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Vol.4. The Apsaroke, or Crows. The Hidatsa.{view image of page i} THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN {view image of page ii} Whtid e(zit i tkt Wattmtttr ta Sibt 3untrrtr Aets otf WhficT titd itJ aumwber.-...S..g {view image of Frontispiece} The oath [photogravure plate] {view image of page iii} THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN BEING A SERIES OF VOLUMES PICTURING AND DESCRIBING THE INDIANS OF THE UNITED STATES AND ALASKA WRITTEN, ILLUSTRATED, AND PUBLISHED BYEDWARD S. CURTIS EDITED BY FREDERICK WEBB HODGE FOREWORD BY THEODORE ROOSEVELT FIELD RESEARCH CONDUCTED UNDER THE PATRONAGE OF J. PIERPONT MORGAN IN TWENTY VOLUMES THIS, THE FOURTH VOLUME, PUBLISHED IN THE YEAR NINETEEN HUNDRED AND NINE {view image of page iv} // \e r n MAY 15 1924 N ti I I 1'V1)20I COPYRIGHT 1 909 By EDWARD S. CURTIS THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U. S.A. {view image of page v} Contents of Volume Four PAGE ALPHABET USED IN RECORDING INDIAN TERMS........ vi ILLUSTRATIONS.................... vii INTRODUCTION.................... xi THE APSAROKE, OR CROWS General Characteristics..... Tribal Organization..... Arts........ Social Customs. Daily Life........ Historical Sketch...... Religion and Ceremonies Spirit Beings...... The Sweat..... Medicine and Medicine-men... The Soaking, a Tobacco Ceremony The Sun Dance..... War and the Chase Campaign against Shoshoni. A Sioux Invasion Apsaroke and Nez Perces against Lakota Death of Iron Eyes and Escape of Among The..... 3... * 320 23..... 23.....38 0 0 0 0 9 0 0~. 52 54 56.. 6I. 67.... 83..... 91..... 96 Willows. 97 Campaign against the Sioux. A Buffalo Hunt. A Winter Hunt. Myth and Legend Creation Myth. Corn-silk and the Seven Stars THE HIDATSA Tradition, Habitat, and Customs. Religious Beliefs and Ceremonies. Corn Ceremony Sun Dance Ceremony of the Bowl Minor Ceremonies. Myth and Legend Origin Myth... The Sacred Skulls. Legend of Home Boy. Grandmother's Child and the Snakes ~~....... I05...... III....... 114....... ii6....... II117........ 1 I29....... 1* I143....... x148 ~~....... 152...... 156....... 159....... 1 I62....... I63....... 1 I65....... 171 {view image of page vi} vi CONTENTS APPENDIX PAGE TRIBAL SUMMARY The Apsaroke...... The Hidatsa...... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 175 HIDATSA SONGS Six Songs of Makadhishta-1iupadhi.. Two Songs of the Thunderbird Ceremony. Tobacco-medicine Song of Tattooed Face. APSAROKE AND HIDATSA COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES Apsaroke............ a...... I80...... I86...... i88...... 89......1I89...... 1 97 Hidatsa ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 210 INDEX TO VOLUME FOUR............... 213 Alphabet Used in Recording Indian Terms [The consonants are as in English, except when otherwise noted] a as in father A as in cat a as aw in awl ai as in aisle e as ey in they as in net ias in machine I as in sit o as in old 8 as ow in how oi as in oil u as in ruin i as in nut i as in German Hiitte.u as in push dh between d and t; a lingual r gh as in Arabic ghain h always aspirated h as ch in German Bach k a non-aspirated k p a non-aspirated p q as qu in quick rr a trilled r t a non-aspirated t f as in hits ch as in church gh as in shall, sash n nasal, as in French dans th as z in azure a pause {view image of page vii} Illustrations The Oath Frontispiece Hide Stretching - Apsaroke 4 Hide Scraping - Apsaroke 6 Pack-horse - Apsaroke 8 Hunts To Die - Apsaroke 10 Fog In The Morning - Apsaroke An Apsaroke Lodge 18 Apsaroke Horse Trappings 20 Apsaroke Woman 22 Apsaroke Mother 24 A Young Horsewoman 26 Playmates - Apsaroke 28 Bird On The Ground 32 Does Everything - Apsaroke 34 A Burial Platform - Apsaroke 36 Scaffold Burial - Apsaroke 38 The Winter Camp - Apsaroke 40 In The Cañon - Apsaroke 42 Apsaroke Youths 44 A Baby Apsaroke 46 Sisters - Apsaroke Medicine Tripod - Apsaroke 52 Sweat-lodge - Apsaroke 54 Medicine Lodge - Apsaroke 56 Hunts The Enemy - Apsaroke 58 Tobacco Ceremonial Lodge - Apsaroke 64 Tobacco Ceremony - Apsaroke 66 Apsaroke Maiden 68 Flathead Woman - Apsaroke 70 The Eagle Medicine-man - Apsaroke 74 {view image of page viii} The Sun Dancer - Apsaroke 76 "For strength and visions" 78 The Sun Dance Votary - Apsaroke 80 On Top - Apsaroke 84 The Scout - Apsaroke 86 Old Dog - Apsaroke 88 Big Ox - Apsaroke 90 The Lookout - Apsaroke 94 Apsaroke Camp 96 Hairy Moccasins - Apsaroke 98 Goes Ahead - Apsaroke 100 Moving - Apsaroke 102 Bull Goes Hunting - Apsaroke 104 Approaching Winter - Apsaroke 106 Spotted Jack-rabbit - Apsaroke 108 The Parade - Apsaroke 104 Winter Hunters - Apsaroke 106 A Winter Day - Apsaroke 116 "The chief had a beautiful daughter" 118 Two Leggings Lodge - Apsaroke 120 Site of Abandoned Hidatsa Village 130 Sitting Owl - Hisatsa 132 Lean Wolf - Hidsatsa 134 The Eagle-catcher 136 Hidatsa Man 138 Hidatsa Bull-boat 140 Hidatsa Mother 142 White Duck - Hidatsa 144 Hidatsa Woman 148 Incense over a Medicine Bundle-Hidatsa 150 Long-time Dog - Hidatsa 152 "He perceived an earthen vessel" 156 Rabbit-head - Hidatsa 158 Holds the Eagle - Hidatsa 160 "Crying to the spirits" 166 In the Forest 166 {view image of page ix} Mother and Child - Apsaroke 178 The Mythic Stone - Hidatsa 184 Home of the Water-monster 186 The Mythic Tree 188 Bull Tongue - Apsaroke 198 Skins Wolf - Apsaroke 206 Young Hairy Wolf - Apsaroke 208 Good Bear - Hidatsa 210 {view image of page x} {view image of page xi} Introduction IN assembling in the present volume the material pertaining to the Apsaroke and the Hidatsa, the original plan of treatment is not strictly followed; but since these two Siouan tribes were once united, the geographical grouping is sacrificed in this case to one based on close relationship. The separation of these people into two tribes occurred in such recent time that the knowledge of it is much more definite than tribal events usually are when their occurrence is known only by tradition; and, indeed, the dialectic differences between the two tribes are so unimportant as to establish the recency of the change. At no time has either tribe lost sight of its relationship to the other, and there has always existed a strong friendship between them. A powerful tribe of mountaineers, subsisting entirely by the chase and quite independent of the uncertainties of agriculture, the Apsaroke regarded with more or less disdain their sedentary Hidatsa cousins, who tilled the soil and lacked the strength to carry on extensive predatory warfare. If the doughty No Vitals and his followers were agriculturists when they departed from the Missouri to seek a new home to the westward, they soon forgot their cunning in this industry and acquired contempt for an occupation so menial as tillage, for while nearly all the wandering tribes frowned on agriculture, the Apsaroke seem to have been particularly averse to it. In the Apsaroke is seen the highest development of the primitive American hunter and warrior. Physically these people were among the finest specimens of their race. They clothed themselves better and dwelt in larger and finer lodges than did their neighbors, and decked their horses in trappings so gorgeous as to arouse the wonder of all early explorers. In gathering the material for this volume the writer has been fortunate in having the assistance of an interpreter possessing far more than ordinary ability; and fortunate indeed in enlisting the services of Hunts To Die, a veteran of unusual mentality, from whom was obtained a large part of the information respecting the Apsaroke herein recorded. Other old men of the tribe recounted myth, legend, {view image of page xii} xii INTRODUCTION and story of tribal life which served to confirm the knowledge communicated by Hunts To Die, but the effort of these to unfold the tribal lore may be likened to the attempt of an unthinking man to employ the utterances of a statesman. In early manhood Hunts To Die was a magnificent warrior, who scarcely knew his physical limitations; but at thirty years of age he was so seriously wounded by a Sioux bullet as to be barred from further action on the field of battle, yet he lives to make this portion of the story of the Indian more closely portray the primitive life than has been possible in the preceding volumes of the series. The narrative of the vigorous life of the Apsaroke, of the camp, the hunt, the war-trail, and the cruel ordeals they underwent to invoke spiritual aid, contributes so much toward laying bare the inner life of this people that it is dwelt upon to the exclusion of folk-tales. Believing that by recording what and how the Indians think and see we can best add to our knowledge of them as a race, it has been the aim in presenting this material to reflect the thought and to preserve as nearly as possible the manner of expression of the narrators. Not alone therefore should the body of this volume give us a rare glimpse of the inner side of Apsaroke life, but the biographical sketches of the men whose portraits are presented, and whose lives are so strongly reflected in the modern history of the tribe, will add largely to our understanding of it. In collecting the material and preparing it for publication, I have had the able assistance of Mr. W. E. Myers, and of Mr. A. B. Upshaw, my Apsaroke interpreter. Mr. A. F. Muhr has continued his valued services in the laboratory, and Mr. C. H. Levin has rendered faithful aid in the gathering of the Hidatsa material. EDWARD S. CURTIS {view image of page 1} The Apsaroke, or Crows {view image of page 2} I {view image of page 3} THE APSAROKE General Characteristics IN stature and in vigor the Apsaroke, or Crows, excelled all other tribes of the Rocky Mountain region, and were surpassed by none in bravery and in devotion to the supernatural forces that gave them strength against their enemies. Social laws, rigidly adhered to, prevented marriage of those even distantly related, and the hardships of their life as hunters eliminated infant weaklings. The rigors of this life made the women as strong as the men; and women who could carry a quarter of a buffalo apparently without great exertion, ride all day and all night with a raiding war-party, or travel afoot two hundred and fifty miles across an unmarked wilderness of mountains, plains, and swollen streams in four days and nights, were not the women to bring forth puny offspring.1 The Apsaroke were and are the proudest of Indians, and although comparatively few (they now number only one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and are constantly decreasing), they rarely allied themselves with other tribes for purposes of defence. For probably two and a half centuries they were the enemy of every tribe that came within striking distance, and for a goodly part of this time they were virtually surrounded by hostile bands with a common hatred against this mountain tribe that likened itself to a pack of wolves. The swarming thousands of the western Sioux, aided by the Cheyenne and Arapaho, tried to force them westward. The powerful Blackfeet invaded their territory from the north and northwest, Flatheads and Nez Perces were worthy foes from the west, and the wily Shoshoni pressed in from the south; yet the Apsaroke were ever ready to repel invasion from whatever direction it might come. While the general status was one of hostility, there were brief intervals of peace with the different tribes, even with the Sioux, their bitterest foe, with whom at