjou, was killed. No reference is made in the counts to the Minnesota outbreak and massacre in 1862, perhaps, Mallery thinks, because of the terrible retribution that followed it. 1864. Enemies attacked and killed eight. B. G. says some of the eight were Cheyenne, while the L. D. and other counts record them as Dakota. The most reasonable count is that of American Horse, who says the Ogalala and Miniconjou took the war-path against the Crows and stole three hundred of their horses; the Crows followed them and killed eight of the party. Although within the memory of many men living at the time these counts were explained, even the chief features of the episode are greatly garbled. No mention is made of the fight with General Sully, on September 3, 1863, known as the battle of White Stone Hill, west of the present Ellendale, Dickey county, North Dakota. In this engagement twenty-two soldiers were killed and fifty wounded, while three hundred Dakota were left dead on the field and two hundred and fifty women and children were taken prisoners. On June 26, I864, under orders from Sully, the heads of two Dakota who had killed a naturalist named Fielner on Little Cheyenne river, South Dakota, were mounted on high poles as a warning to the others. This barbaric act drove the Dakota to the Black Hills and resulted in the fight at Tahakouty or Killdeer mountain, mentioned on page 35. In the spring of 1865, Solomon Two Stars, in charge of a scouting party of eleven, encountered sixteen young Santee hostiles near Bristol, South Dakota, of whom fifteen were killed outright. 1865. Roast, JXapasno'pi, made a big offering. Three men hanged at Laramie. This is called "Roaster-made-a-commemoration-of-the-dead winter" by B. G., and according to L. D. the Dakota killed four Crows. Two Sioux and a Cheyenne were hanged at Fort Laramie in I865 for having ravished a white woman, whom they brought to the post after ransoming her from the Cheyenne. The incident was responsible for a clash a little later in which a sergeant and three privates were killed by the Indians. See the biography of Calico, page 183. Fort Laramie, Wyoming, was established as a trading-post by W. L. Sublette in 1834; in I849 it was sold to the United States and became a military establishment.

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APPENDIX I79 I866. Horses died in a blizzard. Deep snow and its effect on the horses form the subject for this winter in the other two counts. I867. Lakota killed a hundred soldiers. Bear Ear was killed. B. G.'s count for 1866-67 calls this "Beaver's-Ears-killed winter;" and during the same year, according to the L. D. count, Swan, father of chief Swan of the Miniconjou, died. High Hawk here refers to the surrounding and massacre by two thousand Dakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho, under Red Cloud, of the entire command of Captain Fetterman, consisting of eighty-one officers and men, with two civilians, near Fort Phil. Kearny, northern Wyoming, on December 21, 1866. See pages 37-38. I868. Treaty by Harney and Crook. Both the other counts herein mentioned note this treaty. See pages 39-41. I869. Fight with the Kagrhi-wicha'ha. Told First and fourteen others killed. The incident is noted by B. G., who relates that the Crows killed fifteen Sans Arcs, and Long Fist, a Brule, also. The Apsaroke were aided by visiting Nez Perc6s, and the Sioux by Cheyenne. See Volume IV, APSAROKE AND NEZ PERCIS AGAINST SIOUX. L. D. refers to the bringing of Texas cattle into the country, which was done by William A. Paxton. This was the year of the first beef issue, which speaks volumes for the passing buffalo. 1870. A falling tree killed a woman. Noted also by B. G.; the tree fell on a lodge. The solar eclipse of August 7, I869, visible for a thousand miles along the Missouri, is noted in L. D.'s count for this year, and by the winter-counts generally. I871. A man was killed by enemies. The man was evidently High Backbone, a chief, who was shot at long range by Crows and (or?) Shoshoni (B. G., I870-7I); other counts mention only the Shoshoni, or Snakes. L. D. records a more important occurrence for this year - the last of his calendar. This was the killing of twenty-nine of a party of thirty Hunkpapa who charged a small tradingstore for the Crows at the junction of the Musselshell and the upper Missouri. The Indians being driven off, the whites surrounded them in a washout with the result stated. L. D. says the Hunkpapa were surrounded by Crows, who lost fourteen of their own number. See the other winter-counts. 1872. Roan Bear died. The winter of "Gray-Bear-died," according to the B. G. count. "He died of the bellyache." I873. Issuing of rations began. "Issue-year winter" of B. G.'s calendar. There were hostilities throughout this year owing largely to the building of the Northern Pacific Railroad. The supplies referred to were probably issued from the newly established Red Cloud agency. In 1872 Major J. W. Wham, the agent, built some adobe houses on Platte river, about thirty miles below Fort Laramie. 1874. Many Schili killed. B. G. refers to this as the "Measles-and-sickness-used-up-the-people winter." Cloud Shield notes that many Pawnee were killed on Republican river, and American Horse gives the same, stating that the Dakota were Brules.

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i8o THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN I875. The Sapa-wichaha (Ute) stole many horses. The same incident is recorded by B. G., who says the horses numbered five hundred, while Cloud Shield says the Ute stole all the Brules' horses. 1876. Buffalo Head made an offering. B. G. calls this "Bull-Head-made-a-commemoration-of-the-dead winter." This probably refers to the Indian loss during the Custer fight. See pages 43-50. In this year the first issue of stock cattle was made. I877. Elk Bawling While He Walks died. The B. G. calendar also notes this as the "Female-Elk-Walks-Crying-died winter." He was a Miniconjou. See I86I, note. Other counts allude to General Mackenzie's campaign. I878. Crazy Horse, Tasfh.uka-witko, killed. The killing of Crazy Horse is referred to also by B. G. under date of I877-78, and in other counts. This Ogalala warrior, a son of Spotted Tail's sister, through the efforts of his uncle surrendered at Fort Robinson, Nebraska, with eight hundred and eightynine of his people and two thousand ponies. In the autumn he became restless again, and being suspected of fomenting further hostility, was placed under arrest. On attempting to cut his way through the guard he was stabbed with a bayonet and killed, September 5, I877. See page 51. Rendered literally the name is " His Horse Reckless." I879. Shahiyela returning from the Ogalala were captured and killed by the soldiers. This refers to the capture of Dull Knife's band of Cheyenne, numbering one hundred and forty-nine men, women, and children, on October 23, 1878, in their flight from Indian Territory to their old home in the north. They were confined in empty barracks at Fort Robinson, Nebraska, and on January 3, following, were notified that they would be returned to the Territory. On the night of January 9 the Indians commenced to fire on the sentinels and made their escape from the windows, the women and children being driven before. They were pursued by the troops, thirty-two being killed and seventy-one retaken. The remainder escaped, but in a few days they also were surrounded and twenty-three of the forty-two killed. The reference to the Ogalala in High Hawk's count is doubtless to the scouts from the Spotted Tail agency. B. G. records the same incident. I880. First children were sent to school. B. G. notes the same occurrence for this date. The Battiste Good calendar ends here. On October 5, i880, Lieutenant R. H. Pratt, in charge of the newly established Indian School at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, reached the latter place with sixty Sioux boys and twenty-four girls from Rosebud and Pine Ridge agencies. I88I. Three Bear killed a white man and was put in jail. John Atkinson, chief herder of Rosebud agency, was killed by David Galineau, a former herder, near White river, about fifty miles from the agency, in August, I880. The murderer was arrested and imprisoned. The records give no account of a white man killed by an Indian about this time. Possibly Three Bear was Galineau's Dakota name. Another chief herder of Rosebud, John Bordeau, a half-breed, was killed May 9, I88i, by white desperadoes across the Nebraska border. It is rather curious that more important events of about this time are not noted. Gall surrendered in June, and Sitting Bull in July, I88i. On August 5, Spotted Tail was shot by Crow Dog, at the instigation of Black Crow, whose death is noted in the count for I884,

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Charge Crow - Yanktonai [photogravure plate]

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APPENDIX i8i 1882. Last issue of annuities for all. This entry probably means that Agent V. T. McGillycuddy during this year devised a new plan of issuing supplies, apportioning them to the individuals instead of to the tribal chiefs. I883. A white man named "Heelemani" came to make a treaty, but died. He told so many lies that this is called "Winter of Lies." This was the Sioux commission, appointed in I882, which met the Indians in council in May, 1884. The commissioners were Newton Edmunds (in whom we recognize "Heelemani"), Peter C. Shannon, and James H. Teller. The Sisseton and Wahpeton decided unanimously not to part with any portion of their reservation. Edmunds did not die then or there. Possibly a false report of his death was circulated among the Indians to furnish a fitting end for one who in their opinion had uttered "so many lies." See I885. 1884. Black Crow died. The exact time of his death is not recorded. In this year White Thunder was murdered at Rosebud agency by Young Spotted Tail and Thunder Hawk. 1885. A white man named Big Star came to make a treaty, but told lies and died. This evidently refers to a further attempt by the Edmunds commission (see 1883) to negotiate for the cession of the Indian lands; but the Yankton followed the action of the Sisseton and Wahpeton, the business of the commission was unsuccessful, and it was dissolved September I, I885. i886. Kanghi-wicha/ha came to visit, Small Bear with them. The visit may have been for the purpose of recovering horses which the Sioux had stolen during the year. Orders promulgated February 2, 1887, prohibiting Indians from leaving their reservations save under certain conditions, put a stop to this raiding, it is said. I887. High Hawk's child died and he made an offering. A pathetic bit of personalism on the part of the annalist, to whom the event was doubtless of more surpassing importance than any other during the period. i888. Missionaries clothed the Indians and got all the land they wanted. The entry may refer to the erection of the new Presbyterian mission on Porcupine creek and of a Catholic mission on White Clay creek, under Pine Ridge agency. For the use of the latter, fourteen acres of land were tilled. Struck By The Ree, the Yankton chief, who was born August 28, 1804, during Lewis and Clark's visit, died July 29, I888. 1889. Many children suffered with headache. In the winter of I888-89 the children were so severely attacked by measles that it became necessary to close the schools. I890. Short Bull made Ghost Dance. Short Bull was a leading member of the Indian deputation which in the fall of 1889 visited Jack Wilson, or Wovoka, the "Paiute Messiah," in Nevada, for the purpose of learning more of the Ghost Dance religion. They returned to Pine Ridge in April, 1890. Soon a great council was held, and the Ghost Dance was formally inaugurated among the Dakota, Short Bull being among those who served as priests and leaders in the ceremony. For the subsequent events, see pages 52-55. After the surrender of the Indians following the Wounded Knee massacre, Short Bull and Kicking Bear, the principal surviving leaders in the affair, were taken as hostages and sent to Fort Sheridan, Chicago, but later were returned to their homes.

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I82 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN I89I. General Miles shook hands with High Hawk. High Hawk was one of the leaders from Rosebud who in the previous year fled with their people toward the Bad Lands on learning that the troops had come to disarm them. The hand-shaking probably took place in January, 1891, when General Miles had established headquarters at Pine Ridge and the frightened Indians had been returned to their respective agencies. I892. Big Crow killed his brother. I893. High Hawk and Two Strike visited the Crow reservation and brought back one hundred and seventy-six horses, which they had received as presents. No official note is made of this. In the year 1893 the Sioux of Standing Rock agency alone were credited with the ownership of more than 3500 horses and mules. I894. Falling stars. The Superintendent of the U. S. Naval Observatory states that there is no record of a shower of meteors visible in the Dakotas in the winter of I893-94. But November 23, I892, there was a shower of unusual brilliancy visible from the Atlantic to the Pacific. I895. Thunder Hawk killed a woman. I896. Yellow Thunder frozen to death, because his son would give him no clothing. This entry tells its own story. Perhaps Yellow Thunder was old and helpless, and in accordance with Indian notions generally, the son thought that the sooner his misery was ended the better. 1897. Big Hawk frozen. The record for each succeeding winter indicates how uneventful the life of the Sioux had now become. The tribal organization had long ceased to exist. I898. Boarding school built. Two Makipiya-to (Arapaho) came on a visit. I899. Swimmer had his leg cut off. 1900. Burning Breast drank himself to death. Biographical Sketches
BLACK EAGLE, WYa bidi-sdpa Assiniboin. Born in 1834 on the Missouri below Williston, North Dakota. He was only thirteen years of age when he first went to war, and on this and on the next two occasions he gained no honors. On his fourth war excursion he was more successful, alone capturing six horses of the Yanktonai. While engaged in a fight with the Atsina near Fort Belknap, Montana, he killed a man and a boy. In a battle with the Yanktonai he killed one of the enemy, and in another repeated the former success. Black Eagle led war-parties three times. He had a

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Eagle Elk - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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APPENDIX I83 vision in which it was revealed to him that he would capture horses, and the vision was fulfilled. He had the same experience before he killed the man and the boy. He claims no medicine. Black Eagle married at the age of eighteen. Portrait, folio plate IoI. BLUE HORSE, Shunk-hito Ogalala. Born about 1830. He led five war-parties against Ute, Shoshoni, Bannock, and Piegan. A prominent chief for many years, who boasts that he has always been opposed to war with the white people. Portrait facing page 94. CALICO, Mtnihuiha Ogalala. Born I843. First war-party at fourteen, against Pawnee. At twenty-two he led eight men against the same tribe, and himself killed one and captured his gun. This party took twenty-nine horses. Later he led eight men and two women into the country of the Shoshoni. A man came out of the village, and Calico with five others charged him. Two had struck coup, when Calico raised his bow to win a third honor. Just then his horse shied and threw him, and the enemy grappled with him. The Shoshoni was the larger, and Calico's friends had ridden on. As the enemy reached for his knife,the Ogalala remembered his recently acquired revolver, which he drew and fired. The Shoshoni staggered back, but lunged again with his knife, when Calico shot him again, in the breast. As he tore off the scalp, some one said, "Give me that scalp!" Looking up, he saw a friend who had brought back his horse, so he gave the scalp to him and took another piece for himself. The enemy were now swarming out of the camp, but the two Ogalala escaped on their horses. His name of Black Shield, Wohdchanka-s6pa, was changed to Minihutha after the agency traders came. In I865 he was with his uncle, Two Face, who, with another Sioux and a Cheyenne, was hanged at Fort Laramie for having mistreated a white woman he had ransomed from the Cheyenne and delivered up to the garrison. Though the woman said Calico was innocent, he was put in irons. Soon after that the Indians attacked a detachment and killed a sergeant and three privates. Calico was in eight great battles with Omaha, Pawnee, and Shoshoni, and in four battles with troops along Platte river. About 1874, at the suggestion of Red Cloud and others, he was made chief of the Tapislecha, Spleen, band of Ogalala, because of his good war record and his hospitality. He served several terms of enlistment as scout at Fort Robinson. Portrait facing page 2. CHARGE CROW, Ka'niM-watakpeye Yanktonai. Born near Standing Rock in I850. When in his seventeenth year he joined a war-party against the Apsaroke near the Little Bighorn, the Yanktonai capturing a number of horses. While fighting the Flatheads, Charge Crow killed one and took his horse. He led a war-party on foot, and encountering the Atsina near Fort Belknap, Montana, captured fifty horses. Having found an old police badge, he visited a camp of Cree and told them he was an officer. They believed him, and Charge Crow stole most of the horses in the camp and got away with them safely. Although he fasted often and prayed to the sun, he never had a vision; he attributes his success in war to the potency of his prayers. He married at twenty-one. Portrait facing page I80. EAGLE ELK, Heh'acka-wanblif Ogalala. Born 1853 At fourteen he went against the Apsaroke with a party which killed four near the Bighorn mountains. He participated in many battles against the Apsaroke, Shoshoni, Blackfeet, Cheyenne, Assiniboin, Omaha, and Ute, the severest being that with the