times they smoked the pipe and negotiated peace for a year. Such truces so seriously made in many 1 See page 104. {view image of page 4} 4 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN smokes, were often quickly broken by some impetuous or irresponsible young man stealing a horse or a woman; then in a moment peace was at an end and conflict raged again. As a rule, however, these periods of tranquillity lasted long enough to permit discussion of previous fights and a general comparison of the honors therein won. The country which the Apsaroke ranged and claimed as their own was an extensive one for so small a tribe. In area it may be compared, east and west, to the distance from Boston to Buffalo, and north to south, from Montreal to Washington-certainly a vast region to be dominated by a tribe never numbering more than fifteen hundred warriors. The borders of their range were, roughly, a line extending from the mouth of the Yellowstone southward through the Black Hills, thence westward to the crest of the Wind River mountains, northwestward through the Yellowstone Park to the site of Helena, thence to the junction of the Musselshell and the Missouri, and down the latter stream to the mouth of the Yellowstone. This region is the veritable Eden of the Northwest. With beautiful broad valleys and abundant wooded streams, no part of the country was more favorable for buffalo, while its wild forested mountains made it almost unequalled for elk and other highland game. The Apsaroke enjoyed the climax of their existence during the scant century following the acquisition of horses. Previous to that event their life had not known the fulness that was theirs when they had herds of horses, and firearms had supplanted arrows and spears. Notwithstanding their aggressive, warlike disposition, they never were in serious conflict with the Government, nor did they commit many depredations against white settlers, who, although regarded by them as trespassers, were rarely molested. The Indians captured many horses from early hunters and trappers, but this was to them a legitimate procedure, for these men were intruders on their lands, taking their game, consequently all captures of livestock were regarded as just compensation. By all observers who have written of them, the Crows have been pronounced exceedingly lax in morals, and while many statements of this sort have been overdrawn, they are certainly an unusually sensual people. Still, as an alien race, we should hardly presume to judge them wholly by our standards and not give them credit for their own customs and codes. They on their part consider some of our customs highly objectionable and immoral. In the old times the Apsaroke, during a large part of the year, were constantly on the move. One day they would be quietly encamped {view image of facing page 4} Hide stretching - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 5} THE APSAROKE 5 on one of their favorite streams, the next travelling away in quest of buffalo or solely for the mere pleasure of going. Their customary camps were along the mountain streams, where the lodges were commonly placed in a circle, but at times, where the valley was narrow, they were close together, paralleling the wooded watercourse. The larger camps were always the scene of great activity. Horses were tethered everywhere close at hand; on the slopes far and near thousands were grazing, while on the nearby hilltops groups of people were statuesquely outlined against the sky. Here are chiefs and councillors in quiet discussion of tribal affairs. As they pass the pipe from man to man and look down upon the village with its hundreds of lodges their eyes are glad, for the picture is one of plenty, and the murmur of the camp as it is wafted to their ears tells of happiness. Close by are laughing, romping children, the bronze skin of their rounded bodies gleaming in the sunlight, and the old men reflect, "It is well that their bodies know the heat and the cold; it will make them strong warriors and mothers." On another hill proud youths are seen, decked in the savage trappings that make glad their hearts. Their words are of the hunt, the war-path, and sweethearts. Not far distant is a group of maidens gayly dressed in garments of soft skins. It is not many moons since they romped about with the freedom of fawns, unabashed that the breeze caressed their bodies; but all that is past now; they are maidens, every part save face and hands must be carefully concealed, and a keen-eyed mother is always near. But all cannot be childhood and youth and love-making; on other outlooks are wrinkled old women who live only in the past, muttering and dreaming of the days of their youth, when husbands and sweethearts rode away to conflict, - of the days when brave warriors stole them from the arms of others, - when warrior husbands took them along on their forays, perhaps to see their men killed and themselves borne off by the victorious Lakota, on whose coup-sticks waved the hair upon which they had lavished so much loving attention. Farther from the village mourners cry out in anguish for those whose lives have been taken; and on distant peaks are lonely men fasting through the long days and nights in supplication for spiritual strength. In the camp itself there is an endless panorama of activities and a ceaseless confusion of sounds. Women are everywhere stretching the drying hides, and filling great drying-racks with long thin strips of rich, red buffalo-meat. In the lodges others -are tanning skins, and on many sides can be heard the thud of the wooden tray as women gamble with plum-seed dice. In other lodges men are shouting a {view image of page 6} 6 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN wild song as they engage in the hand gambling game, while in the open another group is playing at hoop-and-pole, and others the game of the arrows. The sick and the wounded are being cared for by medicinemen, who accompany their incantation with rattle and drum. Men and women, old and young, are constantly passing from lodge to lodge for a word or a smoke, and food is always placed before them. As evening approaches the people begin to gather around the lodge-fires, and with the arrival of men laden with the product of the hunt, the village assumes an even livelier air. Heralds of the chiefs are shouting invitations to the feasts, and as night falls the lodges glow in the darkness. If the weather is at all cool, the evening is spent mostly indoors, where on soft skins and furs heaped in profusion the people lounge in full contentment. From many dwellings echo the muffled beat of the drum and the droning song of men and women, and occasionally is heard the doleful note of a flute as some lovesick youth serenades his sweetheart. Early in the morning the village is astir, for the counsel of the men who have thoughts is, "Do not follow the sleep to the end, but waken when it requires determination; be up and alive to what is going on about you!" As soon as the family awaken they throw blankets around their bodies and go to the river for their morning bath. If the water is icy cold, so much the better, for it requires a strong heart to plunge in, and it inures the body to cold and heat. Husband and wife and small children go together, each family a group of itself. Probably not ten yards away is another family, and so on for a mile or more, many hundreds bathing at the same time. At other hours of the day it would be the height of impropriety for a woman to expose any part of her body, but at the morning bath there is no embarrassment, "for this is our custom," they say. Truly custom is a strange thing, for an Apsaroke woman -who a half-hour before has been playing about in the water like a happy seal - blushes at the picture of a white woman in a decollete gown, and says, " Such women have no shame!" Parties of maidens, accompanied by some watchful mother, bathe in secluded nooks. When the chief decides that camp is to be moved, his herald goes through the village in the evening, crying out, "Prepare, prepare! To-morrow we move!" And again at the first blush of day he rides from end to end of the village, calling, "Hui"hu"heeeeeee! To-day the chief says we move toward the buffalo! Men, bring in the horses; women, throw down the lodges!" As all have known from the previous announcement that they are to move, the morning meal is {view image of facing page 6} Hide scraping - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 7} THE APSAROKE 7 finished before daylight appears. Soon all the herds of horses come trotting in and the women are running about among them throwing ropes over the necks of the old, gentle pack-animals. Others are at work on the lodges, the covers of which come rattling down, soon making of the camp a skeleton of bare poles. From the middle of each framework a column of smoke curls skyward; sleepy children still in their blankets are rolled out as their mothers pull the robes from under them in the work of packing. The tousled-headed youngsters whimper for something to eat and are thrown a hard, dry piece of meat for their breakfast. Soon the horses are packed with high bundles of robes and clothing, and the lodge-poles tied at the sides, usually six to a side, two horses being required for each lodge. Here and there horses break away and go galloping through the camp before their packs are secured, scattering their loads broadcast, and causing great excitement and confusion. Women call, children cry, grandmothers chatter and mumble. The chief rides off a short distance in the direction they are to go, and some of his old men sit about him smoking and talking. Then they move forward a distance and halt while the people complete their preparations for the march. Now the line begins to form - first the chiefs and old men; then a band of arrogant, gayly dressed Lumpwoods, with newly stolen wives riding behind and carrying their husbands' shields and lances; next a body of clansmen with a group of proud young wives bedecked in all their finery. Behind them the column continues to form, family by family, each driving its herd of horses, until at length come straggling by those who have been slow in packing. A moving column of six hundred lodges is miles in length and of a width determined by the groups of families or by the nature of the country traversed. When they near the place the chief has designated for the night's camp, many of the grandfathers ride ahead and select spots for their own lodges, clear the ground, and gather dry wood. As the irregular line drags in, they stand beside their chosen places, calling out to their wives where to come. If the weather be cold, they already have kindled small fires, and now take down the little children from the tops of the packs and hold them in the warmth of the leaping flames. A splendid picture of the nomads' life they made as the caravan moved across far-reaching plain, hill, and valley. The crossing of a broad stream added much to the animation of the scene. One summer nine hundred and fifty lodges of Apsaroke went to the Yellowstone, intending to cross. As the water was very high and the {view image of page 8} 8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN river nearly half a mile in width, the Kick Bellys, numbering four hundred and fifty lodges, lost their courage, and would not attempt the crossing. All the others, however, were unafraid and passed over. They used no boats, but made small rafts of driftwood, laying the ends of the lodge-poles on these rude craft, and allowing the tops to float on the water behind. On the poles a large piece of old lodge-covering was spread, and on that were piled the domestic belongings, the edges of the skin being gathered up and tied at the top to protect the load from splashing water. Perched upon this bundle rode the old women and the children. Two young men grasped the manes of strong swimming horses and swam along by their side, towing the raft across. Behind, holding to the ends of the lodge-poles, swam the young women and maidens, clad only in a short skirt reaching from waist to knee. It was a time of great merriment and fun-making, yet one not without its serious side, for a tottering old woman gazed long at the swirling river and, declaring that she was not afraid to die but feared the water, stabbed herself and fell lifeless. The crossing occupied four days, for the current was swift, and many who had no horses were compelled to wait for assistance from their relatives. Before going into the water men and women painted red stripes about waist, wrists, and ankles, for protection against the water-monsters that were believed to inhabit all large streams. Necklaces of white beads were never worn in the water, for beads of that sort were believed to be hailstones, the symbol of the Thunderbird, a deadly enemy of water-monsters, which therefore would be glad to swallow any one thus showing his friendship with the Thunderbird. Tribal Organization The Apsaroke consisted of two bands, the dominant one being the Many Lodges, the so-called Mountain Crows. The Binesupede, usually known as the River Crows, although a part of the tribe, were not so closely associated with the main group and were considered inferior by the powerful Many Lodges, who were likened by one of their old men to a great pack of mountain wolves - all in a solid mass facing outward on every side so that none could successfully attack them, while they could rush out at any moment upon an unwary foe. The ruling chief was usually from the Many Lodges. A powerful band of the tribe was the numerous Kick Belly clan, who much of the time, particularly in winter, dwelt apart from the others to such an {view image of facing page 8} Pack-horse - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 9} THE APSAROKE 9 extent that they were in a fair way to become a separate tribal division, when civilization put an end to the old roving life. If the order went out from the head-chief that all were to gather for protection against an enemy, there could be no demur from River Crow or Kick Belly; and a call for invasion brought warriors from both bands. Among the Apsaroke the chiefs were not elected: a man had a recognized standing according to his deeds, and so definite was the system of honors that there was never doubt as to the proper successor to the head-chieftainship. "All people of the lowlands had foolish ways of their own. With us the chief was the chief," say the Crows. On the march he went alone a few steps in advance of all others, and just behind him a line of old men, chiefs, and war-leaders. Behind them flowed a stream of thousands of people and great herds of horses. The chief carried his pipe before him, the bowl filled with tobacco and kinnikinnick, and sealed with fat from the buffalo-heart. In this official capacity he was called Akdadofiiude, He Leads The Moving Band. No one might go before or pass around him on the trail. The scouts were far in advance, and all along the side of the column men of the Soldier Band rode to prevent needless scattering, which might frighten the buffalo, and to protect the women and children from possible attack. If an enemy made an attack on the moving column and killed some of his people, the chief was regarded as having for the time lost his power with the spirits. On such an occasion, therefore, he cried out to the old men, "My people, choose some one to take my place for a time. My day is bad!" One of the lesser chiefs, or more frequently a medicine-man, would then be appointed to carry the pipe, perhaps for one march or for a season, at least until the chief felt that the spirits once more looked upon him with favor. When the moving band approached a buffalo herd, the chief stopped, and the old men moved up beside him on each hand, while the straggling cavalcade closed up and halted. The chief lighted his pipe and smoked, and if the course of the wind were toward the herd, he blew the smoke over the trail to turn it back. He alone decided where to camp and how long to remain. During the night he would send for a few trusted young men and say to them: "To-morrow, before the day comes, I want you to go to the mountain-tops; stay there and watch in which way the buffalo are moving, and see if they are travelling fast. If so, try to find the cause of it." In camp the chief would ride his horse slowly through the village and speak in a loud and deliberate tone: {view image of page 10} IO THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN "Young men, to cut sticks is easy; to dry them is easy. See that your quivers are full of strong arrows. See that your bowstring is good. Have extra sinew with you; if one bowstring breaks and you have no other, the enemy will kill you. Now your hearts may feel at ease, but you know not what may come at noon. If you have a gun, see that the inside is clean; examine the trigger; see that the caps are many and sound. Do not waste your powder; if you have only a little, buy more, store it away. We have no teeth to protect ourselves; we cannot bite our enemies and tear them as bears do. These bows and arrows and guns are our teeth and claws. Have them good. You are young; your bodies are yet pure, and the spirits are looking down upon you. I have brought you to the foot of the mountains that you may climb where the air is pure - go there and fast. We have heard that the spirits are looking for their children; perhaps you are the ones they are seeking. Behold those who have many horses and large lodges; see how well they live; think how they do it. As you climb the mountains and fast, make offerings that some one may grow up among you strong enough to carry on what I am doing. You must remember that I cannot always be with you." Sometimes he would call many young men into his lodge and say: "Young men, look at me, see my face. All men have flesh, all men have hearts, all men know what death is. About you are enemies surrounding your whole country. If you have a gun, remember it; if you have bows and arrows, remember that. The moment comes when the enemy charges upon you; stand firm and remember your hearts - keep them brave. You find that the old men are few. Not all can become old men: if the mighty spirit-powers wish you to be old, you will become old; if not, you will die before that. Take care of your weapons well. If you have horses, brush their hair, take them where there is pure water, take them where the grass is good; then when muddy days come your wives will have something to ride. It will bring food to your homes. The people who surround us are foolish: they have no pity, they do not care for the old. But you, when you chase the buffalo, remember the poor; share your meat with them. My young men, you are strong; do not reach to the end of the sleep; break off before you get to the end and climb to the top of these mountains. See if the buffalo or antelope are moving. When they run, something is causing it. Know what is going on around your people so that we may be prepared to defend ourselves and do harm to our enemies. When you marry, she is your wife. If you have sickness, she will stay many nights by you while your brother sleeps. {view image of facing page 10} Hunts To Die - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 11} THE APSAROKE II Do not strike her; be kind to her. Only the wise will hear my words; the foolish will hear them now, but when I pass they will forget." It was the daily habit of Red Bear to call in his old men and let them talk as much as they would. From their conversation he took the good things and made them his own. The chief would either say, "We will go to this place and hunt on such a day," or he would call in his men to talk, and, after listening to them, make his decision, which was final. If he said, "We will move in three days," everybody had to go, and any reluctance or tardiness in getting ready to move was punished by the Soldiers, who might beat the recalcitrant, cut up his lodge, and maim his horses. It was not the custom of the Apsaroke to go to the extreme of killing for such infraction. In the spring, before the moving of the camp began, the old men came to the chief's tipi and talked over the question as to which of the four lodge organizations should act as Soldiers for that year. When the decision was reached the crier at once made the announcement, and the chosen society became Soldiers during that season, that is, from spring until the winter camps were made, at which time the tribe divided into small groups and scattered, so that game might be had by all. During the winter, then, there were no Soldiers. The tribe was under the direct control of the chief, and though he sometimes received suggestions as to the best place to hunt, he could give consent or withhold it at will. About forty years ago the Lumpwood organization became a dominating power in the tribe and were Soldiers for three successive years. When a war-party was preparing to set out, the chief might call them together and say: "My young men, I have heard crying in my sleep; there is danger in front; sit down. There are plenty of days in which you can fight." Then they would wait. It was expected of the chief that he would keep open house, where the poor could find food, and if they did not come of their own accord, he would sometimes invite them. He never made requisition on others for meat, but often a returning hunter would throw off a load before the lodge of the chief, knowing that he had many people to feed. At night many men gathered about his lodge-fire to talk and smoke. As evening came the chiefs or their criers would call out: "Everybody come! Food and tobacco are being prepared for you!" No names were uttered, for men knew when their prominence made them welcome to the lodge of any chief. The head-chief was called Batsfesi-kyafhe, Real Chief; other 1 See page i8. {view image of page 12} I2 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN chiefs were Bat'se-tsf, Good Men. Any man who had counted one of each of the four principal honors became a Good Man, but did not then necessarily have a following of his own. The more honors of each kind he had, the higher was his rank, and the greatest one in each clan was chief thereof. Men who had earned honors, but not one of each kind, were Good Young Men. One who had counted the three honors of taking a gun, capturing a tethered horse, and striking an enemy first, was permitted to have bits of scalp sewn along the sleeves of his shirt, showing that he had performed deeds with his arms; while a man who had led a successful war-party, that is, one that had brought back scalps or horses, could wear scalps along the sides of his leggings, signifying that he had done something brave by means of his legs. When he could place scalps in both places he was a chief; before that, no matter how many honors of one kind he had gained, while he might be recognized as a great warrior, he was called only Good