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I84 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Apsaroke and Nez Perces at the mouth of Arrow (Pryor) creek.1 Eagle Elk was then about twenty years of age, and thinks there were a thousand men on each side, the Sioux being aided by Cheyenne and Arapaho. The fight lasted from daylight until darkness, with neither side victorious. Each lost about ten killed and many wounded. Eagle Elk fought under Crazy Horse against General Miles at Tongue river, and under the same leader in the Custer fight. He fasted in the Black Hills four days and four nights, but had no vision, and never acquired any fighting medicine. Portrait facing page 182. ELK BOY, Unpac-hokshila ("Cow-elk Boy") Ogalala. Born I848. At fourteen he accompanied a party under the great leader White Swan, against the Apsaroke. At twenty he led his first war-party, which met and killed thirty Apsaroke, Elk Boy himself counting two first coups in the fight. One of the Apsaroke, who were surrounded on a rocky hill, dashed out alone; Elk Boy rushed to meet him, shot him down, struck him with his gun, and scalped him. Another coming to the assistance of the Apsaroke was shot by others of the Sioux, and Elk Boy struck him as he fell. He was engaged in eleven battles against Apsaroke, Shoshoni, Pawnee, Assiniboin, Arikara, and Ponca; fought once against the soldiers. Portrait facing page 114. FAST ELK, Hehidka-luzaha Ogalala. Born 1838. He first went on the war-path at eighteen; the party searched for the Pawnee, but finding only a deserted village, returned. Fast Elk never led a war-party, but fought in four great battles with other tribes, and participated in the Fetterman massacre in I866. He counted coup once in a fight with Apsaroke, when their village on Pryor creek was surrounded by the Sioux. Portrait, folio plate 92. FAST THUNDER, Waki ya -luzaha" Ogalala. Born I839. At nineteen he was a member of a party that went to fight the Apsaroke, but which was prevented from attacking their village because of swollen streams. They met three Nez Perces, however, two of whom they killed. Participated in about twenty fights, most of them against troops. Was not engaged in the Custer fight, but was present at the wiping out of Fetterman's force. Counted four coups, three of them at one time, when in an attack on a Shoshoni camp he struck a woman, a boy, and a girl, the only occupants of a lodge. Again when Shoshoni came to capture horses the alarm was given, and one of the enemy being shot, Fast Thunder struck him. He fasted thrice, the first time on a hill near the Crow agency, Montana. From dawn until midnight he stood erect, then lying down he heard a voice and saw the Bighorn mountains, and a village from which seven men were departing. Two approached him, while the others waited. The two stopped as if shot. Next day the faster returned to camp and warned the people of danger. He regards the attack of the Shoshoni horse-raiders above mentioned as the fulfilment of this vision. Portrait facing this page. FLYING SHIELD, WYaha'chanka-kiyan Yanktonai. Born near Fort Berthold, North Dakota, in 1856. He first went with a warparty against theUte when he was fifteen years of age, on which occasion the Yanktonai brought 1 See the Apsaroke account, Volume IV, APSAROKE AND NEZ PERCES AGAINST SIOUX.

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Fast Thunder - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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APPENDIX I85 back several horses. The next year he went against the Hidatsa with a party, which took seven horses, and on several occasions Flying Shield captured horses from the Assiniboin. While with a party near Milk river he and another Yanktonai killed an entire Cree family in a solitary lodge, Flying Shield taking the man's scalp. He engaged in several horse-stealing expeditions against the Apsaroke and Nez Perces, and his war-honors were restricted chiefly to the capture of horses. His medicine consisted of a pipe and a wolf-skin. He married at twenty-one. Portrait facing page I34. GOOD LANCE, Wahu'keza-washte Ogalala. Born I846. At thirteen he accompanied a party under his brother, then the possessor of the name Good Lance, against Pawnee, four women and one man of whom they killed without loss to themselves. At twenty-five he led a party, and himself won first coup from the leader of the Pawnee, whom he struck with his lance and unhorsed, capturing the horse. On another occasion he struck with his coup-stick a Pawnee boy left behind by his retreating companions; the father, armed with a Spencer rifle, turned to the rescue and fired at close range, but missed. Good Lance struck him with a sword, and others closing in killed father and son. He participated in ninety raids, mostly against the Pawnee. Fought against the troops in 1878, but was on the southern plains in 1876 and consequently took no part in the Custer fight. From a famous Cheyenne medicine-man south of the Platte he bought medicine of pulverized roots tied in deerskin, as a charm against bullets and arrows. The medicine-man clothed him in a buffalo-robe with horns and tail attached, and rubbed the charm over his body. To prove that nothing could now harm him, the Cheyenne discharged a pistol at him, but the bullet inflicted only a skin wound in the arm; he then struck Good Lance in the back with a bayonet, but the resulting wound was slight. Good Lance paid the medicine-man a horse, and thereafter before entering a fight always rubbed the medicine over his body. He fasted five times, the first time during two days and two nights. At dawn of the second day a white-breasted crow perched near him; at daylight the crow was transformed into a hawk. A thunder-storm approached and the hawk became a horse, which trotted toward the storm, while from beyond the ridge over which the animal passed was heard the sound of many horses whinnying. The storm broke, and holding his pipe close he drew his robe over his crouching body and waited amid the rain and hail. After the storm abated he perceived that all the ground about him was perfectly dry, and that there were four men, each with a lance thrust into his body, who became mere ridges of hail. The faster concluded that the import of the vision was that he was destined to kill four men with a lance, as he afterward really did. His second fast was not rewarded, for he remained out only one day: the camp was being moved and he accompanied the others. On another occasion he began to fast in the evening, standing upon a hilltop with his robe drawn about him. The following day as he slept under his robe he became aware of something creeping over his body toward his face. When he saw that it was a rattlesnake he was frightened; he dared not move. He set his teeth, and the thought came to him that this thing ought not to happen to one who had made offerings. The snake began to crawl away, and in his relief he moved; the reptile coiled at once and struck. Returning to the camp he went into the sweatlodge, and though his body became stiff and swollen, he recovered. Portrait facing page I6. GOOD VOICE HAWK, Chetca-ho-waAhte Yanktonai. Born in 1832. He first went on the war-path at nineteen, his party meeting the Apsaroke and killing six of them. On this occasion Good Voice Hawk counted a first coup. He was a member of another war-party which met some Apsaroke near the Yellow

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I86 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN stone, killed one, and drove the rest across the river; in this fight also he counted a first coup. Good Voice Hawk invoked the sun, but had no vision. He married at twenty-three. Portrait facing page I32. GRAY BEAR, Mato-hota Yanktonai. Born in South Dakota in I845. When fourteen years of age he joined a warparty, but achieved no honors. He fought against the Hidatsa, running down, while mounted, a horseless warrior and counting first coup. In another raid against the Hidatsa he successfully captured nine tethered horses on a dark and stormy night. Gray Bear's tutelary deities were the sun and the horses he rode in battle. Portrait facing page I22. His FIGHTS, Wo6kichize-tawa Ogalala. Born 1832. At fourteen he accompanied a war-party under Long Bear and Buffalo Head, against Apsaroke. The ground was muddy, and the horses of the chiefs becoming exhausted, the warriors went on without their leaders. Arriving in the Crow country, they charged upon some hunters who were engaged in cutting up meat, killed and scalped two, and escaped with about ten horses. His Fights and the other boys guarded the clothing and extra horses of the warriors during this fight. When a young man, he again went against the Apsaroke. When the enemy was sighted, White Man's Fire, the medicine-man, donned his headdress of buffalo-horns and eagle-feathers, and while the chief held forward the war-pipe he prayed, each of the warriors extending his own pipe toward the enemy. Then the medicineman rode toward the war-pipe, which now lay on the ground, dismounted, and sat in front of it, while His Fights raised it and gave it to White Man's Fire, saying, "Brother-in-law, go and tell the warriors what you have seen." A bit of pulverized buffalo-chip was placed on the top of the tobacco in the pipe and fire applied, after which the medicine-man smoked. Then he pointed with his thumbs and thrust one hand after the other in the direction of the enemy, exclaiming, "Shy! She!" -indicating that his heart was hot against them. "I see a hundred horses coming toward us. We will kill the Raven Men and one of them will be dressed like a chief." Then they charged, and succeeded in running off about eight hundred horses. The Apsaroke rushed out, and two boys and three men, one of the latter wearing a shirt covered with weasel-skins, were killed. It was afterward learned that he was Big Otter.1 In the retreat twenty Sioux were killed and about half the horses lost. No scalp-dance followed the return of that party. His Fights' medicine was given him by White Man's Fire, who in the summer preceding this fight got it in the Black Hills, from a geyser which the medicineman entered and from which he emerged holding several long white roots, one of which he gave to each of the five warriors present, at the same time instructing them how to paint. His Fights took part in the battle of the Little Bighorn. Portrait facing page I I8. HOLLOW HORN BEAR, Mato-hehlio6hecha Brul'. Born I850. First war-party at twelve, against Pawnee. At nineteen he took the pipe and led a party, which killed a number of Pawnee wood-haulers. Struck a first coup "kill right" - in that battle. After that his father, Iron Shell, desired him to take that name, but he said he would take his grandfather's name instead, and make the name Hollow Horn Bear good. During his career as a warrior he counted coup many times and participated in twenty-three fights with Pawnee, Omaha, Ponca, Shoshoni, Ute, Arikara, and United States troops. He was present at the Custer fight. Portrait, folio plate 82. 1 For one of Big Otter's exploits, see Volume IV, DEATH OF IRON EYES.

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Little Dog - Brule [photogravure plate]

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APPENDIX I87 LITTLE DOG, Shunka-la Brule. Born I848. First war-party at sixteen against the troops at the head of Platte river; horses were captured without fighting. The next year he led a party against a detachment on Lodgepole creek; one soldier was killed and some horses were taken. Counted three coups, one of the first grade, each while acting as war-leader, and was thrice wounded. Sorrowing at the death of a sister, he went alone against the Pawnee, and nearing their camp gave chase to a solitary hunter, but abandoned the pursuit because there was no one to testify that he counted coup even if he had done so. That night he stole into the camp and captured five horses. Participated in forty-one fights and fifteen horse-raids. Scouted for General Crook. Portrait facing page 186. LONG FOX, Tokana-hacska Assiniboin. Born in 1827 near Fort Berthold, North Dakota. He joined a war-party against the Mandan, capturing three horses. On another expedition against the same people he received an arrow wound. Subsequently, in an attack on the Assiniboin by the Sioux, he killed one, and in another fight with them he counted a first coup. The Assiniboin met a war-party of Piegan, and he captured one. Long Fox led against the Sioux a war-party that captured seven horses. He never had a vision. He married at thirty. Portrait facing page 130. MOSQUITO-HAWK, Susbecha Assiniboin. Born on the Missouri below Williston, North Dakota. When he was fourteen he followed a war-party, but gained no honors. On his next four expeditions he had as little success, but on the next he killed a Sioux. He fought against the Piegan, killing two, taking a scalp and counting a first coup. In another battle with the Piegan he killed one, counted coup, and took a scalp. He never fasted, and never has had a vision. He married at seventeen. Portrait, folio plate 102. RED CLOUD, Mahiplya-luta (" Scarlet Cloud") Ogalala. Born I822. At the age of fifteen he accompanied a war-party which killed eighty Pawnee. He took two scalps and shot one man. At seventeen he led a party that killed eight of the same tribe. During his career he killed two Shoshoni and ten Apsaroke. Once going against the Apsaroke, he left the party and approached the camp on foot. About daylight a man came driving his herd to the range. Red Cloud charged him, killed him with arrows, stabbed him with the Apsaroke's own knife, and scalped him; he then took his clothes and started back, driving the horses. Men from the camp pursued, and a severe fight followed between the two parties. Once an Apsaroke captured his herd. He followed all night, and at daylight caught up with and killed the raider. Red Cloud received his name, in recognition of his bravery, from his father after the latter's death. Before that his name had been Two Arrows, Jtan-n6opa. His brother-in-law, Nachili, gave him medicine tied up in a little deerskin bag. Always -before going to war Red Cloud rubbed this over his body. All the tribe regarded his medicine as very potent. He first gained notice as a leader by his success at Fort Phil. Kearny in I866, when he killed Captain Fetterman and eighty soldiers In the following year he led a large party, two to three thousand, it is said, in an attack on a wood-train at the same post, but was repulsed with great loss. (See pages 37-39.) Previously only chief of the Bad Face band of Ogalala, he became head-chief of the tribe after the abandonment of Fort Phil. Kearny. Red Cloud was prevented from joining in the Custer fight by the action of General Mackenzie in disarming him and his camp. Portrait, folio plate 103.

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I88 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN RED HAWK, Cheta"-luta (" Scarlet Hawk") Ogalala. Born I854. First war-party in 1865 under Crazy Horse, against troops. Led an unsuccessful war-party at twenty-two against Shoshoni. First coup when twelve horse-raiding Blackfeet were discovered in a creek bottom and annihilated. Led another party against Shoshoni, but failed to find them; encountered and surrounded a white-horse troop. From a hill overlooking the fight Red Hawk saw soldiers dismount and charge. The Lakota fled, leaving him alone. A soldier came close and fired, but missed. Red Hawk did likewise, but while the soldier was reloading his carbine he fired again with his Winchester and heard a thump and "O-h-h-h! " A Cheyenne boy on horseback rushed in and struck the soldier, counting coup. Engaged in twenty battles, many with troops, among them the Custer fight of 1876; others with Pawnee, Apsaroke, Shoshoni, Cheyenne, and even with Sioux scouts. Red Hawk fasted twice. The second time, after two days and a night, he saw a vision. As he slept, something from the west came galloping and panting. It circled about him, then went away. A voice said, "Look! I told you there would be many horses!" He looked, and saw a man holding green grass in his hand. Again the voice said, "There will be many horses about this season"; then he saw the speaker was a rose-hip, half red, half green. Then the creature went away and became a yellow-headed blackbird. It alighted on one of the offering poles, which bent as if under a great weight. The bird became a man again, and said, "Look at this! " Red Hawk saw a village, into which the man threw two long-haired human heads. Said the voice, "I came to tell you something, and I have now told you. You have done right." Then the creature, becoming a bird, rose and disappeared in the south. Red Hawk slept, and heard a voice saying, "Look at your village!" He saw four women going around the village with their hair on the top of their heads, and their legs aflame. Following them was a naked man, mourning and singing the death-song. Again he slept, and felt a hand on his head, shaking him, and as he awoke a voice said, "Arise, behold the face of your grandfather!" He looked to the eastward and saw the sun peeping above a ridge. The voice continued: "Listen! He is coming, anxious to eat." So he took his pipe and held the stem toward the rising sun. This time he knew he was not asleep, or dreaming: he knew he was on a hill three miles from the village. A few days later came news that of five who had gone against the enemy, four had been killed; one returned alive, and followed the four mourning wives around the camp singing the death-song. Still later they killed a Cheyenne and an Apsaroke scout, and the two heads were brought into camp. Portrait facing this page. RING THUNDER, Jaki ya"-cha"gilethka Brule. Born I840. At eighteen he accompanied a party, under Knife, against the Pawnee. He himself led twenty-three war-parties, all against the same tribe. He counted coup once, was never wounded, nor did an enemy ever strike him. At thirty-three he was elected a chief. Portrait facing page 112. SHIELD, Iahacha"ka Ogalala. Born I833. Accompanied a party on an expedition against the Ute when thirteen years of age. At thirty-one he led a party of horse-raiders into the Apsaroke country. He was engaged altogether in eight severe fights, mostly against the Apsaroke. He counted five coups, one of them a first honor. Portrait facing page Io.

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Red Hawk - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

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APPENDIX I89 SLOW BULL, Tata"ka-hu'"kehni Ogalala. Born I844. First war-party at fourteen, under Red Cloud, against Apsaroke. Engaged in fifty-five battles with Apsaroke, Shoshoni, Ute, Pawnee, Blackfeet, and Kutenai. Struck seven first coups. At seventeen he captured one hundred and seventy horses from Apsaroke. In the same year he received medicine from buffalo in a dream while he slept on a hilltop, not fasting, but resting from travel on the war-path. Counted two honors in one fight, when the Lakota charged an Apsaroke camp and were routed. Slow Bull returned to the enemy; his horse stepped into a hole and fell, and an Apsaroke leaped on him. He threw his antagonist off, jumped on his horse, and struck his enemy in the face with his bow. At that moment another Apsaroke dashed up and dealt him a glancing blow in the back with a hatchet. Slow Bull counted coup on him also. He has been a subchief of the Ogalala since 1878. Portrait, folio plate 84. SPOTTED ELK, Heh'aka-gihlehka Hunkpapa. Born I842. First war-party at seventeen. It was said of him, as of any ablebodied male who waited so long before engaging in war, that " he slept too long." At the first night's camp, to try his strength of heart, he was sent back to the starting point (the party travelled afoot) to bring water; he returned at daybreak with a buffalo-paunch full of water. He took an active part in the battle and was shot through the leg. Five Apsaroke scalps were taken, and four Sioux wounded. At twenty-one Spotted Elk headed a party of twenty-five, met two Apsaroke at the mouth of the Musselshell, and took their scalps. He led six other parties against Assiniboin, Hidatsa, Mandan, Apsaroke, and Arikara. Five of these fights resulted in one to ten enemies slain, seventeen in all, and in four no Lakota was lost. He took part in forty-seven battles, acquired eleven honors, five of them "kill right," was wounded five times, and captured horses eight times. He fasted on six occasions, once four days and four nights, when he "almost died of hunger," twice two days, thrice a day and a night. One of these fasts was in winter. In his visions came Elk, Bear, Fox, Gray Wolf, and Hawk. Elk helped him most of all. Both Elk and Bear correctly foretold his success in war. All these visioncreatures showed him certain roots to be used for disease or wound, and he used them both for himself and others. He participated three times in the Sun Dance, on one occasion being the principal dancer; twice the skewers were passed under the muscles of his arms, once through those of his back. He once saw his half-brother, Rain In The Face, actually suspended by the muscles of the back and shoulders. He succeeded his father, Burned Shaver, as a chief of the Hunkpapa. Portrait facing page I I6. STANDS FIRST, Tokeya-nahin Ogalala. Born about I844. Distinguished himself as a young man by riding out alone to meet a single Apsaroke who charged from the enemy's line. Stands First did not shoot, and received a wound in the breast; but as the two passed each other he struck the Apsaroke with his coup-stick, a feat of great honor. The following year, -seemingly in 1869, -two hundred Sioux attacked the Apsaroke camp near the forks of the Missouri, and in the thick of the fight Stands First was twice wounded in the back. In the battle of the Little Bighorn he captured the standard of the troops. Portrait facing page I4. STRUCK BY CROW, Kang'^i-apapi Ogalala. Born I847. At eleven he accompanied a party against the Apsaroke, the one in which Fast Thunder (see page I84) served as a warrior. He participated in ten battles,

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I90 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN most of them against the Apsaroke, and fought four times against troops, three of these occasions being the Fetterman massacre, the engagement with Crook's command at the Rosebud, and the battle of the Little Bighorn. Counted coup twice, both in the same fight, when twenty Flatheads and two Sioux were killed. Fasted four times in the Bighorn mountains and experienced a vision. Early in the morning he took five tanned buffalo-skins to the summit and gave them to the Mystery. He remained on his feet until long after darkness had fallen, and then as he lay half sleeping he saw the fork of a river, and beside it a ridge over which came many horses driven by a man. Some of the horses were white. The next day at sunset he returned to his camp and went into the sweat-lodge. A short time after this Struck By Crow accompanied a raiding party and captured some white horses. Portrait facing page 38. Two STRIKE, Nonp-kah'pd Brule. Born I821. At the age of twelve he accompanied his first war-party against Pawnee. At thirty-one he led a party against the same tribe and counted coup. Twelve coups, all on Pawnee, and twenty-two battles. Two Pawnee counted coup on him, but the second he killed. Was never wounded. Name changed from Living Bear to Two Strike after unhorsing two Pawnee riding the same animal. After the sixth coup he was declared chief, and, as others died, gradually ascended to the position of head-chief of the Brules. He never fasted for the purpose of seeing a vision, and had no medicine, but wore a bear's ear "to frighten the enemy." Portrait, folio plate 78. YELLOW HAWK, Chetac-zi Yanktonai. Born in I854 near Fort Berthold, North Dakota. When he was sixteen he accompanied a war-party, but achieved nothing. While in an engagement with the Apsaroke near Musselshell river, Montana, he rushed into the thick of the fight and brought out his brother's dead body. Somewhat older, he was leading a war-party when a single Indian was seen. Wishing to fight him single-handed, Yellow Hawk commanded his warriors to wait; he then charged the stranger, killing him with his war-club. On another expedition he killed one enemy and counted a first coup. He captured a tethered horse from the Atsina near Fort Belknap, and another from the Cree. Yellow Hawk fasted many times and always had the same vision - that of an old man in the clouds with his body painted blue and his legs red. This old man told him he would never be wounded, but would gain many honors and live to great age. Yellow Hawk married at twenty-three. Portrait facing this page. YELLOW HORSE, Tathutke-hizi Yanktonai. Born near Standing Rock, North Dakota, in I853. He went on the war-path first at the age of fifteen. This expedition was fortunate for the boy, as his party met a band of Apsaroke and he killed one. The next year the Apsaroke invaded the Sioux territory and he killed another. Yellow Horse led into the Apsaroke country a few years later a war-party that brought back a large number of horses. The following winter he headed a party of eleven on an excursion to the same place, and they captured fifty horses, but being pursued by the Apsaroke, they were compelled to make a stand. Armed with a repeating rifle, he aroused the enemy's fear and drove them back. His medicine is a bird-skin tied in a yellow cloth; this he purchased, never having had a vision. Yellow Horse married at nineteen. Portrait facing page I24.

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Yellow Hawk Yanktonai [photogravure plate]

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Index

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INDEX Abstinence among Teton, I8 See FASTING Acton, Minnesota, murder near, 34 Adobe houses built for Sioux, I79 Adoption among Lakota, 17, 23 After-world of the Teton, 20, 141 Aged, treatment of, I82 Akichita. See SOLDIERS Akichita-la, death of, 168 Allison, W. B., treaty commissioner, 42 Allouez, Jean Claude, Sioux seen by, I60, 162 Altar in Lakota ceremony, 75, 76, 78, 8o, 85, I01-13, 107-109 American Horse and difficulties of 1875, 42 cited, I69, 174, 177-179 daughter of, portrait, 60, pl. elected chief, 16 Anatomical terms, Dakota, 152 Animals, creation of, 67 Dakota names for, 153 in visions, 62-63 spirit, and medicine-men, 63-64, 140 Annuities, early issue of, 176, I77 See ISSUE Anuik-ite, an Assiniboin deity, 128 Apache, Dakota names for, 141 Apple creek, Assiniboin range to, 127 Dakota on, 121 Apsaroke and Assiniboin hostility, 128 and Dakota hostility, 3, 20, 121, I74-I79, 183-190 at Fort Laramie treaty, 176 creation story mentioned, 4 Dakota horses stolen by, 176 Dakota names for, 141 hermaphrodite killed, 176 horses captured from, I7I, I75, I85, 189 scouts at Custer fight, 44, 46, 49, pl. Sun Dance among, 87 visit Sioux, i8i Arapaho and Dakota alliance, I84 and Dakota warfare, I66, 172, 175 and Pawnee battle, 175 VOL. III -13 Arapaho at Fetterman massacre, 179 at Fort Laramie treaty, 176 Blood-clot Boy in myth of, III Dakota names for, 141 Sun Dance among, 87 visit the Dakota, I82 Archery in Lakota tale, II Arikara and Assiniboin hostility, I28 and Dakota hostility, 3, 121, 162, 163, 165, 167, I69, 171, I73, 184, i86, 189 at Fort Laramie treaty, 176 Dakota names for, 141 horses stolen from, I70, 171 Leavenworth expedition against, 173 peace with Dakota, 121 removal of village of, 178 scouts in Custer campaign, 44, 46, 49 sign for, in pictography, 163 Sun Dance among, 87 words in Assiniboin songs, 132 Arkansas river, 175 Arrow creek. See PRYOR CREEK Arrow-points in Sioux country, 26 of the Lakota, 138 Arrows in Lakota myth, 59 of the Lakota, 25 sacred, captured, 175 sacred, of the Lakota, 159 Art, decorative, of the Lakota, 26 See PAINTING Arts of the Teton, 138 See BEADWORK; HANDICRAFT; QUILLWORK Ash Hollow, fight at, 177 Ashley, Gen. W. H., trading party of, 173 Ash wood, uses of, 138 Assiniboin, account of the, 125-133 and Cree alliance, 162 and Dakota hostility, 121, 162-167, 174, I77, 183, I84, 189 at Fort Laramie treaty, 176 Dakota names for, 141

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I94 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Assiniboin, horses captured from, 162, 163, i66, 167, 185 names for other tribes, 141-142 peace with Dakota, 121 population of, 133 sign for, in pictography, 162 Sun Dance among, 87 vocabulary, 152 warfare of the, I82, I87 Atkinson, Gen. H., treaty commissioner, 33 John, herder, killed, I80 Atsina and Assiniboin warfare, 121, 182 and Dakota warfare, I83, I90 Blood-clot Boy in myth of, III Dakota names for, 141 Augur, Gen. C. C., treaty commissioner, 39 Axe of the Lakota, 26, 138 sanctified in incense, 93, IOI use of, in Foster-parent Chant, 76 Bad Face band of Ogalala, 187 Bad Four Bear, a white trader, 177 Bad Lands, Sioux flee to, 53, 54, I82 Bad river, trading-posts on, 172, 173 Bags, deerskin, for love-tokens, 139 of the Lakota, 25, 26, 138 used in ceremony, 94, IOO, 105, IO8, IIO See MEDICINE-BAG; PARFLECHE; PIPEBAGS; POUCH Ball game of the Teton, 138 Band, The, mentioned, 174 Bannock and Dakota warfare, 183 Beadwork of the Lakota, 26-28 on scalp-shirt, 29-30 Bear-medicine, how obtained, 63 Bear's Ear, keeper of Sacred Pipe, 56 killed, 179 Bear's ear worn in battle, I90 Beaver's Ears killed, I79 Beaver-skin in hairdressing, 137 Beef issued to Dakota in I869, 179 Bells obtained by Dakota, 162 Benteen, Capt. F. W., in Custer fight, 48, 49 Benteen creek, 46 Berdash, Apsaroke, killed, 176 Berries as food, 138 Big Belly. See BIG IN THE MIDDLE Big Cheyenne river, 174 Big Crow killed, 178 kills brother, 182 Big Foot and the Ghost Dance, 53, 55 Big Hawk, death of, 182 Bighorn mountains a Sioux boundary, 41, I83, I90 Bighorn river, 36, 44, 50 See LITTLE BIGHORN Big In The Middle killed, 172 Big Leggings, a white trader, 172 Big Muddy river, I73 Big Otter, death of, I86 Big Road killed, 171 Big Sioux river occupied by Teton, 3 Big Star, a Sioux commissioner, I8I Big Stone lake occupied by Teton, 3, 32, I66 Big Waist. See BIG IN THE MIDDLE Biographical sketches, I82-190 Birchbark, images of, 133 Birth ceremony of Lakota, 18 Bismarck, N. Dakota, hostilities near, 41 Mandan near site of, 121 Black Crow, 180, 18I Black Eagle, sketch of, 182 Blackfeet and Assiniboin hostility, 128 and Dakota warfare, 121, 174, I83, I89 Blood-clot Boy in myth of, III Dakota names for, 141 dispossessed by Assiniboin, 127 Sun Dance among, 87 Blackfeet Sioux, a Teton tribe, 12, 138, 142 horses stolen by, 170 population of, 137 Teton name for, 142 Black Fox and Wounded Knee fight, 54 Black Hills ceded by Sioux, 50-5I explored by Custer, 42 proposed fort in, 42 reached by Teton, 3 Sioux flee to, in 1864, 178 Black Man, death of, 163 Black Shield. See CALICO Black Stone makes medicine, 171 Bladder. See BUFFALO-BLADDER Blankets, Navaho, among Dakota, 177 Spanish, introduced, 176 used as couch, IOI See SADDLE-BLANKETS Blood-clot Boy in Indian myth, III-II7 Blood Indians, Dakota names for, 141 Blue Blanket, father of, killed, 171 Blue-flag root in ceremony, 97, 100 Blue Horse, portrait of, 94, pl. sketch of, 183 Blue paint in ceremony, 74, 78, IOO, Io8 Blue river, 177