Young Man. To strike an enemy first in an engagement was a grand coup, dakfhe; those who first struck others of the enemy achieved an honor of a certain sort, but not one of the recognized coups. Men who had counted dakshe ranked among themselves according to the danger incurred in the act, the greatest being the possessor of a coup gained by striking an enemy who was pointing a gun or an arrow at him. Four warriors could strike each man of a force of enemies, and the one who struck a secondary dakfel, that is, the second man to touch the enemy on whom the honor was counted, could boast of it and receive praise; but the parts taken by the third and the fourth were not much applauded among their fellows. The possessor of a grand coup was entitled to wear a scalp-shirt even if he had no honors of the other kinds, and the deed was indicated by a single foxtail at the heel of one moccasin; two were shown by a foxtail at each heel, and a red stripe could be painted on leggings or sleeves for each grand coup. If the honor was counted on a living, active enemy, an eagle-feather was fastened upright at the back of the hair; if on a dead enemy, the feather was drooped. One feather was added for each grand coup. The best dakfhe of all was to strike an enemy in single-handed encounter between the opposing lines. Next to the grand coup was the capture of a gun. There is no name for the act, which was described simply as "taking a gun." In the old days the honor was given for taking a bow, but when guns came into general use, the capture of a bow was no longer regarded in recounting one's honors. {view image of page 13} THE APSAROKE I3 Next came the capture of a horse tethered in the enemy's camp. The winner of such an honor would frequently put a wolf-skin on his back with the head over his right shoulder and the tail dragging, representing a war scout. Thus arrayed he rode his captured horse through the camp, with a short rope dangling from its neck, the object of admiration by his tribesmen. Greater than any of these, but almost necessarily following them, was the leading of a successful war-party. Besides these four regular coups, a warrior was especially honored for dismounting and fighting; for going back to take an unhorsed friend behind him; for standing firm against an oncoming enemy and shooting them down, either on the open prairie or behind a breastwork hastily thrown up; or for dashing in among the enemy and coming out alive. "These men we like," they say, "and the last one is high in our thoughts." There were four tribal societies - Lumpwood, Fox, Big Dog, and Muddy Hand. While all embodied minor features designed for social entertainment, they were in reality military organizations. Among them existed a spirit of intense rivalry in war, and in the case of the Lumpwood and Fox societies, their members extended this rivalry to affairs of the heart. In addition to the four was AkbAfhkyabadaihte, He That Wishes To Become Reckless Dog, which, however, was not a society in the true sense. Sometimes a man grown despondent over friends lost to the enemy would decide to throw away his life. He would then make a rawhide rattle, ring-shaped, with a handle. He prepared also two long, broad strips of skin, or later of red flannel, by splitting them down the middle from one end almost to the other. These he put over one shoulder and under the other, so that they trailed behind, one from each side of his horse. Then with a war-bonnet on, or with the hair shorn, and his horse's tail docked, he would ride through the camp shaking his rattle and singing: I am merely staying on earth for a time; all women look upon me! Moderato. "1.< —~ —.^. i-P ---i-P?1 J.t' c~ Lc~.:;~it~~~ my r c. r' I {view image of page 14} 14 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN _ > > I > > |21 F _> ____________ __ _/______ Such a man always did exactly the opposite of what he was told to do. If some one said to him, " Do not get off your horse, and do not dance," he would at once dismount and begin to dance. Men who thus expressed their intention of dying in battle always danced together on public occasions, and sang usually those songs that all Reckless Dogs used, but occasionally a man devised a song of his own. On their march through the camp, when declaring their intention, the people were careful to keep out of their path, for they would act as if without intelligence, shooting at anything before them. Though the Reckless Dogs were pledged to die, there have been instances of one's losing heart when the critical moment came and refusing to sacrifice his life to the enemy; he then became an object of contempt and derision. A Reckless Dog, named Jackrabbit Child, once looked at his foot, exclaiming, "I wonder if I am a brave man! " and shot through it with a Hudson's Bay horsepistol. Later, when it came to the test, he hung back and began to weep as if he had lost his reason, and a companion, Hillside, reproved him harshly, reminding him that he had promised to die among the enemy. "Go now and die! " he said, giving the man a shove; whereon the Reckless Dog ran toward the enemy, disappeared among them, and was soon killed. A young man wishing to join a society would go to the one he had decided upon at the time its members were holding a meeting, and say that he desired to become one of them. "Do you intend to stay with us? " they would ask, and he would answer, " Because I like this society I have made up my mind to join." There was no formal initiation, and the members signified their willingness to accept the applicant by clothing him from head to foot in garments taken from their own bodies. No lodge was set aside exclusively for their use; their meetings were held in the homes of different members, the tipi-cover being rolled up at the bottom, so that those who could not find room inside might sit around in the open. At times, for special meetings, two or three lodges were placed together. {view image of facing page 14} Fog in the morning - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 15} THE APSAROKE 15 During the spring and summer, when the tribe camped together, there were frequent, even daily, meetings of the societies, one member inviting the others, all of whom were expected to come and partake of his hospitality and join in the songs of the society. Wild, inspiriting dances were, held at intervals of a few days. Lumpwood and Fox had each four staffs, two straight and two bent at the end. Each spring new ones were made and given out to brave members whose duty it then became to make a lone stand against the enemy, and die if necessary in checking them. When the first snow came and the season of active warfare had passed, those of the staff-bearers that remained alive removed the wrappings to preserve them as trophies, or hung the old staffs up in their lodges. In the spring when the sap began to run, so that the willows could be peeled, the new insignia were made. Four long rods were procured, and the ends of two were bent over like a crook and lashed with willow bark, which hung down in ribbons. These were merely the symbols of the staffs that were to be made. All the members were gathered at one lodge. Some war-leader filled the pipe and then from the seated warriors selected one to whom he offered it. In a great many cases the pipe was not accepted, the man selected holding his head down and refusing to see it. Sometimes the man to whom it was offered would indicate his acceptance by rising, giving the war-cry, and smoking. The war-leader thus went about until he had found four men willing to bear the staff, and to the first two gave the crooked sticks and to the next two the straight ones. "You all know your duty," spoke the war-leader. "When the enemy charges upon us, you are to leap from your horses, thrust these staffs into the ground, fight between them and the enemy, and die there before you retreat. If the staff is taken from its place by some other member of this band, only then may you retreat to save your life." One man with a crooked stick and another with a straight one marched together at the head and the other two in the rear of the procession of members, who now issued from the lodge two by two and paraded through the village, singing the songs of their organization. The procession divided into four bands, one following each staffbearer. One who had previously borne a staff and counted grand coup with it was appointed to make each new standard, and, followed by one of the new bearers and his party, he entered the lodge of some member. A small lodge-pole was shaved to the proper size, and for the bent staff a piece of freshly cut red birch was bent and spliced to the end of the straight shaft. It was then wound with narrow strips of {view image of page 16} It THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN deerskin and an outer covering of like strips of otter-skin, with tails hanging down; the straight staff bore a tuft of eagle-feathers at its top. The making of the Lumpwood staffs was accompanied by constant singing of the following air: Allegro moderato.,i# f > > >A ~t)r He. i-.- -.=t -I -f, ' -- ------ -___ —__- -- _ -_ - > > > > >-.. ', L I _I' - When completed the staff was thrust through the tipi-cover where it was pinned together, and the war-leader who had counted grand coup with a staff began to dance and sing, holding it with the end projecting between the edges of the covering. Then he spoke: "It was this society that gave me the staff. In a great battle I took it and counted a grand coup on the enemy, having this stick in my hand. It was clear and good. He That Sees All Things looked down and saw me, saw that it was good. May this young man do the same. When a great battle takes place may arrows and bullets pass by him and do no harm." The war-leader then presented the staff and a robe to the new {view image of page 17} THE APSAROKE I7 bearer, who danced, while all the members gave the war-cry and sang. It was not considered a disgrace to refuse the pipe and staff, for this was a thing not to be lightly entered upon, and if a man felt that he was not yet ready to die he might without detriment to his reputation decline the post. Mad Wolf Bear was once offered the crooked staff, but refused it. Later in the battle in which Hunts To Die was shot he saw a Sioux carrying a crooked staff like the one the Apsaroke used. He rode alongside, struck him with a quirt, and took it away; as the Sioux all retreated at a gallop, one of their number fell behind. Mad Wolf Bear overtook him and struck him with the captured staff, and thereafter he was permitted to make the crooked staff and present it to the new bearer, although he had never really accepted the pipe. The Big Dogs and the Muddy Hands were organized in much the same way, but instead of staffs they gave out four rawhide ropes, which were tied around the bodies of the four men who accepted them, over one shoulder and under the other, trailing far behind on the ground. When the members came out of the lodge after giving out the ropes, they marched round the camp two by two, and the friends and relatives of the four chosen warriors hastened to procure deerskin or flannel with which to make two long flowing bands, such as the Reckless Dogs wore. While the bearers of staffs and ropes were bound to dismount in battle to check the enemy and fight between their ensign and the foe, they were free to retreat after some fellow member had dashed up and taken it away. Sixteen men