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INDEX I95 Bone, Lakota necklaces of, 28 used for arrow-points, 138 See EAGLE WING-BONE Boone, A. G., treaty commissioner, 50 Bordeau, John, herder, killed, I80 Bowen, Lieut.-Col. W. H. C., on Custer fight, 47, 48 Bowls of the Lakota, 26, 138 Bows of the Lakota, 25, 59, I14, 138, I59, I6o Bow-sheath of the Lakota, 112 Boyer, Mitch, with Custer, 44-46, 48, 49 Bozeman and Fort Laramie road, 36, 43 Brady, Cyrus T., cited, 47, 48 Brave Bear. See CONQUERING BEAR Brave Heart society, 15, 139 song, 148 Bravery of Teton warriors, 15 societies for encouraging, I6 See WARFARE Breast, The, death of, 174 Breech-cloth. See LOIN-CLOTH Bristol, S. Dakota, fight near, 178 Broken Arrow band of Teton, 175 Broken Back. See HUMPBACK Broken Leg, death of, 17I, I76 Brooke, Gen. J. R., and Ghost Dance outbreak, 53, 54 Brothers-in-law, relations between, 17 Brules, a Teton band, 12, 138, 142 at Fort Laramie council, 37 Dakota names for, 142 defeat Pawnee, 179 Harney's campaign against, 34 horses stolen from, 176, I8o hostility of the, 36 in Custer fight, 12 origin of the, I66 population of, I37 Brush of buffalo-hair, 73 Bucket. See BUFFALO-PAUNCH Buffalo, ceremony for increase of, 94 chief source of food, 138 controlled by Waziya, 68 extermination of, IO-I2, 36 frozen in river, i6I, 167 importance of, to Sioux, 5, 36 in Lakota myth, 59 moons named from, 30 relation of, to north, I59 stampede of, 9-10 See FOOD; GAME; HUNTING Buffalo Bill. See CODY, W. F. Buffalo-bladder as food receptacle, 140 in Lakota ceremony, 72, 73, 86, 87 Buffalo-calf image on mythic pipe, 58 Buffalo calf-skin in ceremony, 65-67, 73, 87 Buffalo Chant of Teton, 59, 140 of Yanktonai, 122 songs of, 146-148 Buffalo-chip in ceremony, 66, 104 smoked in pipe, i86 Buffalo-hair as body decoration, 95 ball stuffed with, 138 in Lakota rite, 58, 72, 73, 78, 8i, 86 used for brush, 73 Buffalo Head, war leader, i80, I86 Buffalo-horns on head-dress, I86 spoons made of, 26, 138 Buffalo hunt, disguises used in, 9 horses first used in, I6I medicine-making on, 8 rules for, I39 See HUNTING Buffalo-larynges in mortuary rite, IO6, IO9, IIO Buffalo-meat in Lakota rite, 68, 70, 84, 85 Buffalo-medicine of Sans Arcs, 175 Buffalo-paunch as utensil, 26, I38, I89 Buffalo-skin, bag of, in ceremony, IOO bundle in ceremony, 100-102, 104, 107 dead wrapped in, 20 decoration of, 26 in Lakota ceremony, I9, 65-68, 70, 73, 76, 78, 80, 94 in Lakota myth, 57, 58 in mortuary rite, 101-102, 105, IO8 moccasins of, 28-29 offered to Mystery, I90 of medicine-man, 89 painting on, 69, Ioo, Io8 rattles of, 78, 79, 86 tipis made of, 23, 25, 138 uses for, 25 white, by whom worn, Io2 white, how regarded, IIo white, in Lakota ceremony, Io9, IIO white, in Lakota myth, 113 worn by Lakota, 29, I37 worn by Sun Dancers, 95 Buffalo-skull in Lakota ceremony, 75, 78, 82, 84, 86, 87 in Sun Dance, 94, 95, 98 Buffalo-tallow in Lakota ceremony, 67, 69, 75, 78, 94, IOI 0 I

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I96 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Buffalo-tongues in Sun Dance feast, 9I Bull Head. See BUFFALO HEAD Bullis, H. C., treaty commissioner, 50 Bundle, sacred, of mortuary ceremony, Ioo102, 104, I07 of the Cheyenne, 175 of the Lakota, I60 Burial. See MORTUARY CUSTOMS Burkman, John, Custer's hostler, 49 Burned Shaver, Hunkpapa chief, I89 Burning Breast, death of, 182 Caching of meat, i6I, i65 Cahokia, Ill., Dorion at, I70 Calendar. See COUNTING-STICKS; WINTERCOUNT Calf Pipe of the Lakota, 3I, 159, I6o See PIPE Calf-skin. See BUFFALO CALF-SKIN Calico (Minihuha), an Ogalala, 178, 183 cited, 16, 23 portrait of, 2, pl. Camp-circle during Sun Dance, go, 9I in Lakota ceremony, 105 in Lakota myth, 58, 60, I59 in winter-counts, 161 Mystery Tree erected in, 93 Camp-ground, selection of, I04 Camping customs of the Teton, 13 Camp Robinson. See FORT ROBINSON Camps of the Teton, 7 Canada, Assiniboin in, I33 Dakota visits, 161, 169 flight of Dakota to, 50-51 Canoes used by Assiniboin, I27 Captives, treatment of, by Lakota, 23 See ADOPTION; WARFARE Cardinal points and camp-circle, 159 Dakota names for, 154 in Lakota ceremony, 78, 80, 82, o10, 104, 107, I09 in Lakota myth, 60 offerings to spirits of, 72, 78, 87, 89, go prayers to spirits of, 68, 70, 77, 95, 99 spirits of, how symbolized, 75 Carlisle, Pa., school established at, I80 Carrington, Col. H. B., in Sioux country, 37 Carver, Jonathan, among Dakota, 167 Cass, Lewis, treaty commissioner, 33 Castaneda cited on buffalo, 10 Catawba, surviving remnant of, 4 Catholic mission among Dakota, 181 Catlin, George, Chardon with, I73 paints Lone Horn's portrait, 174 reference to Lone Horn, 176 Catlinite, Lakota legend concerning, 27-28 use of, 27, 138 Cattle introduced among Sioux, 179, I8o Cedar island, trading post on, I69, I70 Ceremonies of the Assiniboin, 128-132 of the Yanktonai, 122 of the Teton, 8, 17-18, 65-93, I40 See RELIGION Chanuzi-tanka. See BIG ROAD Channo6p-kozap, an Assiniboin rite, 132 Cha'te-tinza. See BRAVE HEART SOCIETY Chardon, F. A., a trader, 173 Charge Crow, portrait of, i8o, pi. sketch of, I83 Charging Nose, Sun Dance observed by, I6o Charlatans among Dakota, i68 Charm. See LOVE-CHARM Cherry used for bows, 138 used for fire-stick, I0I sticks in Lakota ceremony, 66, 67, 69, 71, 74, 78, 93, 94 Cherry creek, 53, I74 Chetai-ho-waihte. See GOOD VOICE HAWK Chetan-luta. See RED HAWK Cheta'-zi. See YELLOW HAWK Cheyenne and Dakota alliance, 175, 179, 184 and Dakota warfare, 121, i68, 169, 174, 178, 183, i88 at Custer massacre, 12, 44 at Fetterman massacre, 179 at Fort Laramie treaty, 176 Dakota names for, 141 defeat of Dull Knife's band, i8o hanged at Fort Laramie, 178 sacred arrows of, 175 Sun Dance among, 87 Cheyenne river, Ghost Dance on, 53 Chiefs among the Teton, 12-13, 138 See POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Children, Teton customs regarding, I7-I8, I38-I39 See BIRTH CEREMONY Chippewa and Dakota hostility, 33, I6I and Dakota peace, 163 Dakota names for, 141 name for Sioux, 31 on Lake Superior, I6o Chokaptiki in Dakota tale, 111-117 Chouteau, A., treaty commissioner, 32

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INDEX I97 Choze. See LA FRAMBOISE Civilization, effect of, on Indians, xi-xiii, 5, o1 See WHITE MEN Clark, William, treaty commissioner, 32, 33 Clothing, gifts of, in ceremony, I I made by women, 7 of the Lakota, 25, 26, 28-30, 107, 112, 137 See COSTUMES; HEAD-DRESS; LEGGINGS; LOIN-CLOTH; MOCCASINS; SCALPSHIRT; WAR-BONNET Cloud Shield cited, I70, I77, I79, I8o Codrington, R. H., quoted on Mana, 61-62 Cody, W. F., deputed to capture Sitting Bull, 53 Colors, Dakota names for, 154 directional, of the Lakota, I59 Comanche, Dakota names for, I41 Commission. See TREATY Conjuring. See JUGGLERY Conquering Bear killed by Grattan, 177 Cooking by the Dakota, 26, 138, I59, I60 See FOOD Cooper Union, Red Cloud's reception at, 41 Corn brought by White Buffalo Woman, 159 in Lakota ceremony, 74, 78, 79, 8I, 82, 85-87 Corn-bearer in Lakota ceremony, 79, 8o Coronado, buffalo encountered by, 10 horses introduced by, I6o Corrals for hunting buffalo, 9 Costumes in Sun Dance, 89, 91, 95 See CLOTHING Council, tribal, among Teton, 12, 13 See POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Counting-sticks in Dakota myth, I6o of the Pima, I74 Coups of Dakota warriors, I83, I85-I90 defined, 22 of the Teton, 140 See WAR Courtship among Lakota, I8 See MARRIAGE Coyote-call in Lakota ceremony, 74, 92, 93 Coyotes as beasts of burden, I59 Crazy Dog killed, 175 Crazy Horse and difficulties of I875, 42 camp of, destroyed, 43 Crook's experience with, 21 death of, 51, I8o elected chief, I6 in Tongue River fight, I84 Crazy Horse, leads war-party, I88 meaning of name, I8o surrender of, 5I Creation, Lakota belief in, Io5 Cree and Assiniboin friendship, I27, I62 and Dakota hostility, 121, 183, 185, I90 medicine rites bought from, 132 mystery-men of the, 133 Crier. See HERALDS Crook, Gen. George, at Laramie treaty, 179 experience with Crazy Horse, 21 in battle of Rosebud, I90 in Sioux campaign of 1876, 43 Little Dog scouts for, 187 Cross Bear. See MEAN BEAR Crow agency, I84 Crow Butte, battle at, 176 Crow Dog murders Spotted Tail, 52, I8o portrait of, 84, pl. Crow Feather, Sans Arcs chief, 172 Crows. See APSAROKE Crow's Nest, Custer battle-field, 44, 45 Culture of the Lakota, 2I Culture hero of the Teton, I40 Cups of the Lakota, 26 Curly, Crow scout, 46, 49 Curtis, S. R., treaty commissioner, 35 Custer, Gen. G. A., action of, in Little Bighorn fight, 49-50 expedition of, in 1876, 44-50 explores Black Hills, 42 Custer City, rapid growth of, 42 Custer fight, 44 (map), I8o, 184-186, I88 See LITTLE BIGHORN RIVER Custer monument, 50, pl. Cut Ear visits British, I68 Cutthroats, sign name for Sioux, 45 Dakota, application of term, 31, 32, 142 Dance. See CEREMONIES; GHOST DANCE; SCALP DANCE; SUN DANCE Dance-lodge of the Lakota, 94 Dance That Smooths The Ground, 94 Daniels, Dr. J. W., at Sioux council, 41, 50 Davis creek near Custer battle-field, 45 Dead Arm, death of, 173 Deer creek, 177 Deer-hoofs, rattles of, 172 Deerskin aprons of Sun Dancers, 95 bags of, 87, 94 gaming hoop wound with, 138 in mortuary ceremony, Ioo, I02, 105, I08

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i98 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Deerskin, pipes ornamented with, 27 strips of, used in game, 138 used for clothing, 137 uses for, 25, 29 wrappings of, for girls, 29 Descent among Lakota, I6, 139 See SOCIAL ORGANIZATION De Soto, horses introduced by, I6o Dialects of the Sioux, 32 See VOCABULARY Disease, effect of, on Sioux, 5 See MEASLES; MEDICINE; SMALLPOX Disguises used in buffalo hunt, 9 Divorce among Lakota, 20, 139 See MARRIAGE Dodge, Lieut. R. I., explores Black Hills, 42 Dog-meat eaten by Lakota, 68, 85, 91 Dogs, sacrifice of, 99 use of, among Sioux, 57 See TRAVOIS Don't Eat Buffalo Heart makes offerings, 170 Dorion (Durion), Pierre, trader, I70 Dorsey, G. A., cited, 175 Double Face, an Assiniboin deity 128-129 Drake, deity of the South, 77 Drake neck-skin in Lakota ceremony, 75 Dreams, effect of, I68 power derived from, I33, i6o See VISIONS Dress. See CLOTHING Drink inhibited in Lakota ceremony, 89, 94 how taken by Sun Dance suppliant, 90 Drum in Lakota ceremony, 64, 78, 79, 9I, 94 of the Brave Hearts, 15 See MUSIC; SONGS Duck. See DRAKE Dull Knife's band, capture of, I80 Du Luth visits the Sioux, 32, i6i Durion. See DORION Dwellings, adobe, built for Sioux, 179 of the Sioux, 23, 138 See TIPI Eagle in Lakota tale, 112, II3, 115, 17 Eagle Elk, portrait of, I82, pl. sketch of, 183 Eagle-feathers in Lakota ceremony, 74, 75, 78, 8i, 82, 87, 94 in Lakota myth, 58 in Sun Dance, 95 on head-dress, I86 on scalp-shirt, 22 Eagle-feathers on war-bonnet, 137 worn by warriors, 23, 30 See FEATHERS Eagle, Spotted, deity of the North, 77 Eagle-trapping by Dakota, 171 Eagle wing-bone, whistles of, 54, 91, 95, 97 Ear ornaments of Teton, 28, I37 Ear-piercing among Teton, 18 Earth, Lakota belief concerning, 60 spirit of, prayer to, 70, Io1 See CARDINAL POINTS Earth lodge built for Iron Horn, 175 erected by Sans Arcs, 172 Earth Mother of the Lakota, 65 East, spirit of, prayer to, 68, 70 See CARDINAL POINTS Eclipse and Messiah cult, 52 in winter-count, 179 Edmunds, N., treaty commissioner, 35, 39, 50, I8I Education of children, I8 Edwards, Ninian, treaty commissioner, 32 Effigies of ghosts in mortuary rite, Io8-Io9, IIO used in Mystery Tree rite, 94 See IMAGES Elk Boy, portrait of, 114, pi. sketch of, 184 Elk Head, keeper of Sacred Pipe, 55, 56, pl. on origin of Calf Pipe, 31 Elk hunting by Dakota, 175 Elk That Halloos AYalking, 178, I8o Ellendale, N. Dakota, fight near, 178 Ewers, Capt. E. P., pacifies Hump, 53 Face-painting by Lakota, 23 in Lakota rite, 94, 95, 104-IO8 of dead, 140 See PAINTING Fast Elk, sketch of, 184 Fasting by Sun Dancer, 89 by the Lakota, 59, 65, 66, 68, pl. during Sun Dance, 94 medicine-power derived by, 63, 68, 69 to produce visions, 184, I85, i88, I89 Fast Thunder in Apsaroke raid, I90 portrait of, I84, pl. sketch of, 184 Fatalism among Lakota, 21 Feast during Foster-parent Chant, 85-86 during mortuary ceremony, IOO during Sun Dance, 98

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INDEX I99 Feast for children, 18 sacred, of the Yanktonai, 122 Feather In The Ear steals horses, 175 Feathers as pipe decorations, 75, Io6, I71 attached to shields, 22 in Lakota myth, 58 mentioned in prayer, 77 on scalp-shirt, 16, 22, 30 See EAGLE-FEATHERS; LOON-FEATHERS; WOODPECKER-FEATHERS Fetishes among Lakota, 22 Fetterman, Capt. W. J., massacre of command of, 37-38, I79, 184, 187, 190 Fielner, a naturalist, killed, 178 Fire, how made by Dakota, 138, 159 how used in Sun Dance, 91 in Ghost Keeper's tipi, 103 Fire-carrier in Foster-parent Chant, 71-85 in Ghost Keeper's rite, 102 Fire-sticks in Lakota ceremony, 71, 1oi Fischer, Edgar, acknowledgments to, xiii note on Indian music, 142-143 Flags presented to Dakota, 170 Flame, The, winter-count of, I70, 171 Flatheads, Dakota fight with, I83, 190 Dakota names for, 141 Flying Shield, portrait of, 134, pl. sketch of, I84 Folk-tale of Wey6ta and Iktomi, 111-118 Food, ceremonial use of, 73-74, 84, 85 consecration of, 103, 107, IIO deposited with dead, 20, 140 offered to ghost, 102-103, I05-IO6, II of the Dakota, 7, 68, 85, 91, 138, 153, 154 taken by Sun Dancer, go Forsyth, Col. J. W., at Wounded Knee, 54 Fort Abraham Lincoln, 41-43, 50 Atkinson, 173 Belknap, 133, I82, 183, 190 Berthold, 173, 178, I84, I87, 190 Buford, 51 C. F. Smith, 38 Chardon, 173 Clark, 173 Fetterman, 43 Jackson, 173 Kearny, 177. (See FORT PHIL. KEARNY) Laramie, 34, 36, 37, 39, 40-42, 51, 176 -I79, I83 Leavenworth, 177 L'Huillier, 161 Fort McKenzie, I73 Peck agency, 133 Phil. Kearny, 37, 38, 179, I87 Pierre, 172, 174, 177 Randall, 51 Reno, 38 Rice, 173 Robinson, 51, 53, 176, 177, I8o, 183 Sheridan, i8i Snelling, 33 Sully, 173 Union, 173 Forts in Sioux country abandoned, 40, 41 Foster-parent Chant, 59, 65, 71-87 (pl.), 122, 132, 140 Four Bears, tradition related by, 168 Four Horn becomes medicine-man, 177 Fox in Lakota tale, 112, 113, I5 Fox Indians on Lake Superior, I6o French among Dakota, I6o expedition against Dakota, 162 Frontenac, Count, 161 Frost, creation of, 115 Galineau, David, kills herder, I8o Gall and difficulties of 1875, 42 death of, 51 flees to Canada, 50, 51 surrender of, 51, I8o Game, extinction of, in Sioux country, 41 See BUFFALO; ELK; FOOD; HUNTING Games of the Teton, 138 played about dead, I67 Gaylord, A. S., treaty commissioner, 50 Gentile organization of Lakota, i6, 139 See SOCIAL ORGANIZATION Ghost-bundle. See BUNDLE Ghost Dance among Lakota, 32, 52, I8I Ghost Keeper rite of Assiniboin, 132 of Lakota, 20, 59, 65, 99-IIo, 122, 140 Ghosts, belief in, 69 Gibbon, Gen. John, campaign of 1876, 43, 44. on Custer battle-field, 50 Gibson, Captain, killed by Dakota, 177 Gifts in Lakota ceremony, 17, 73, 76, 87 made at marriage, 19, 20, 139 of clothing in ceremony, 1Io of horses in ceremony, 19, 84, 97, 107 presented in Sun Dance, 97, 98 to Ghost Keeper, 105 to war-bonnet makers, 30 Goes Ahead, Crow scout, 44, 46, 49

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200 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Gold discovery and Sioux troubles, 33, 36, 42 Good, Battiste, birth of, 172 escapes from Pawnee, I75 winter-count of, I59-180 Good Day Woman, portrait of, IOO, pl. Good Lance, portrait of, I6, pl. sketch of, 185 Good Voice Hawk, portrait of, 132, pl. sketch of, I85 Good White Man, a trader, 169, 170 Government of the Teton, 138 See CHIEFS; POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Grass-roots used in medicine, 62, I40 Grattan massacre, 177 Gray Bear, portrait of, 122, pl. sketch of, I86 See ROAN BEAR Gray Eyes killed, 173 See LE BEAU Great Mystery, 55-60, 65-72, 77, 78, 88, 89, 99, I59, I6o, I69 Great Mystery Woman captured, 169 Great Spirit, misconception as to, 60 Groseilliers among the Dakota, I6I Gros Ventres. See ATSINA Guernsey, Orrin, treaty commissioner, 35 Gun, Lakota name for, 6I Guns acquired by Dakota, 170 first seen by Dakota, 162 Habitat of the Sioux, 3, 32, 137, i6o, 167 Hair, human, on scalp-shirt, 30 love-tokens worn in, I39 of dead in ceremony, 99-100, 102, 105, Io8, 140 See BUFFALO-HAIR; SCALP Hairdressing of the dead, 20, I05, 140 of the Lakota, 29, 137, 138 Hairy Moccasins, Crow scout, 44, 46, 49 Hakaktaki in Lakota tale, III-II7 Hale, Lieut. H. C., and Messiah craze, 53 Hammers, stone, of the Lakota, 26 Habele-cheapi. See VISION CRY Handicraft of the Dakota, 25, I38, 155 See ARTS Hands, significance of, in decoration, 27 Harney, Gen. W. S., against Sioux in I855, '77 at Laramie treaty, I79 punishes Sioux, 34 Sioux council held by, 177 Harney, Gen. W. S., treaty commissioner, 39 Harvey, Alexander, trader, 173 Ha-won-je-tah. See LONE HORN Head-dress of Brave Hearts, 15 of warriors, 137, I86 See WAR-BONNET Heads taken from slain enemies, I88 He Crow, portrait of, 102, pl. Heelemani mentioned in winter-count, 18I Heh'aka-grilefhka. See SPOTTED ELK Heihaka-luzahan. See FAST ELK Heh'dka-pa. See ELK HEAD Helidka-wabuli. See EAGLE ELK He-heh'loghecha. See HOLLOW HORN Henderson, J. B., treaty commissioner, 39 Hennepin, Louis, among Sioux, 3 captured, 32, i6i, 162 Yanktonai mentioned by, 121 Heralds of Sioux, 8, I9, 65, 88, 89, 9I, Io7 Hermaphrodite, Apsaroke, 176 Hewaiktokta. See HIDATSA Hidatsa and Assiniboin hostility, I28 and Dakota hostility, 121, 162, 165, I68, 169, 171, I73, i86, I89 and Dakota peace, 121 at Fort Laramie treaty, 176 ceremony adopted from, 132 creation and migration, 4 Dakota names for, 141 horses stolen from, i85 Sun Dance among, 87 High Backbone killed, I79 High Hawk flees to Bad Lands, 182 offering by, I8I receives horses, I82 winter-count of, 27, 31, 56, 159-I82 Hi"hanfshut-wapdha, a society, 139 His Fights, portrait of, 18, pl. sketch of, i86 History of the Lakota, 31-55 Sioux, in winter-counts, 31, 159-182 Hochoka. See CAMP-CIRCLE Hodgson, Lieut. B. H., death of, 48 Hohe. See ASSINIBOIN Hokshl-kahlowan, dream of, I68 Hollow Horn, keeper of Sacred Pipe, 56 Hollow Horn Bear, sketch of, I86 Holy Spirit, missionary use of term, I69 Honors. See CouPs Hoop-and-pole game of Teton, 138 Horn, objects of, used by Lakota, 26, 102, 138

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INDEX 201 Horncloud, Joseph, monument erected by, 55 Horse killed at owner's death, 20, 21, I41 Lakota name for, 6I Horses as marriage gifts, 19, 139 captured by Assiniboin, 182 captured by Dakota, 162-167, I70, 171, 175, I78, i8i, I83-I87, I89-I90 captured from Dakota, 176, 178 capture of, an honor, 22, I40 early accounts of, 160-162, 164 gifts of, in ceremony, I9, 84, 97, 107 influence of, on head-dress, 137 influence of, on size of tipi, 23-24, 138 introduction of, 31, I6o lost in blizzard, 176, I79 presented by Apsaroke, I82 presented to wronged husband, 140 symbolized on pipe-bag, 27 symbolized on scalp-shirt, 22 wealth of Sioux in, 182 wild, captured, 171 See HUNTING; RIDING Horseshoes first seen by Dakota, I70 Horsetails in Lakota ceremony, 74, 75 used on pipe, io6, 171 Hospitality of the Lakota, 25 reward for, 138, I83 taught by Lakota rite, 85 Houses. See DWELLINGS; TIPI Hudson's Bay Company, 173 Hump and the Ghost Dance, 53 Humpback killed, 176 Hu.ka' defined, 71 figurative meaning of, 102, 104 Hunka Chief in Foster-parent Chant, 75-87 Hu"nka-lowanpi prayers, I51 See FOSTER-PARENT CHANT Hunka Pipe. See PIPE Hunka priest of the Sioux, 8 Hunkpapa, a Teton band, 12, 138, 142 at council of 1873, 42 Dakota names for, 142 in Custer fight, 12 population of, 137 surrender of, in I881, 52 Hunting, boys instructed in, I8 by the Teton, 7-10, I3-14 customs, Lakota, I04 See BUFFALO HUNT Huron and Dakota hostility, 162 on Lake Superior, I60 Idaho, gold discovery in, 36 IgldsaAhka defined, 15 Iktomi in Lakota myth, 26, II-II8, 140 Illinois Indians, Dakota hostility toward, I61 on Lake Superior, I6o Image of tutelary spirits, 69 on mythic pipe, 58 used by mystery-men, 133 See EFFIGIES Imitation Dance, 91 Implements of the Lakota 25-26, 138 See HANDICRAFT Incense in Lakota ceremony, 64, 66, 72, 73, 75, 78, 84, 89, 93, 94, IOO-I03, IO6-I09 Industries of the Teton, 138 Initiation into medicine order, 122 Ini-wowafhi. See SWEAT WORKERS Inkpaduta in Minnesota outbreak, 34 Iron Head-band killed, I68 Iron Plume, portrait of, 32, pl. Iron Shell, a Dakota, 187 Isle au Cedres. See CEDAR ISLAND Issue of supplies to Dakota, I79-I8I Itacha-kiyapi, a priestly office, 107 Itazrp-cho. See SANS ARCS Ite-chikala. See LITTLE FACE Ite-guleAhka. See SPOTTED FACE James river occupied by Teton, 3 Jenness, Lieut. J. C.. in Wagon-box fight, 38-39 Jenney, W. P., investigates Black Hills, 42 Johnson, President, on Indian hostilities, 36 Josie. See LA FRAMBOISE Judith river, 173 Jugglery employed in medicine, 132, I40 June-berries in Lakota medicine, 63 Kan"gh-apapi. See STRUCK BY CROW Kanli'-watakpeye. See CHARGE CROW Kansa, Sun Dance among, 87 Kermel murdered by Le Beau, 174 Kettles first seen by Dakota, 162 Kicking Bear and Messiah craze, 53-54 Kill-deer mountain, battle of, 35, 178 Kills In Timber, portrait of, Io6, pl. Kinnikinnick in Lakota ceremony, 65, 66, 72, I00, 109 See PIPE; SMOKING; TOBACCO Kiowa and Dakota warfare, 172 Dakota names for, 141 meteoric shower in calendar of, 174

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202 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Kiowa, smallpox among, 178 Sun Dance among, 87 Kissing in Lakota ritual, 74 Kit-fox society of Teton, 139 Knife, name of Dakota war-leader, I88 new, for cutting tobacco, I09 purification of, in ceremony, IOO shell, of the Lakota, 26, 78, 138, I59 Kutenai and Dakota warfare, I89 Labor, division of, among Teton, 6 Lac Buade, name of Mille Lac, I6I La Conte, Louis, trader, 172 Lactation, period of, I8 La Framboise, J., trader, 172 Lake Alimibeg, identification of, 127 Superior, Lakota visit, I60 Winnipeg occupied by Assiniboin, 127 Lakota, use of term, 32 See TETON Sioux Lame Deer, exploit of, 174 Lances of the Brave Hearts, 15 used in warfare, 163, 165, I67 Laramie. See FORT LARAMIE Leavenworth, Col. H., expedition of, 173 Le Beau, Kermel murdered by, 174 Legends respecting catlinite quarry, 27 See FOLK-TALE Legerdemain in Yanktonai rite, 122 Leggings of the Lakota, 28, 29, 137 Le Jeune, Father, alludes to Sioux, 32 Le Sueur builds fort, i6i Lewis and Clark among Dakota, I70, I8I in Northwest, 176 Lightning stroke as punishment, 99 Lincoln, President, appoints Sioux commissioners, 35 Lisa, Manuel, a trader, 176 Little Beaver, a trader, I70, I71 Little Bighorn river, 43-47, I83 battle of, 12, 2I, 43, i86, I89, I90 See CUSTER FIGHT Little Cheyenne river, 178 Little Crow III, treaty signer, 33 Little Crow IF in Minnesota outbreak, 34, 35 Little Dog, portrait of, I86, pl. sketch of, I87 Little Face killed, I69 Little Gay, white trader, 177 Little Hawk, portrait of, IIo, pl. Little Missouri. See BAD RIVER Little Six in Minnesota outbreak, 34 Little Soldier, death of, i68 Little Thunder, band of, I75, 177 Little White river, Brules on, 172 Lives In The Winter, death of, 176 Living Bear, Two Strike's former name, I90 Lodgepole creek, 187 Loin-cloth of the Lakota, 29, 67, 86, 89, 137 See CLOTHING Loisel (Loiselle), a trader, I69, 170 Lone Dog, winter-count of, 159, I70-179 Lone Horn makes medicine, 177 mentioned, 174, 176 Long Bear, war-leader, i86 Long Fist killed, 179 Long Fox, portrait of, I30, pl. sketch of, 187 Loon-feathers in Lakota ceremony, 74 Love, success in, how gained, 59 Love-charm of Lakota women, 28 Love-song of the Lakota, I50 Love-tokens exchanged by Teton, I39 McGillycuddy, V. T., Sioux agent, 52, I8I Mackenzie, Gen. R. S., campaign, I80, 187 McLaughlin, James, Sioux agent, 52, 53 Mah'piya-luta. See RED CLOUD Make A Home, an Assiniboin rite, I28 Mallard. See DRAKE Mallery, Garrick, cited, I59, 162, 164, i66, 170, I78 Mana, definition of term, 61-62 Man Afraid Of His Horses, elected chief, 6I leaves Fort Laramie council, 37 proper name of, I6 signs Laramie treaty, 40 Mandan and Assiniboin hostility, 128, 187 and Dakota hostility, 121, I73, I89 and Dakota peace, 121 a Teton society, I39 at Fort Laramie treaty, 176 ceremony adopted from, I32 creation story mentioned, 4 Dakota names for, 141 Sun Dance among, 87 Mankato, Minnesota, fort near, i6i Manypenny, G. W., treaty commissioner, 50 Marias river, 173 Marriage customs of Lakota, 17, 19, 139 See POLYGYNY Mato-hehulo6gfhecha. See HOLLOW HORN BEAR