in the tribe were appointed each spring to this position. Although it was a dangerous post, it did not necessarily mean death to the incumbents; ordinarily only a few were killed in the course of a season's fighting, for the rule permitting a brother member to come to a standard-bearer's aid often saved them. Hunts To Die says, "If the Lakota had pressed hard upon us they would have killed more of them," but when the staff-bearer leaped from his horse, turned it loose, and planted his staff on the spot, the enemy was checked, for a man determined to die fighting in a chosen spot is not an agreeable foe to meet. He did not stand there a motionless target; like all Indians fighting on foot, while rapidly discharging arrows or bullets he constantly leaped about, each movement changing his position and direction, which rendered him a difficult mark. The Lumpwoods and the Foxes constantly endeavored to excel each other in deeds of bravery. When one of these societies had a VOL. IV-2 {view image of page 18} i8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN member whose actions in battle could not be equalled by any member of the other it became for the time the dominant organization of the tribe. The Lumpwoods, owing to the valor of their great warrior, Bull, held this position of influence for many years. They proclaimed their many victories by parading through the camp, singing in honor of their renowned leader, and throughout the village men, women, and children joined in songs of praise. Bull, astride a proud, highstepping black horse with a string of jack-rabbit feet about its neck, rode at the head of the procession. His short deerskin shirt, fringed at the bottom and the sleeves, was painted blue, and eagle downfeathers fluttered from the back. His hair was brought together above the forehead, and one long eagle tail-feather with two jack-rabbit ears attached to the quill stood upright in the knot. As the cavalcade approached the lodge where the Foxes were assembled, the members of this band ran inside, for they became ashamed in the presence of Bull. Old men and the chiefs who had once been members of those societies saw the embarrassment of the Fox men, and cried aloud: "Foxes, behold the champion of the Lumpwoods! He is running over you! He will wipe your society out of existence! Wake up, Pretty Eagle, Tattooed Face, Goes To War, Plenty Coups, Crazy Pend d'Oreille!" But all were silent, for even to attempt to surpass Bull's valorous deeds seemed to mean death at the hands of the enemy. Only Crazy Pend d'Oreille remained outside, and he hid his face as the bold leader approached. Bull looked down upon him and said, "I did not know there was a poor creature under my horse's feet; it would be a pity to step on such a wretch!" Pend d'Oreille remembered the vision of his last fasting, and with bravery in his heart he went inside the lodge, declaring in the name of the Fox society, "In the next great battle Bull shall not strike the enemy before me! Brothers, take the songs away from the Lumpwoods! Tell the herald to give my word to the village!" 1 The herald rode about crying in a loud voice the words of Crazy Pend d'Oreille. The village was in an uproar; everyone was saying, "Crazy Pend d'Oreille is going into the midst of the enemy in the next fight, and he has taken the songs of Bull!" They were 1 To declare that he would take the songs from the rival society was a declaration of defiance against its members, demanding that in the next battle they do greater deeds than the challenger, or else take second place; but should the challenger fail to redeem his vow, his society would be overwhelmingly humiliated. {view image of facing page 18} An Apsaroke lodge [photogravure plate] {view image of page 19} THE APSAROKE I9 astonished to hear this, as Bull's reckless bravery was so renowned that it seemed no warrior could excel him. Crazy Pend d'Oreille's vow caused the Foxes to cheer themselves hoarse in anticipation of their triumph over the Lumpwoods. After the parade the Lumpwoods withdrew into the lodge of one of their members to consider what they should do. Bull said, "Be brave, men, I am still alive and among you." He raised his right hand to the sun, saying, "Oh, Man, bring forth the warriors of the Lakota to prove whether Crazy Pend d'Oreille is the Apsaroke or if I am the man of this nation!" In a few days the entire Apsaroke village moved from the Yellowstone to Pryor creek, and following it up a few miles came face to face with the advance of a force of Cheyenne and Arapaho under Mountain-sheep and Two Moons. The invaders concealed themselves in the thick woods, four miles south of where Coburn, Montana, now is, and sent half of their command forward to meet the Apsaroke in an effort to hide their real strength, which was not far from a thousand warriors. The Apsaroke women hurriedly unpacked their horses, formed a circular encampment with the tipis turned inside out, as was the custom when the enemy appeared in force. Inside the circle the women and children dug trenches, and the horses were hobbled and thrown on their sides out of the way of stray bullets and arrows. The warriors advanced to meet the enemy. A Cheyenne rode out alone in front of the line, gayly dressed in war-bonnet, deerskin shirt, and beaded leggings. Forty or fifty yards from his own line his horse was shot under him. When Pend d'Oreille, who had been closely watching Bull, saw the Cheyenne horse fall, he dashed forward at full speed and struck the enemy in sight of all, then whipped his horse headlong into the line of the Cheyenne and Arapaho. As he passed into the thick of their ranks, a Cheyenne on a powerful horse rode directly toward him. The animals crashed together, reared high into the air, and Pend d'Oreille was hurled to the ground, where he was completely surrounded by the enemy, striking at him with spears and shooting at him at close range. Leaping to his feet he dashed in and out among their plunging horses. A hundred and twenty yards he ran, fighting alone in the midst of the enemy, and when the Apsaroke charged and forced them back, one Cheyenne continued to pursue Pend d'Oreille alone and shot him through the hand as he stumbled and fell over a clump of sage-brush. This Cheyenne was shot and killed by Hillside, a {view image of page 20} 20 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN cousin of Pend d'Oreille, who with two others rescued his relative. The Cheyenne and his horse fell in a heap, and their bones remain there to this day, while a line of stones still marks the course of Crazy Pend d'Oreille's retreat. A few minutes after Pend d'Oreille charged the enemy's line, Bull, the leader of the Lumpwoods, mounted on his black horse, dashed in among the foe, but came out with a bullet wound through his body and died in a few moments. The Cheyenne and Arapaho were driven from the field, leaving their dead behind, and the songs of Bull have ever since remained the property of the Fox society. Arts The handicraft of the Apsaroke was naturally seen at its best in clothing and articles of adornment. They were a proud people, rich in the things dear to wild tribes of the highlands, and the women lavished their best thoughts and labor on garments to beautify themselves in the eyes of the men, and still more on the clothing of their husbands in the desire that none should be more splendidly clad. The nature of their life gave the Apsaroke a great deal of comparative leisure, and they delighted in fashioning fine garments from skins and in embroidering them in striking colors with porcupine-quills and beads. Nor were they satisfied with adorning themselves alone: their saddle-horses also were bedecked in gorgeous trappings. The saddles used by the women were made with a very high horn front and back, ornamented with beads or quills, and from each was suspended a large embroidered pendant. The stirrups, of bent willow, were covered with beaded skin. Just behind the saddle hung large decorated saddle-bags, so long that their fringes almost swept the ground, and an embroidered breast-piece was suspended from the horse's neck. The bridle was covered with beadwork, and a broad decorated piece extended from foretop halfway to the nose. An elaborate crupper was fastened to the saddle, and horses ridden by women were further equipped with a pair of finely made pouches, one on each side at the rear of the saddle. Shields were made by men skilled in their fashioning. A piece of thick hide taken from the neck of an old buffalo bull was thoroughly dried in a slightly concave form, and cut in circular shape. It was then tested by shooting arrows at it, and if it was proof against them it was painted according to the desire of the owner, the design {view image of facing page 20} Apsaroke horse trappings [photogravure plate] {view image of page 21} THE APSAROKE 21 generally symbolizing some vision seen by him. Often the rawhide body was covered with deerskin and the design painted on this, and the whole enclosed in another casing of deerskin drawn together with a string at the back. Shields not in use were zealously cared for by the women, and were the very pride of their lives. Many of the shields became great medicine and passed from generation to generation. Bows were made of elk-horn and sheep-horn and from cedar. The horn was boiled, straightened, worked into shape, and spliced to obtain the necessary length of about three and a half feet. Threads of sinew from the neck and shoulder of the buffalo were stretched on a flat piece of wood the width of the bow, and when this band was dry it was carefully taken from its temporary support and placed in the ground in order to moisten it and give it pliancy. This backing was then carefully fastened on the bow with strong glue, made by boiling the neck-skin of the elk, membrane from beaver-tails, tips of elk-horns, and hide scrapings. Arrow-points were chipped from flint or carved from bone or horn. Lance-shafts were made of red birch, a little longer than the height of a man, and often were tipped with a prong of elk-horn. As with other hunting tribes, domestic utensils were extremely simple. Kettles made of rawhide from the flank of the buffalo formed the usual cooking pots, the water being boiled by dropping in heated stones. This method was discovered by those "who had big hearts and were always looking for thoughts." Pots that held a couple of gallons were made of gray soapstone. A buffalo-paunch was used for carrying water, while the pericardium served as a smaller waterbag. Box-elder gnarls were fashioned into bowls, and horns of the mountain-sheep and buffalo into smaller dishes, cups, and spoons. Pottery cooking utensils were made to a limited extent, but they were too easily broken in travelling to be of great service. In the old times at permanent camps tipi-shaped structures of logs and brush were set up for the women to cook in, and close by were pitched the dwelling tipis of skin. Before the acquisition of horses a lodge was made of eight to ten buffalo-skins, sometimes as few as five, and the slender poles were of the lightest kind of fir, as they had to be carried on the backs of the men and women.1 In later times, as many as sixteen of the largest skins were required, while one who had seen a lodge in a vision made his dwelling of twenty hides; but to use more than eighteen would offend the spirits, unless 1 The Apsaroke never used the travois, either with dogs or with horses. {view image of page 