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INDEX 203 Mato-h'ota. See GRAY BEAR Mato-makpa. See BEAR'S EAR Mato-ochifshicha. See MEAN BEAR Matosapa cited, I70, 171 Maximilian, Prince, Chardon with, 173 Maynadier, Sioux agent, 37 Mdewakanton, a Dakota tribe, 31 met by Carver, 167 Mean Bear frozen, 176 Meany, E. S., acknowledgments to, xiii Measles among Dakota, 164, I68, 172, I75, 179, I8I Meat. See BUFFALO; DOG-MEAT; ELK; FOOD; GAME Medal given to Dakota, I69 Medicine defined, 21, 61-62 derived from dreams, I60 of warriors, I83-19I practices of the Lakota, 59, 6I used by Red Cloud, i88 Medicine-bag in Lakota tale, II6 of the Teton, 63, 140 of warriors, I87 of Yanktonai, 122 Medicine Hide killed, 174 Medicine-making on buffalo hunt, 8 Medicine-men of the Lakota, 62-69, 89, 93, 94, I22, 140 Medicine rite, Sun Dance as a, 88 of Assiniboin, 132 Medicine-song in Lakota myth, I16 Medicine Tail coulee, 48 Melanesians, religious beliefs of, 62 Messiah cult, spread of, 52-55, I8I Meteors. See STARS Mexican coins in Northwest, 176 Middle Reno creek, 45, 46 Migration of the Dakota, 121 of the Teton, 3-5, I66 of the Yanktonai, 127 See HABITAT Miles, Gen. N. A., captures Gall, 51 controls Ghost Dance outbreak, 53, 55 in campaign of I876, 50 in Tongue River fight, I84 mentioned in winter-count, 182 Milk river, I84 Mille Lac abandoned by Santee, i66 discovery of, I6I region occupied by Dakota, 32, 121 Teton traceable to, 3 Miniconjou, a Teton band, 12, 138, 142 Miniconjou, at council of 1873, 42 Dakota names for, 142 in Custer fight, 12 population of, 137 warfare against Apsaroke, 178 winter camp of, 175 Mynihliha. See CALICO Minnesota, catlinite quarry in, 27 outbreak of 1862, 34-36, 178 Sioux in, 3, 32, 121, 16I, i66 Missions, Sioux, land granted to, 181 Missouri Fur Company, 176 Missouri river, 3, I2I, i66, I79, I89 Mitchell, D. D., suggests council of Sioux, 34 Miwatani, a society, I39 Mixed-bloods among the Dakota, xii Moccasin game of the Teton, 138 Moccasins of medicine-man, 89 of the Lakota, 28, 29, I37 worn in ceremony, 68 See CLOTHING Montana, gold discovery in, 36 road from Sioux lands to, 36, 41, 43 Sioux war in, 35 Montreal, treaty with French at, I63 Moon, Lakota belief concerning, 60 Mooney, James, cited, I74, 178 Moons of the Lakota, 30 Mortuary ceremony of Lakota, 99-10o customs of Lakota, 17, 20, 140 Mosquito-hawk, sketch of, I87 Mother-in-law taboo, 17 Mound raised in ceremony, 133 Mountain-sheep horn, spoons of, 26, 138 Mourning among Lakota, 20 See MORTUARY CUSTOMS Mud Hen mentioned, 176 Muhr, A. F., acknowledgments to, xiii Muller, Max, cited, 6i Music, note on, 142-143 See DRUM; RATTLE; SONGS; WHISTLE Musselshell river, I79, I89, I90 Myers, W. E., acknowledgments to, xiii Mystery. See GREAT MYSTERY; WAKAN Mystery Dance of Yanktonai, 122 Mystery-power, belief in, 21 See MEDICINE Mystery Tree in Sun Dance, 91-99 of the Assiniboin, 129 Mythology. See CEREMONIES; RELIGION

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204 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Nachili, a Dakota, 187 Nadoneceronons, early name for Sioux, 32 Nadouessioux, early name for Sioux, 32 Nadoiiessis, early name for Sioux, 32 Nadvesiv, early name for Sioux, 32 Names for Indian tribes, 141 Naming of children, I8 of natural objects, 140 See VOCABULARY Nankpa-ksela. See CUT EAR Natural phenomena, Dakota terms for, I55 Navaho, Dakota names for, 141 blankets among Dakota, 177 Necklaces of the Lakota, 28 Negroes early seen by Dakota, 169 Nevada, Messiah cult in, 52, 181 Never Eats makes offerings, I70 Nez Perce and Dakota war, 121, 176, 179, 184 Dakota names for, 141 horses captured from, 185 region, Mexican coins in, 176 No Flesh, portrait of, go, pl. North, spirit of, prayer to, 70 See CARDINAL POINTS Northern Pacific Railroad through Sioux lands, 41, 179 North Platte river, 41, 177 See PLATTE RIVER North Wind controlled by Waziya, 68 Number, prominence of seven, 31 Numerals, Dakota, 156 Ocheti-Fhakowi", meaning of, 31 O'Fallon, Benjamin, treaty commissioner, 33 Offering by Buffalo Head, I8o by Never Eats, 170 by Pointing At Them, I75 by Roast, 178 in Lakota ceremony, 67, 68 of pipe to tree, Io8 to ghost, 102, I09, I I to Mystery, 88, 89, I90 to the sun, 68, 94, 98, I88 to Washichu'-wakfi, I6o, 169 to Wind Mysteries, 87, 89, 90, 93, 99 See SACRIFICE Ogalala, a Teton band, 12, I38, 142 at Fort Laramie council, 37 attacked by Pawnee, 175 Dakota names for, 142 defeated by Apsaroke, 175 Ogalala, Harney's campaign against, 34 hostility of the, 36, 183 in Custer fight, 12 population of, 137 warfare against Apsaroke, 178 Ohanzi, death of, 168 Omaha and Dakota warfare, 3, 121, 162-166, 183, 184, 187 Dakota names for, 141 Sun Dance among, 87 One Feather leads war-party, 175 One Horn. See LONE HORN One Iron Horn mentioned, 175 Ordeal. See TORTURE Ornaments. See ART; BEADWORK; EAR ORNAMENTS; NECKLACES; QUILLWORK; PAINTING Osage, Sun Dance among, 87 trader among, 173 Ottawa on Lake Superior, I60 Otter-skin in hairdressing, 29, 105, 137 Owl-feather Head-dress, a society, 139 Owns A Club killed, 167 Paddlers, Assiniboin so named, 127, 141 Pahwichuwa. See CHARGING NOSE Paint, blue, in Lakota ceremony, 72, 74, 78, I00, 102 on body in vision, 190 red, in Lakota ceremony, 74, 78, 8I, 91, I00, 102 Paint Him Red, rite of, 105 Painting by Lakota, 22, 23, 138 of bodies in ceremony, 80, 8i, 95, 104, 163 of body in Lakota tradition, I60 of buffalo-skull, 78, 86 of corn in ceremony, 74 of images on objects, 69 of skin in mortuary rite, 105 of tipis, I6o See ART; FACE-PAINTING Paints Half His Face Yellow, Crow scout, 44, 46 Paints His Face Red tortured by Pawnee, 23 Paiute, Messiah cult among, 52, I81 Paldni. See ARIKARA; PAWNEE Parfleches, decoration of, 26 ghost-bags preserved in, IIo in mortuary rite, io6 uses of, 138 See BAGS; RAWHIDE

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INDEX 205 Pawnee and Arapaho battle, 175 and Dakota hostility, 121, i6i, 164, i66, 167, 169, 173-175, I79, 183-I90 Blood-clot Boy in myth of, III Dakota names for, 141 horses stolen from, I70, I71 steal sacred arrows, 175 Sun Dance among, 87 treatment of captives by, 23 Paxton, William A., introduces cattle, 179 Peeler, a white trader, 172 Pehin-ptechela. See SHORT HAIR SOCIETY Pehin-fha. See RED HAIR Pemmican deposited with dead, 140 in mortuary feast, IO6, o17, IIO used by Lakota, 7 See FOOD Pendants, ear, of the Lakota, 28 Peoria Bottom, Sans Arcs at, 172 Personal terms of the Dakota, 157 Pezhuta. See GRASS-ROOTS Pichi-maza killed, I68 Pictographs of the Lakota, 30 See WINTER-COUNT Piegan and Assiniboin warfare, 187 and Dakota warfare, I83 Dakota names for, 141 Pima, counting-sticks of, 174 Pine Ridge agency, 53, 54, I8o-I82 Pine Ridge reservation, 52, 53, I37 Piney creek, 37 Pipe as medicine, I85 brought by White Buffalo Woman, 159 ceremonial, of the Lakota, 55-60, 65-68, 70, 71, 75, 88-90, 92, 93, 96, 98, 171 in Ghost Keeper rite, IOI, 103-107, IO9 in war ceremony, i86 offering of, to Mysteries, 88-89 offering of, to sun, 68, I88 offering of, to tree, Io8 presented to wronged husband, I40 See CALF PIPE; KINNIKINNICK; SMOKING; TOBACCO Pipe-bags of the Lakota, 26, 27, 29, pi. Pipe-bearers in Lakota ceremony, 79-83 Pipes, Hunka, in Lakota ceremony, 75, 78, 79, 82-84, 86, 87 of the Lakota, 27, 138, I71 used in ratifying treaties, Io6 Pipestone. See CATLINITE Plants used by medicine-men, 132 Platte river, I74, 179, 183, I87 Platte river. See NORTH PLATTE Pointing At Them makes offering, 175 Political organization of the Lakota, I2, 138 Polygyny among Lakota, 6, 19, 39 See MARRIAGE Ponca and Dakota warfare, I84, I86 Sun Dance among, 87 Population of Assiniboin, 133 of Teton, 137 of Yankton and Yanktonai, I22-123 Porcupine creek, I8i Porcupine-quills. See QUILLWORK Portage des Sioux, treaty of, 33 Pouch. See BAGS; MEDICINE-BAG; TOBACCO-POUCH Powder river, 36, 37, 42, 43 Powell, Capt. J. W., in Wagon-box fight, 38-39 Prairie du Chien, treaty at, 33 Pratt, Lieut. R. H., establishes school, I80 Prayer before hunting, 7 before Sun Dance, 88, 89 in Foster-parent Chant, 72-74, 77, 151 -152 in Ghost Dance, 52 in mortuary rite, IOI, 103, 104, I09, 1IO in Vision Cry, 65-70 in Yanktonai rite, I22 of High Hawk, 159 of warriors, i86 potency of, I83 Presbyterian mission among Dakota, I8I Pretty Bird Woman adopted by Lakota, 23 Priests. See CEREMONIES Property acquired for Foster-parent Chant, 71 for Ghost Keeper rite, Io6 ownership among Lakota, 17, I39 Prophet, The, excitement fomented by, 32 Pryor creek, fight on, 184 Ptehinchala-chann6npa. See CALF PIPE Pte-san-ha-onyapi, rite of, IIo Pte-san-winyan. See WHITE BUFFALO WOMAN Puberty ceremony. See BUFFALO CHANT Pueblos, Dakota names for, 141 Punishment for offences, 14, 139 Purification. See INCENSE; SWEAT-BATH Putin-ska, Harney so called, 177 Quillwork of the Lakota, 26-29, 105, Io6, 137, I38 Quirts of the Brave Hearts, 15

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206 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Quiver in Lakota myth, 57, 59 of the Lakota, 112 Radisson among the Dakota, i6I Rain In The Face in Sun Dance, I89 Ramsey, Gov. A., and Sioux outbreak, 34, 35 Rapid City, S. Dakota, General Miles at, 53 Rations. See ANNUITIES; ISSUE Rattles of buffalo-skin, 78, 79, 86, 87 of deer-hoofs, 172 Raven Men. See APSAROKE Rawhide, effigies of, 94, I33 for hafting axes, 138 gaming hoop made of, 138 in Ghost Keeper rite, Io2 medicine-pouch of, 140 ropes of, 24, 97, I3I used for shields, 138 utensils for pemmican, 26 Rawhide Butte, annuities issued at, 177 fight at, I69 Red buffalo-skin in ceremony, 94, IOO, 102, I05, IO8 Red Cloud and difficulties of I875, 42 and the Ghost Dance, 52 at Fetterman massacre, I79 birth of, 172 character of, 14 evades peace commission, 39-40 hostility of, in I866, 37 in Wagon-box fight, 38-39 leads war-party, 189 opposed invasion of Sioux lands, 36, 37 portrait of granddaughter of, 54, pl. recommends Calico, I83 signs Fort Laramie treaty, 40 sketch of, 187 visits East, 41 Red Cloud agency, council at, 42 established, 41, I79 Red Coat killed, I71 Red Feather killed, 178 Red Hair, keeper of Sacred Pipe, 56 Red Hawk, portrait of, I88, pl. Sioux informant, 44 sketch of, I88 Red Lake, a white trader, 174 Red objects in Lakota ceremony, 74, 75, 94, IOI, I03, 104, I07 Red paint in Lakota ceremony, 66, 8i, 1oo, 105 used in war, 162 used on dead, 140 Red Paint. See FACE-PAINTING; PAINT Red Star, Arikara scout, 45 Ree. See ARIKARA Relationships, Dakota, 17, 139, I57 Religion of the Assiniboin, 128 of the Sioux, 7, 55-70 relation of buffalo to, 5 See CEREMONIES Rencontre, Alex, cited, 166 Reno, Maj. M. A., in Custer campaign, 46-50 Reno creek, 46 Republican river, Pawnee defeated on, I79 Reservations, Sioux, 40, 137 Indians prohibited from leaving, I81 Richard, John, introduces blankets, 177 Riding, children trained in, I8 Ring Thunder, portrait of, 112, pl. sketch of, I88 visits British, I68 Rising Sun, keeper of Sacred Pipe, 56 Rivalry between war societies, 16 Road in Sioux country authorized, 36 in Sioux country closed, 41 Roan Bear, death of, I79 Roast, offering made by, 178 Robinson, Doane, cited, I66 Root, blue-flag, used in ceremony, 17, 100 as food, 138 as medicine, 62, 140, I85 Rosebud agency, I37, I8o, I8i Rosebud river, 43, I90 Sacrifice by Sun Dancer, 89, 128 in Ghost Dance, 52 See OFFERING; TORTURE Saddle-blankets of the Lakota, 25, 26 See BLANKETS Sage in Lakota ceremony, 8, 66, 75, 78, 84, 87, 94-97, IOI, I07 in Lakota myth, 57, 58 Saint Louis, Dorion at, 170 peace commission meet at, 39 Sioux treaty at, 33 Sanborn, Gen. J. B., treaty commissioner, 39 Sanctification. See INCENSE Sans Arcs, a Teton band, 12, 55, 138, 142 at council of 1873, 42 Dakota names for, 142 in Custer fight, 12 killed by Apsaroke, 179 make buffalo-medicine, 175 make earth lodge, 172