22} 22 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN one had received such a vision or bought the right from the man who had seen it. The inner lining, which fitted closely to the ground, was the height of a tall man. Every year they put up new lodges, using the old covers for inner curtains, for leggings, moccasins, and other clothing. A large square of old tipi-covering was frequently used by a warrior as a saddle, as a shield from rain and wind, and, with a sort of drawstring around the edge, as a large bag in which food and clothing could be placed and kept dry when rivers were crossed. Both the men and the women of the Apsaroke were better dressed than other tribes of the Northwest, for their mountain home-land furnished an abundance of the skins of bighorn sheep, deer, elk, and panther, in addition to the seemingly inexhaustible supply of buffalo-hides. The dresses of the women were made usually of mountain-sheep skins; they were fringed on both sides and at the bottom, and were ornamented both front and back with a yoke of fringe. Down the sleeves and around the neck they were embroidered with porcupinequills or beads, and from top to bottom dotted thickly with elkteeth, while many others were fastened in the bottom fringe as bangles. The number of tusks on a dress depended, in a measure, on the wealth and standing of the family, an exceptionally fine garment requiring more than a thousand such ornaments. At the climax of the life of the Apsaroke a good horse purchased a hundred, and no self-respecting man presumed to marry unless he and his family could furnish the elk-teeth necessary to adorn a wife's dress. Over the dress was worn a small, fine-haired buffalo-robe, welltanned, and ornamented from the head to the tail with a broad stripe of quills or beads. At intervals along this band were circles of embroidery, and on each side other designs were placed. The leggings were usually of deerskin or mountain-sheep skin, made to fit snugly, extending from the ankle to above the knee, and on each, directly above the heel, was embroidered a large four-pointed star. Moccasins also were close-fitting, without stiff rawhide soles. The women devoted a great deal of thought to dress and personal appearance, that the eyes of the men might be pleased. The hair was worn parted in the middle from front to back, hanging loosely over each shoulder, and tied at the end with a thong and an ornament, but not braided. Later, when they saw the Nez Perce women with their neatly braided hair, they adopted that custom. They used a porcupine-tail for a hairbrush and gave their locks great care, {view image of facing page 22} Apsaroke woman [photogravure plate] {view image of page 23} THE APSAROKE 23 dressing them daily with a perfume of sweet-scented herbs and musk of the beaver. The men wore deerskin shirts at all times when they were not about their own tipis. When the warrior had gained honors, they were indicated on the shirt that he wore on special occasions, each weasel-tail, scalp, lock of hair, or feather indicating some deed of bravery. The leggings were made usually of antelope-skin, with broad fringed flaps at the sides. Buffalo-robes from two- or threeyear-old cows were worn with the hair inside, the head coming over the left shoulder, and a band of beadwork crossed the skin from side to side. Bear-claw necklaces were a favorite decoration, and strings of discs cut from the scapula of the buffalo and polished were often worn about the neck. In the old time they used no loin-cloth; indeed, as late as seventy-five years ago some of the old men had not yet adopted that article of dress. One feature of the hairdressing was different from the custom of any neighboring tribe - that of wearing the hair in many long strands, similarly to the practice of the tribes in southwestern Arizona. The Apsaroke, moreover, greatly increased its natural length by working in other hair, so that sometimes the strands were so long as almost to touch the ground. Some of the men continued this fashion to within the last thirty years. On ceremonial occasions many of the young men imitated this manner of hairdressing by having many long locks fastened to a band worn at the back of the head. Both the real hair and the introduced strands were decorated from end to end with spots of red pigment. Social Customs - Daily Life As descent is traced through the mother, her relatives are regarded with a feeling of the deepest respect. Particularly is this the case with a mother's sisters, who are addressed as "mother," and to whom is manifested the same respect and sanctity one has for the natural mother. To them, when a warrior returned from a successful raid, he gave some of his newly acquired horses. It was a wellrecognized custom that a woman without offspring should adopt a sister's child, who thenceforth called her husband " father," and its real father "brother." All other clanswomen are addressed as elder or younger sisters, and it is their duty to bring gifts of moccasins, dresses, parfleches, {view image of page 24} THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN 24 and other products of their handiwork to the newly taken wife of a clansman. Their husbands are one's brothers-in-law, hence one's closest friends. All clansmen are elder or younger brothers. The returning hunter divided his meat with the poor of his clan. When on the march rivers were to be crossed, the owner of strong horses assisted his less fortunate clansmen; and when spring movements began and horses were thin and weak, he led one of his sturdier animals to a clansman's wife. If a man's horses were swept away in a night by the raid of an enemy, his clansmen recouped his loss to the best of their ability. All clan relatives brought presents for the members of an order or society into which one was being initiated; not to do so was a disgrace, not only to the initiate but to all the clan. No one, not even the most disreputable-looking child in the camp, was denied a hearty welcome in the lodge of a clansman. The brothers of one's father are addressed as "father," but the other clansmen of the father are assakke. They were the ones that danced and sang before the lodge of a warrior returned from a successful foray, that sang his praises, leading him and his horse through the camp. To them a young man looked for aid in becoming great, since they prayed for him and lauded him in song on every public occasion, so that his name became familiar to his tribespeople. If an assakke stumbles and falls before one, it is necessary to say, "Stop! Do not rise," and then to make him a gift before he rises. It is from acts of theirs that one may take a ludicrous or peculiar name, and to them are given the presents bestowed by a warrior after recounting his exploits on the field of battle. All this applies equally to isbahiye, the clanswomen of the father (a sister of the father one addresses directly, "mother"), whose particular privilege it is to bring presents of food, but not of clothing, to one's newly wedded wife. To a given person and all the children of his father's clan-brothers is applied the term batsiwatkusuia, "those who talk against each other without fear." Between batsiwatkuszua light banter, ridicule, and sharp, unsparing criticism are permitted and expected, and it was they who made a man take oath that he spoke only the truth when he claimed a disputed honor, thrusting an arrow through a piece of meat, placing it upon a red-painted buffalo-skull, and then raising it toward the sun, bidding him, if his words were true, touch the meat to his mouth. There are six phratries, each comprising two clans, some of which are subdivided. Marriage within the clan was and still is prohibited, {view image of facing page 24} Apsaroke mother [photogravure plate] {view image of page 25} THE APSAROKE 25 but the former ban against taking a wife from the sister-clan is not now strictly regarded. The members of each clan camped together. When a woman married, she usually joined the camp group of her husband, although sometimes a woman of unusual force was able to compel him to pitch his tipi among her people. In the former case, as soon as her male offspring married, they placed their lodges among those of their clansmen. On the fourth day after the birth of a child a man of prominence, or in some instances a woman, was called in to bestow a name, which, as a rule, was one that he had heard called among the spirit-people in one of his visions, or perhaps one referring to some great deed of his own. Incense was made, and the child raised four times in the cloud of smoke to symbolize the wish that it might grow tall and vigorous. The godfather would say: "On a mountain-top I fasted, and saw a vision, and heard this name, which now I give to this child. Call him thus." The parents responded: " When this child touches the bottom of his foot firmly to the ground, I shall give you a horse," and at the same time they bestowed upon him a gift for the naming. Then a warrior spoke: "In a battle which you all know I counted a grand coup, and it was good. I took a gun from the enemy; that deed also was good. As these are good, may this child grow to be strong and brave; may it plant its feet on the ground firmly." To him also a present was promised when the child should walk. When manhood was attained and some honorable deed accomplished, he was taken before the people in a public assembly by a clansman of his father, and given the name of some deceased clan relative; or he might there offer gifts to a living man, and ask for his name. If the owner did not care to part with it, he could refuse the gifts, but if he accepted them he was compelled to find for himself a new name. Girls did not change their names unless they failed to grow up strong. In such cases they were taken to another godfather and given new names, that they might be under the care of more beneficent spirits. A man's name might be changed more than once. From ridiculous acts of the father's clan-relatives names were frequently applied, in the belief that these would excite the merriment of the spirits and be spoken of among them, thus causing the bearers to become great. In this way the chief Red Bear was named, because his father's brother, {view image of page 26} 26 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN though not a great warrior, always wore a bear-hide robe painted red. Once when the younger man had returned from a successful foray, this weak-hearted man with the red robe led his nephew's horse through the camp singing the warrior's praises, so that the people noticed it, and the crier called, "This is Red Bear. He has taken the name from his assakke.l His name shall be Red Bear; his home shall be the home of the poor. Always when he goes on the hunt, whatever he kills - buffalo, elk, or antelope -shall be the food of all poor people who come to his lodge!" Red Bear himself had nothing to do with the choosing of this name. If a child misbehaved by running too much about the lodge, going thoughtlessly into the sacred place and making a noise in the presence of visitors, the mother did not beat it, but dashed cold water over its head, and if that had not the desired effect it was repeated. Then the child usually "had good ears," and sat down quietly. When a boy was just old enough to walk, the father sometimes caught a young snowbird, and told the child in the presence of his clansmen to strike it with his stick. If the little fellow struck