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INDEX 207 Sans Arcs, population of, 137 Santee, Dakota names for, 142 defeated by scouts, 178 early habitat of, 32, 161, 166 in Minnesota outbreak, 36 naming of children among, 18 Sapa-wichadha. See UTE Sauk and Foxes allied with Dakota, 162 Dakota war with, 161 on Lake Superior, I60 Scaffold burial among Lakota, 20, 140 See MORTUARY CUSTOMS Scaffolds for drying meat, I63, 165 Scalp as body decoration, 95 Scalp Dance of the Lakota, 186 Scalping by Assiniboin, I87 by Lakota, 30, 91, 164, 183-186, I89 indicated in pictography, 16I Scalp-lock of the Lakota, 29 represented on pipe-bag, 27 See HAIRDRESSING Scalp-shirts of the Lakota, 16, 22, 29-30 (pl.), 94, I37, 140, i6o Schili. See PAWNEE School among Dakota, 182 Lakota children enter, I80 Scouts employed in hunting, 8 illustrated, 42 pl., 98 pl. in campaign of 1876, 43, 47 position of, in travelling, I04 Scratching of head prohibited, 9I Seven Council Fires, 31, 32 Shade, death of, I68 Shahiyela. See CHEYENNE Shakopee II, father of Little Six, 35 Shannon, P. C., Sioux commissioner, I8I Shardran. See CHARDON Shell implements of the Lakota, 26 pendants of the Lakota, 28 Shells in Lakota ceremony, IO1 on clothing, 28 sea, in Teton tradition, 4 used as knives, 78, 138, I59 Sheridan, Gen. P. H., and Sioux troubles of 1873, 42 in Sioux campaign of 1876, 43 Sherman, Gen. W. T., treaty commissioner, 39 Shield, portrait of, 1o, pl. sketch of, I88 Shields, decoration of, 26 images on, 69 of the Lakota, 21, 138 Shind-to. See BLUE BLANKET Shinny played by Teton, 138 Shirt, ghost, in Ghost Dance, 52 See CLOTHING; SCALP-SHIRT Short Bull and Messiah craze, 53 flight of, 53 makes Ghost Dance, 181 Short Hair society of the Teton, 12, I5-I6, I39, I40 Short Log, portrait of, 34, pl. Shoshoni and Dakota warfare, 175, 183, 184, I86-I89 Dakota names for, 141 girl adopted by Lakota, 23 Sun Dance among, 87 Shunka4a. See LITTLE DOG Shunka-witko. See CRAZY DOG Shink-hNnto. See BLUE HORSE Sibley, Gen. H. H., in Minnesota outbreak, 35 on Dakota blood-revenge, 33 treaty commissioner, 35, 50 Sich anghu. See BRULES Sign for Arikara in pictography, 163 for Assiniboin in pictography, 162 Signal for buffalo sighted, 114 for enemy found, 92 for good news, 80 Signals of the Sioux, 8, 54 Siha-sapa. See BLACKFOOT Sinew used in ceremony, Ioo Singer in Foster-parent Chant, 71-87 Sioux, derivation of term, 31 See TETON; YANKTONAI Sisseton, a Sioux tribe, 31 refuse to cede lands, 181 Sitting Bull and difficulties of 1875, 42 and the Ghost Dance, 52 death of, 53 flees to Canada, 50, 51 identified as Four Horn, 177 joined by Crazy Horse, 43 surrender of, 51 war-song of, 149 Skidi. See PAWNEE Skin-dressing by Lakota, 24, 25, 138 Skins as objects of wealth, 20 in mortuary rite, Io6 used as couch, 10I, 103 used for wrapping dead, 140 used in cooking, I59, I6o used in medicine rites, 132

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208 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Skins, uses of, by Teton, 138 See BUFFALO-SKIN; DEERSKIN; OTTERSKIN; WEASEL-SKIN; WOLF-SKIN; WOODPECKER-SKIN Sky. See CARDINAL POINTS Sky Father of the Lakota, 65 Sky Spirit, prayer to, 70 Slow Bull, pipe-bag of, 26 portrait of wife of, 86, pi. sketch of, 189 tipi of, illustrated, 70, pl. Small Bear, an Apsaroke, 181 Smallpox among Assiniboin, 128, 133 among Dakota, 168, I70, I76, 178 Smoke. See INCENSE Smoking before narrating ceremony, 99 enjoined by Lakota rite, 86 in Lakota ceremony, 65, 104 prayer used in, o09 preliminary to Sun Dance, 88, 89, 92, 93 See KINNIKINNICK; PIPE; TOBACCO Snake Indians. See SHOSHONI Snowshoes used on hunt, 163, I73 Social organization of Lakota, I6, 139 Societies among the Teton, 13-16, 140 Soldiers of the Lakota, 8, 13, 14, I39 Songs in medicine ceremony, 64, 67, 68 in Mystery Tree rite, 91, 94 in Yanktonai rite, I22 of Sun Dance, 91, 95-98 of the Assiniboin, 129-132 of the Lakota, 79-83, 142-150 See MEDICINE-SONG South, Mystery of, prayer to, 68, 70 See CARDINAL POINTS South Canadian river, 175 South Dakota, Sioux reservations in, 40, 137 Teton occupancy of, 3 Spanish influence on Dakota, 176 Spears. See LANCES Speckled Face. See SPOTTED FACE Spider in Lakota tale, 112 See IKTOMI Spleen band of Ogalala, 183 Spoons of the Lakota, 26, 138 Spotted Elk, portrait of, II6, pl. sketch of, I89 Spotted Face kills son-in-law, 174 Spotted Horse, death of, 178 Spotted Tail and difficulties of 1875, 42 depredations by, 177 designated head-chief, 51 Spotted Tail, emissary to Crazy Horse, 51, I80 friendly at Laramie council, 37 murder of, 52, I8o opposes invasion of Sioux lands, 36, 37 signs treaty, 40, 51 visits East, 41 See YOUNG SPOTTED TAIL Spotted Tail agency, 41, I8o Spruce, tripod of, in Ghost tipi, IOI Stampede of buffalo, 9-Io Standing Bear, portrait of, Io8, pl. Standing Buffalo, keeper of Sacred Pipe, 56 Standing Rock agency, 51-52, I82, I9I Stands First, portrait of, 14, pl. sketch of, I89 Stars, falling, in winter-count, 172, 174, 182 Lakota belief concerning, 60 Startling Bear. See CONQUERING BEAR Stiff Leg killed, 174 Stone-boiling. See COOKING Stone implements of the Lakota, 26, 138 Stonies, an Assiniboin division, 127, 141 Struck By Crow, portrait of, 38, pl. sketch of, I89 Struck By The Ree, death of, I8I Sublette, W. L., establishes Fort Laramie, 178 Sucking employed in medicine, 132 Sully, Gen. A., fight with Dakota, 35, 178 Summer solstice, Sun Dance controlled by, 89 Sun, invocation to, 183, i86 Lakota belief concerning, 60 offerings to, 94 pipe offered to, 68, I88 venerated by Assiniboin, 128 Sun Dance of Assiniboin, 128 of Lakota, 59, 65, 87-99, I6 of Yanktonai, 122 songs of the, 143-146 tortures of, 97, 98, I89 Sun-dance creek, 46 Sun Mystery, invocation to, 95, 97, 98 Susbecha. See MOSQUITO-HAWK Swan, Two Kettle chief, I73, 179 Swan, The, winter-count of, I70, 171 Sweat-bath during Sun Dance, 9I, 98 in Ghost Dance, 52 of the Lakota, 66, 67 significance of, 69 Sweat WYorkers of the Lakota, 66-68 Sweet-grass for lighting pipe, 27 incense of, 64, 66, 72, 75, 89, 93, I00 -102

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INDEX 209 Sweet grass in Lakota ceremony, 73, 78, 86, IOI, 102, IO6, 107, I09 in Lakota myth, 58 love-tokens of, I9, I39 Swift Bear, emissary to Red Cloud, 40 friendly at Laramie council, 37 Swimmer, a Dakota, 182 Sword, member of Short Hairs, i6 Swords presented to chiefs, 176 Symbolism on shields, 22 on scalp-shirts, 22 Tabeau (Tebaux), a trader, I70 Taboo among Teton, I39 before Sun Dance, 89 of mother-in-law, 17 See FASTING Tackett, Charles, cited, 21 Tahakouty mountain, battle of, 35, 178 Taliaferro, Lawrence, Indian agent, 33 Tallow. See BUFFALO-TALLOW Tapislecha. See SPLEEN BAND Tappan, S. F., treaty commissioner, 39 Tashunka-witko. See CRAZY HORSE TaAfinke-hizi. See YELLOW HORSE Tafhunke-k6kipapi. See MAN AFRAID OF HIS HORSES Tatanka-hu'nkefhni. See SLOW BULL Tatanka-lowanpi. See BUFFALO CHANT Tatanka-na-hin. See STANDING BUFFALO Tat'nka-wapdhaon, a Teton society, 15, 139 Taylor, E. B., treaty commissioner, 35, 37 N. G., treaty commissioner, 39 Teal. See MUD HEN Tebaux. See TABEAU Tecumseh, excitement fomented by, 32 Teeoskahtay. See TIOSCATE Teller, James H., Sioux commissioner, 18I Terry, Gen. A. H., in Sioux campaigns, 42, 43, 5~ treaty commissioner, 39 Teton, account of the,,.x-1 8 meaning of term, 31 tribal summary of, 137-142 vocabulary, 152 Teton river. See BAD RIVER Texas, cattle introduced from, I79 They Awaken One Another, a medicine rite, 132 Thick Ash creek, 46 Three Bear, murder by, I80 Three Rivers, Allouez at, 160 VOL. III- 14 Thunder, Lakota conception of, 61, 67 personified in Lakota rite, 75 prayer to, 68 venerated by Assiniboin, 128-132 Thunderbird. See WING FLAPPER Thunder Hawk, murder by, 181, 182 Thunder Nation in Lakota myth, 60 Time reckoning by Lakota, 30 See WINTER-COUNT Tionontati on Lake Superior, I60 Tioscate (Teeoskahtay) visits Canada, I61 Tipi, ceremonial, of the Lakota, 76, 78, 8o, 103-IO8 dead deposited in, 21, 46, 141 decoration of, 26, 69, I6o description of, 23-25, pl. Ghost, in Lakota ceremony, 100, 101 how enlarged, 76, 107 medicine, of the Lakota, 8, 63 See DWELLINGS; TIYO-TIPI Tipi-covering used as clothing, 29, 137 Tipi-okihe described, 25 position of, I59 Tiyo-tipi of the Teton, 14, 139 Tobacco in Ghost Keeper ceremony, 100, IO9 in Lakota ceremony, 65-67, 70, 72, 74, 86 in Lakota myth, 58 in mortuary rite, Io6 Tobacco-pouch in Lakota rites, 104, I05, o09 in mortuary rite, Io6 of buffalo-bladder, 72-76, 86, 87 Tokala, a Teton society, 139 Tokana-h'nska. See LONG Fox Tokens. See LOVE-TOKENS Tokeya-naihin. See STANDS FIRST Told First killed, I79 Tongue river, fight on, 184 new road on, 36 Torture in Assiniboin rite, I31 of captives by Pawnee, 23 of dancers in Sun Dance, 97, 98, I89 songs of Sun Dance, 143-146 Touch The Clouds mentioned, 176 Trade, Government, abolished, 172 Traders among Dakota, 162, I69-171, 173, I74, 176, I77 Traditions respecting catlinite quarry, 27 Transportation, early, of Dakota, I59 See HORSES; TRAVOIS Trapping of eagles, 171 Travois used by Lakota, 57, 114, I59