a sharp blow, killing the bird, it was regarded as a sign that he would become a great hunter and warrior, and the father gave his clansmen presents so that they would speak praises of the child and make prayer and prophecy that it would have long life. At a very early age the boy was put into a small saddle, but not tied, and being young and foolish he would whip the horse to make him run, which of course resulted in his being thrown. At twelve years he could ride spirited horses like a man. In summer the father took him into deep water, and standing a short distance away told him to swim to him; the child paddled manfully, but usually sank before reaching his father. This practice, however, soon made the boy an accomplished swimmer, who could cross broad rivers back and forth without resting. At about the age of seven the youngster was given a small bow and taught how to hold and shoot blunt arrows at a thick braid of grass, which gradually was moved farther away. As he became skilful he was told to go out and try to kill little birds. When he could kill rabbits, points were fixed to his arrow-shafts, and he was taken out to learn how to kill buffalo. His father filled a small quiver with arrows for him, mounted him on a swift but safe horse, and when the chase began directed him to a calf, into which, if the first arrow failed to bring it down, the boy sent shaft after shaft. Then the father in his 1 See page 24. {view image of facing page 26} A young horsewoman [photogravure plate] {view image of page 27} THE APSAROKE 27 pride gave the horse to one of his clansmen. After he had shot a few calves without assistance, the eager young hunter was allowed to chase full-grown buffalo. At fourteen or fifteen he was urged to go into the hills and fast while he was yet continent, that the spirits might come to him and give him of their strength, since now he must join the men on their hunts and in their war-raids. When the youth was first sent out with a war-party, the father asked a relative to watch over him, and if the party returned victorious, the clansmen of the father gathered about his lodge in a great semicircle, dancing and singing praises of the youth; and the father gave them all presents, until at times he had no property left. Boys of twelve to fifteen organized societies in imitation of those of the men, making a drum and four staffs decorated with eagle backfeathers, which were given to the four recognized leaders of the band. Their enemies were the coyotes and wolves, and when the tribe was on the move, their mounted band would scour the prairies in search of these animals. If one succeeded in striking an "enemy," it was counted a coup, and at evening when the fires were being lighted in the camp, they would come charging in just like a returning war-party. The early age at which boys became imbued with the war spirit is illustrated by an incident that occurred when Hunts To Die and Old Crow were children of ten years. A war-party under Chief In The Water set out secretly against the Blackfeet, but they happened to be seen by some boys, who were whipping tops on the ice, and a few determined to follow the warriors until nightfall and then make known their presence, when it would be too late to send them home. With tops and whips in their hands they hurried along; but soon they were discovered, and Chief In The Water endeavored to persuade them to turn back, as they were unprepared for a long journey, and a swift, vigorous campaign was expected. The men resumed their march, but the boys still followed, until in exasperation the warriors threatened violence. Waiting until the party had rounded a hill, the boys took up the trail again, and this time when they were detected, several of the men fired over their heads. Thoroughly frightened, the children fled, and a few of the warriors pursued them, to make certain that the retreat this time should be in earnest. One of the boys, Old Crow, paused long enough to tear up a bunch of sage, which is used in making offerings to the sun, and, holding it aloft, sang the sacred offering song: {view image of page 28} 28 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Andante. > > f > > > > >> > > > > f-. ~,, 1 iZL~ a..11-, I t M M 1 ~.- - e- - ~ — - T ---- --- -— 1 - -— 4 ---' Then he cried, "Sun, here are the bodies of these men, whom you see; I give them to you!" Every warrior in the party heard the high-pitched voice, and all were filled with anger and foreboding. The engagement in which their expedition culminated resulted disastrously, the chief and several of his men being killed; and when the warriors returned, their first act was to drive out of camp the offending boys whose folly had caused the misfortune. The clansmen of Old Crow and his companions were compelled to pay a heavy indemnity to the relatives of the slain warriors. Sometimes when the boys were assembled at night, one would propose that they go to the lodge of one of their number; " for," they reasoned, " his mother loves him, and when we dance and sing his praises she will give us pemmican." The mother often invited them inside to dance, and gave them food. Thus they went from lodge to lodge in an evening. In summer when the weather was hot and the camp was filled with drying meat, the boys would leave their clothing at the river-side and smear themselves from head to foot with blue clay. Then with sticks they would charge upon the camp, each one singing the song of some noted warrior, sometimes even his sacred medicine-song. They ran through the camp snatching meat wherever they could, and as they numbered from twenty to forty they took away a good supply for the feast. The women ran out and threw old scraps of meat and rubbish at them, and gave chase for a time; but there was no anger, as the custom was a recognized one. Returning to the woods where one of their number had been left to build a fire, they roasted their meat, piled it on cottonwood leaves, and sat around it in a circle. One of their number was called forth to sit in front as the greatest man among them. Young girls had miniature lodges about four feet high, made of buffalo calf-skins, and arranged inside with beds and utensils as in the living lodges. There they played a great deal, pretending to be grownup women with husbands, much as white children do. On short {view image of facing page 28} Playmates - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 29} THE APSAROKE 29 marches they dragged the small poles for their tipis, and at the end of the day pitched them as did their mothers. The young girl was in the care of her grandmother, who would speak to her in this fashion: "Look at your brothers; they are poor. Try to live so that some one will love you and buy you. When women are taken from their husbands by other men it is not good." Training in household duties began at an early age, and by the time the girl was fourteen she could tan skins and was beginning to make clothing. At that age mothers kept a watchful eye over their daughters, and began to accompany them whenever they went on errands such as fetching water, carrying wood, or going to the meadows to gather hay for the horses. In winter the girls coasted down the snow-clad hills on sleds of buffalo-ribs covered with rawhide; and the boys, having none, would leap on behind the girls and ride down with them. When the ice was smooth, it was crowded with children and youths using buffalo-skulls for sleighs. The skull was drawn on its face by a rope tied through the nose; at the back a stick was fastened through the orifice of the spine, and grasping this, perched on a folded robe, the girls were drawn swiftly over the ice by the boys and young men. Tiring of this, they formed in large circles, boys and girls, each with the arms about the shoulders of the one in front, and so danced around in a circle, swaying from side to side. The participants were mostly unmarried persons, but sometimes a young married woman would slip out and join in the dance. A favorite winter game, called batAhAhdekyuui, "send to each other," was played by the young women and girls, from five to ten sitting in a row behind a log on the smooth ice, and an equal number in a similar position some twenty yards away. In front of each, halfimbedded in the ice, was a small black pebble, called her "body." A player slid a disc-like stone, four or five inches in diameter, toward the "bodies" at the other end of the course, and if it knocked one of them from its hole, all the opposing players sent whatever objects they had wagered - wristlet, ring, or other ornament - at the "bodies" of their opponents. Failing to touch any one of the pebbles, their wagers were forfeit; but if they struck even one, the trinkets at stake came gliding back. If this time all missed, the game was thus far a draw; but if a "body" were touched, their opponents had another opportunity to slide the flat stone. If this time they dislodged a "body" they won the wagers; otherwise the game was a draw and began anew with the other side using the stone. {view image of page 30} 30 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN In this contest young men sometimes opposed the girls, gallantly losing steadily, in hope of thus gaining the favor of their dark-eyed opponents. When a young man fell in love with a girl, he concealed his identity by wrapping himself in a robe that covered all but his eyes, and, stationing himself at night close to her tipi, watched to see if she had other admirers. If he found she had, and observed anything that caused him to think another was favored, his "heart was dead in his breast," and he thought of her no more. At other times the youth would sit close to the girl's lodge and pipe plaintively on his flute. After a period of watching, serenading, and gazing into the maiden's eyes when he chanced to meet her to see if her heart went out to him, he sent a friend or a near relative to her brothers and the brothers of her mother to intercede for him, or if his heart was very brave he might go in person and ask for the girl. If the family respected the young man, they would say, "We will consider it," meaning that they were willing to be convinced of his honorable intentions and worthiness. The suitor's relatives then went on a hunt and brought loads of meat to the tipis of the girl's parents and of her relatives. Its acceptance indicated their consent to the courtship, and the people throughout the camp said to one another, "See, she is going to be married." After that the young man frequently brought game for his sweetheart's relatives. When on the march a stream was to be forded, the young man saddled his best horse for his sweetheart, and he assisted her parents in taking their lodge-poles across. Then, after he had shown such attentions for some time, he placed himself in the evening near her lodge, and when she came out he approached her, asking, "Is your heart mine? I have come to take you." With her consent he at once took her to his parents' lodge. The next morning an elk-tooth dress, a belt, beaded moccasins, leggings, everything that a married woman needed, were brought to her by her new relatives, with parfleches, saddle-blankets, and all things required by the newly married couple, so that the bride would not be ashamed when the camp moved. The space next to the place of honor in the lodge was prepared for their occupancy; usually a new inside lodge-covering was hung there, and fine whole buffalo-robes were draped over