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2IO THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Treaties, tribal, how ratified, Io6 with the Sioux, 32, 33, 40, 41, 50, 51 See FORT LARAMIE Tree, sacred, in Lakota myth, 59 sacred, of the Assiniboin, I29 See MYSTERY TREE Trees, Dakota names for, 158 offerings to, Io8 Tutelary spirits of medicine-men, I40 of the Lakota, 21 See FASTING; MEDICINE; VISIONS Two Arrows mentioned, 172, I88 Two Face hanged at Laramie, 183 Two Kettles, a Teton band, 12, 138, 142 Dakota names for, 142 population of, 137 Two Lance visits British, I68 Two Man killed, 176 Two Moons, Cheyenne informant, 44 Two Stars, Solomon, exploit of, 178 Two Strike, dress of wife of, 28, pl, receives horses, 182 sketch of, I90 surrender of, 53 Umbrellas first used by Dakota, I68 Unfaithfulness, how punished, 20 See MARRIAGE Uniforms presented to chiefs, 176 Unpa"-hokfhila. See ELK BOY Upshaw, A. B., interpreter for author, 44 Ute, Dakota names for, 142 Dakota warfare with, 183, 184, I86, I88, I89 horses stolen by, I80 Sun Dance among, 87 Utensils of the Lakota, 26 Varnum, Lieut. C. A., with Custer, 44, 45 Verendrye among the Dakota, 164 Virgins in Sioux ceremony, 8, 59, 93 Vision Cry of the Lakota, 59, 62, 64-70, 140 of the Yanktonai, 122 Visions experienced by Lakota, 59 experienced by warriors, I82-I90 how obtained, 96 medicine obtained through, 63 of Spotted Elk, I89 of the Assiniboin, 128 power derived by, 62, 63, 68, 69, 132, 140 See DREAMS; FASTING Vocabulary, Dakota, 152 Wabasha, treaty signer, 33 Waechonsa, mystery-men, 133 Waechun, priest of Lakota, IOI Wagon-box fight, 38-39, I88 Wagons first seen by Dakota, I74 Wahachanka. See SHIELD Wahpekute, a Sioux tribe, 31 Wahpeton, a Sioux tribe, 31 met by Carver, 167 refuse to cede lands, I8S Wahutkeza-nonpa. See Two LANCE Wahtukeza-wasrht. See GOOD LANCE Wakad, definition of, 60-6i See MEDICINE Wakdn-tanka. See GREAT MYSTERY Wakcan-tipi. See TIPI Wakan-wohanpi of the Yanktonai, 122 Wakinyan. See THUNDER Wakinyan-changiuleska See RING THUNDER Wakinyan-chikala. See LITTLE THUNDER Wakinyan-luzahan. See FAST THUNDER Walker, Dr., physician for Ogalala, cited, 5 Walker Lake, Indian Messiah at, 52 Wanagfhi-maheiyeapi, ceremony of, IoI Wanagrhi-yuha. See GHOST KEEPER Wanbizdi-sapa, See BLACK EAGLE Wan-n6npa. See Two ARROWS Wa6nyapi. See OFFERINGS Wapiya defined, 63 War customs of Lakota, 12, 13, 21, 22, 140 exploits of Dakota, 182-I90 societies of the Teton, 15, 16 success in, how gained, 59 tabooed by Sun Dancer, 89 training of boys in, 18 War-bonnet of the Lakota, 30, 94, 137 See HEAD-DRESS War-clubs of the Lakota, 138 War-cry in Mystery Tree rite, 92 Warfare of the Sioux, 32-55 War-honors. See CouPs War of 1812, Sioux in, 32 War-parties, Double Face appears to, 128 War-party illustrated, 12, pi. Warriors, Brule, illustrated, 36, pl. mortuary customs respecting, 20, 141 paraphernalia of, 30 War-song of Sitting Bull, I49 Wafhaiyapi, rite of, IO5 Water, ceremonial drinking of, 84, 85 Watichaghe, an Assiniboin rite, 128 Wave The Pipes, an Assiniboin rite, 132

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INDEX 21 I Waziya, Spirit of the North, 57, 60, 68, III117 Weapons deposited with dead, 20 Wear Buffalo Head-dresses, a society, 15, I39 Wears The War Bonnet killed, I69 Weasel-skins as decoration, 30, I86 West, Spirit of the, prayer to, 68, 70, 76 See CARDINAL POINTS; THUNDER; WING FLAPPER Weyota and Ikt6mi, tale of, 11 1-117 Wham, Maj. J. W., Sioux agent, I79 Whipple, Rev. H. B., treaty commissioner, 5~ Whips. See QUIRTS Whiskey introduced among Dakota, 172 Whistle of eagle-bone, 54, 9I, 95, 97 White Beard. See HARNEY, Gen. W. S. White buffalo, killing of, I60, I65, I74 significance of, 8 White Buffalo Woman, 8, 31, 55, 56-60, 64, 99, 105, 107, I22, I40, I59, I60 White Clay creek, 181 White Cow Killer, winter-count of, I70, I73 White Man Runs Him, Crow scout, 44, 46, 49 portraits of, 48, 52, pl. White Man's Fire, medicine-man, I86 White men, early contact with, I68 excluded from Sioux lands, 41 in Lakota tradition, 31 intrude on Sioux lands, 42 Lakota contact with, i6o, 168 treatment of, in Minnesota outbreak, 35 White river, I8o White Shield cited, 174 White Stone Hill, battle at, 178 White Swan, Crow scout 44, 46 Sioux leader, 184 White Thunder, murder of, I8I White woman early seen by Dakota, I69 Whitside, Maj. S. M., captures Big Foot, 54 Wichasha-wakan. See MEDICINE-MEN rWichita, Sun Dance among, 87 Wi-hinndnpa. See RISING SUN Williamson, Rev. J. P., at Sioux council, 41 Wilson, Jack, Paiute Messiah, I8I Wind, north, controlled by Waziya, 68 Wind Spirits of the Lakota, 65, 68, 87, 89, 90, 93, 99 Winds in Foster-parent Chant, 80 mentioned in prayer, IoI symbolized in decoration, 27 Wing Flapper in Dakota myth, 57, 6o Wing Flapper, prayers to, 68, 72, 76, 88, 89 See THUNDER; THUNDER NATION; WEST Winnebago, Dakota names for, 142 mentioned in Sioux legend, 27-28 Winter Camp. See LIVES IN THE WINTER Winter-counts of the Dakota, 30, 159-I82 Wita-pahatu. See KIOWA Wiwdnyank-wachipi. See SUN DANCE Wogichihichapi, a medicine ceremony, 132 Wohachanka-sdpa. See CALICO Wokichize-tawa. See His FIGHTS Wolf mountains, Custer at, 45 Lakota-Apsaroke fight in, 20 Wolf-skin as medicine, I85 Women, clothing of, 28, 137 in Assiniboin Sun Dance, 129 members of medicine society, 132 of the Teton, 6-7 property of, among Teton, I39 skin-dressing by, 24 See MARRIAGE Wonder-worker in Lakota tale, 111-117, 140 Woodpecker, deity of the East, 77 feathers in Lakota ceremony, 75 skin in Lakota myth, 58 Woodruff, Gen. C. A., visits Custer battle-field, 44 W6piye defined, 64 Work-do in Foster-parent Chant, 71-87 in Ghost Keeper rite, 100-103, 106-Io9 World-quarters. See CARDINAL POINTS Wounded Knee, massacre at, 54, I8I Wounds indicated by painting, 23 symbolized on scalp-shirt, 22 Wowashi-echtunkta. See WORK-DO Wyoming entered by Teton, 3 Yankton, a Sioux tribe, 31 Dakota names for, 142 early movement of, 32 in Minnesota outbreak, 36 population of the, 122-123 refuse to cede lands, 181 with Leavenworth expedition, 173 Yanktonai, account of the, I19-123 a Sioux tribe, 31 and Assiniboin hostility, 127, 128, 182 and Blackfoot hostility, 174 Dakota names for, 142 drowning of, 173 migration of, 32, 127

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212 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Yanktonai names for other tribes, 141-142 vocabulary, 152 Yellow Bird and Wounded Knee fight, 54 Yellow Hawk, portrait of, I90, pl. sketch of, I90 Yellow Horse, portrait of, I24, pl. sketch of, I90 Yellowstone river, 44, 186 Yellow Thunder, death of, 182 Young Spotted Tail, murder by, i8I Yucca used in fire-making, 138 Zigzag walking, signal of approach, 92, ii6 Zintkala-wafhte-win adopted by Lakota, 23 THE END OF VOLUME III

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The North American Indian List of Large Plates Supplementing Volume Three
76 Medicine-man Invocation and supplication enter so much into the life of the Indian that this picture of the grim old warrior invoking the Mysteries is most characteristic. The subject of the illustration is Slow Bull, whose biography is given in Volume III, page 189. 77 Ogalala war-party Here is depicted a group of Sioux warriors as they appeared in the days of intertribal warfare, carefully making their way down a hillside in the vicinity of the enemy's camp. Many hold in their hands, instead of weapons, mere sticks adorned with eagle-feathers or scalps - the so-called coup-sticks - desiring to win honor by striking a harmless blow therewith as well as to inflict injury with arrow and bullet. 78 Two Strike A biographical sketch of this Brule chief appears in Volume II, page 190. 79 Sioux chiefs Very often two or three men would form themselves into a war-party and ride away to be gone weeks or months. Sometimes they returned with scalps or horses, or women ; and again the war-party, whether large or small, met defeat and none survived to bring back to anxious wives and children the story of the disaster. 80 Oasis in the Bad Lands . Curtis: This picture was made in the heart of the Bad Lands of South Dakota. The subject is the sub-chief Red Hawk, a sketch of whose life is given on page 188 of Volume III. 81 Jack Red Cloud The subject of this portrait is the son of the Ogalala chief Red Cloud. (See No. 103.) 82 Hollow Horn Bear The life of this Brule Sioux is briefly treated in Volume III, page 186. 83 Sun dancer "As they dance, the performers never leave the spot on which they stand, the movement consisting in a slight upward spring from the toes and ball of the foot; legs and body are rigid. Always the right palm is extended to the yellow glaring sun, and their eyes are fixed on its lower rim. The dancer concentrates his mind, his very self, upon the one thing that he desires, whether it be the acquirement of powerful medicine or only success in the next conflict with the enemy." - Volume III, pages 95-96. 84 Slow Bull – Ogalala A biographical sketch of this subject is found on page 189 of Volume III. 85 Brule war-party This rhythmic picture shows a party of Brule Sioux re-enacting a raid against the enemy. 86 Gray day in the Bad Lands A cold, cheerless day, when the party of Sioux, wrapped closely in their blankets, rode in stolid silence. 87 High Hawk The subject is shown in all the finery of a warrior dressed for a gala occasion - scalp-shirt, leggings, moccasins, and pipe-bag, all embroidered with porcupine-quills; eagle-feather war bonnet, and stone-headed war-club from the handle of which dangles a scalp. High Hawk is prominent among the Brules mainly because he is now their leading historical authority, being much in demand to determine the dates of events important to his fellow tribesmen. His calendar, or "winter-count," is explained, and in part reproduced, in Volume III, pages 159-182. 88 Prairie chief This picture was made on the Pine Ridge reservation in South Dakota at a time when the Indians were assembled in a large encampment, reliving the days of old. 89 Little Hawk This portrait exhibits the typical Brule physiognomy. 90 Hukalowapi ceremony The subject of this picture is Saliva, an Ogalala Sioux, a priest of the Hukalowapi ceremony, which is fully described in Volume III, pages 71-87. 91 Prayer to the Mystery In supplication the pipe was always offered to the Mystery by holding it aloft. At the feet of the worshipper lies a buffalo-skull, symbolic of the spirit of the animal upon which the Indians were so dependent. The subject of the picture is Picket Pin, an Ogalala Sioux. 92 Fast Elk A brief sketch of this Ogalala appears on page 184 of Volume III. 93 Sioux camp It was customary for a war-party to ride in circles about the tipi of their chief before starting on a raid into the country of the enemy. 94 Ogalala woman A face so strong that it is almost masculine, showing strikingly how slight may be the difference between the male and female physiognomy in some primitive people. 95 In the land of the Sioux This picture illustrates the general character of the Sioux country. The broad, rolling prairie is broken by low hills, while here and there lie pools of stagnant water in old buffalo-wallows. The subjects of the pictures are Red Hawk, Crazy Thunder, and Holy Skin, three Ogalala who accompanied the author on a trip into the Bad Lands. 96 Ogalala girls Description by Edward S. Curtis: As a rule the women of the plains tribes are natural horsewomen, and their skill in riding is scarcely exceeded by that of the men. As mere infants they are tied upon the backs of trusty animals, and thus become accustomed to the long days of journeying. 97 Sioux girl A young Sioux woman in a dress made entirely of deerskin, embroidered with beads and porcupine-quills. 98 Planning a raid The Indians, in their striking and characteristic costumes, unconsciously form themselves into most picturesque groups. This shows a party of Ogalala Sioux on a hill overlooking the valley of Wounded Knee creek, on the Pine Ridge reservation in South Dakota. 99 Morning attack The favorite moment for attack was just at dawn, when the enemy was presumably unprepared to offer quick resistance. 100 Heavy load – Sioux Summer and winter the Sioux women performed the heavy work of the camp, and what was seemingly drudgery was to her part of the pleasure of life. 101 Black Eagle – Assiniboin The life of Black Eagle is briefly treated in Volume III, page 182. 102 Mosquito Hawk A biographical sketch of this subject is found in Volume 111, page 187. 103 Red Cloud – Ogalala A biographical sketch of this well-known chief and celebrated warrior is given n page 187 of Volume III. 104 Crazy Thunder – Ogalala A splendid specimen of the Teton Sioux. 105 Wood gatherer – Sioux Fuel for cooking and for warming the tipi was gathered and carried by the women, as a part of their domestic work. 106 Winter camp – Sioux With the coming of winter the plains tribes pitched their camps in forested valleys, where they not only were protected from the fierce winds of the plains, but had an ample supply of fuel at hand. 107 Assiniboin camp In making their camps the Indians often chose more picturesque spots. 108 American Horse – Ogalala This subject is one of the four chiefs whose election is described in Volume III, page 16. He died in December, 1908. 109 Invocation – Sioux Scattered throughout the Indian country are found spots that are virtually shrines. These are often boulders or other rocks which through some chance have been invested with mythic significance, and to them priest and war-leaders repair to invoke the aid of the supernatural powers. The half-buried bowlder on which the suppliant stands is accredited with the power of revealing to the warrior the foreordained result of his projected raid. Its surface bears what the Indians call the imprint of human feet, and it is owing to this peculiarity that it became a shrine. About it the soil is almost completely worn away by the generations of suppliants who have journeyed hither for divine revelation 110 Mountain-sheep hunter – Sioux Mountain-sheep, grazing in the most inaccessible parts of the Bad Lands, were sought only by the most ambitious hunters. 119 In the Bad Lands This striking picture was made at Sheep Mountain in the Bad Lands of Pine Ridge reservation, South Dakota.

{view image of plate no. 76}
Medicine-man [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 77}
Ogalala war-party [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 78}
Two Strike [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 79}
Sioux chiefs [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 80}
Oasis in the Bad Lands [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 81}
Jack Red Cloud [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 82}
Hollow Horn Bear [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 83}
Sun dancer [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 84}
Slow Bull - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 85}
Brule war-party [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 86}
Gray day in the Bad Lands [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 87}
High Hawk [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 88}
Prairie chief [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 89}
Little Hawk [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 90}
Hukalowapi ceremony [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 91}
Prayer to the Mystery [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 92}
Fast Elk [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 93}
Sioux camp [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 94}
Ogalala woman [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 95}
In the land of the Sioux [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 96}
Ogalala girls [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 97}
Sioux girl [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 98}
Planning a raid [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 99}
Morning attack [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 100}
Heavy load - Sioux [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 101}
Black Eagle - Assiniboin [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 102}
Mosquito Hawk - Assiniboin [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 103}
Red Cloud - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 104}
Crazy Thunder - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 105}
Wood gatherer - Sioux [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 106}
Winter camp - Sioux [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 107}
Assiniboin camp [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 108}
American Horse - Ogalala [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 109}
Invocation - Sioux [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 110}
Mountain-sheep hunter - Sioux [photogravure plate]

{view image of plate no. 119}
In the Bad Lands [photogravure plate]