the willow woven head-rest of the bed, which was heaped high with skins. Brothers of the young wife brought many gifts to the husband. When the camp moved, the young man's clansmen rode in a party on finely caparisoned horses, the husband in the middle, and just {view image of page 31} THE APSAROKE 31 behind them the new wife, clothed in deerskin dress liberally embroidered with porcupine-quills and covered with elk-teeth. Back of the saddle was a large deerskin saddle-bag, with its ample fringe almost sweeping the ground. In the saddle were piled many blankets, and over these was a mountain-lion skin, while tied at the back were the husband's medicine-bundle at one side and his bag of paint and trinkets at the other. At her side she carried his shield, and, fastened so as to stand aloft, his spear, and perhaps the staff of his society. This picturesque mode of travelling was apt to be continued for some time, so that often a whole group of these gorgeously bedecked bridal horses followed the clan. Sometimes a young man, knowing himself to be unworthy of a girl and yet in love with her, would send a companion, a persuasive speaker, with a present of two or three horses for the parents. After considering, they would as a rule return the horses, saying to the messenger, "Tell your friend he is lazy; he acts foolishly; he could not keep a wife, and would probably strike her if he did have one." The suitor would then send back word, "I will be a man; I will be industrious; I will act foolishly no longer." They might then reconsider him, accept the horses, and give their daughter; and usually she had no choice but to accede. Elopement to the lodge of the young man's parents was of common occurrence, and a man often stole the wife of another. In the latter event it was the privilege of the deserted husband's clansmen to come in a body and take everything of value from the lodge of the wifestealer. Sometimes they even harmed his horses. The property taken was not given to the husband to console him for his loss, but was kept by those who secured it. This custom is a deep-rooted one, for not long ago when the head-chief, Pretty Eagle, took the wife of another man, the whole clan swept down upon his lodge and left absolutely nothing. Often a man married his wife's younger sisters, sometimes even taking them into his lodge when they were only children; or, as they grew to maturity, he might buy them. If he were a good son-in-law, the parents sometimes took the girls to him and begged him to make them his wives. A good example of the peculiar marital arrangements of the Apsaroke is afforded by the following narration by Hunts To Die: "At the season when the grass begins to turn green, the Lumpwoods and Foxes felt very strong: the blood ran fast in their veins. {view image of page 32} 32 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN This was the time when the new staffs were made, and after they were completed and distributed, everyone went into the open, where each society sang its wild songs, challenging the others. Still singing, they marched around the village to the lodge of some member. There one who had been slyly looking into the eyes of a wife of a member of the rival society was sent to get her. With a companion he went to her lodge, usually waiting until they saw her husband going there, for they preferred to take her away before his eyes. The two entered, and said, 'We have come for you.' If the husband were there and his heart were strong, he would say, 'Well, they want you - go!' If he loved her much and his heart was weak, he would be silent, leaving her to make her own decision; but he never tried to prevent her going. If the husband was not there, then the two would endeavor to persuade her to go with them. Sometimes if a man was in love with the wife of a rival, but knew that she would not heed his wiles, he said to his fellow-members, 'I want you to go with me to get a woman.' They would then go and take her by actual force, the woman herself with the female relatives of her household resisting with their knives and awls, and at times inflicting considerable injury. But the members of the other society, even the husband, could do nothing to prevent her from being taken, without being disgraced. If a woman listened to the pleading of her lover and came out with him and his friend, a strong-voiced man who had followed them a part of the way cried out so that every one could hear, 'The wife of a Lumpwood has come of her own free will, and is now here!' Then a triumphant song was raised by the Foxes: Allegro. DRUM. {l _______-. -- I - 1 ^ c..,-tl ~ t-C ^ lid * ii I- tM~ t- '-',,;> > > > _ Sf:C.... 9, X _... {view image of facing page 32} Bird On The Ground - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 33} THE APSAROKE 33 — Z ----z-AJ a - -', --— * ^ — t | -= r.* e > > > Cw t7 -tO 7- -4- - -,-tI. W -1 —4 -4pi A\ t" u' -t~:9 —'- ttAi it - 4 n 4t A~~N >, - tJ p -fga+ t I > v - -^ 1. >> - VOL. IV- 3 {view image of page 34} 34 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN <& ~~~~~ —^3 ^^-g~= g= 1 -0 ---- "When the woman was brought before the assembled members, relatives of the man hastened through the camp buying elkteeth for her dress, new clothing of every kind, and all the finery a new wife should have. After she had been reclothed, her new husband, if he had gained war-honors, painted her face with horizontal red stripes, and if he were not a man of valorous deeds, some member who had performed such painted her. Then a member who in battle had rescued a man by taking him on his horse, raised the woman behind him on a horse that had been captured while tethered in the enemy's camp. If any one else should take her behind him, the members of the other society had the right to seize him by the hair and throw him from his horse. The man whose wife was taken could exhibit no anger, even though his heart was very sick. "If his heart was weak for her, he might come at night and try to take her back, but if he was caught, all manner of indignities were inflicted upon him, and he was compelled to submit. Then his rivals had the right to take the victory robes from the members of his society, who could make no resistance, for they were disgraced. Sometimes the robes were publicly cut into shreds; in such case the dishonored men stood with bowed heads, and said, ' Our friend had a weak heart; he has disgraced us, and we cannot help it.' "As soon as one woman had been brought, others who had sweethearts among the wives of the rival society were sent out to bring them in if they could, and all this time the members of the other organization were doing their best to take the wives of these men. It was an occasion of great rivalry as to which should capture the greater number of wives, and the contest continued for six days after the making of the staffs." {view image of facing page 34} Does Everything - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 35} THE APSAROKE 35 It was an old custom for some one in a war-party on the first night out to say, after all had eaten: "Now, let each one tell who his sweetheart is and show what she gave him to remember her by." As this was a most solemn occasion, every word being regarded as an oath, nothing but the truth could be told, and no one dared to hold back anything. So one by one they stood up and named the women they loved, and showed what had been given them. It was not uncommon for a man to mention the name of the wife of one of his fellow-warriors and exhibit her gift, and while that might prove a blow to the husband it seldom caused ill feeling between the two, for it was not considered a manly thing to show perturbation over the loss of a woman's affection. When they returned, if both were alive, the husband would say to his wife, "You love that man; go to him!" and he would immediately put her property outside of the lodge; or if she were his only wife, he might take his weapons and clothing and leave her in possession of the lodge. The common prohibition against addressing or looking directly at one's mother-in-law was extended by the Apsaroke to the fatherin-law, but in his case the restriction could be waived by mutual agreement following a liberal bestowal of presents upon him. The early method of disposing of the dead was to place the body in a niche or a cave among the rocks. In the case of men who were to be especially honored, this was practised until recent times; but scaffold burial began to be the ordinary form during the chieftainship of Red Feather At The Temple. It was said that the dead were going away on a visit; consequently before or immediately after death the body was prepared and dressed in the best clothing of the deceased, that of a warrior being arrayed and painted as for war. Thus clothed it was wrapped securely in skins and lashed with rawhide ropes, the knees being bent and drawn up toward the body, which was laid partially on its side in a rude coffin made by hollowing out a dry cottonwood log. Mourning for the dead was carried to a most unusual degree of frenzied devotion. If a man lost his life in battle, his relatives gave away practically all their possessions, and continued crying for vengeance until the death was avenged or they had received a vision relieving them from further manifestations of grief. Ends of fingers were severed, strips of flesh cut from the arms, the body was slashed with spear-points, the scalp punctured in many places with knives or arrow-points, and the blood that flowed down over the face and body was not washed off during the continuance of their lamenta {view image of page 36} 36 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN tion. The women mourners went alone to the hills, to live, almost like animals, in rude shelters of brush or even quite without protection from the elements. Little food was taken to them. When Wild Cat and Running Coyote were killed by the Lakota, their sister lived alone in the mountains for two years, relatives carrying food to her from time to time. At last in a vision she saw Sioux scalps being brought to her, and as soon as this vision was fulfilled she returned to her people. Men ascended the highest peaks where they fasted and cried out for vengeance and the sympathy of the spirits. Groups of these gruesome blood-stained mourners, leading the dead man's horse, marched through the village wailing and calling for vengeance, hoping that the people would take pity on them and go against the enemy. Far into the night they continued to wander about the camp, weeping in their anguish. If the dead were a man well-known and honored, all the people of the village joined in the death-wail. When a war-party went forth to avenge the dead, the mourning women sometimes accompanied them, and if scalps were taken they were the ones to carry them through the village, singing the songs of victory. If death were from an ordinary cause, the extent of the mourning depended on the age and position of the person. Bereaved young husbands often remained in the mountains day and night through summer and winter, and mothers and sisters of young men tortured themselves and lived in the hills for weeks and months. Sometimes a warrior killed near camp was dressed and laid on a bed out in the open. The herald going through the camp called: "Your friend is awaiting you. He is going on a long visit. He wants you to come and have one more smoke with him!" Then relatives and friends came forth to mourn, and the members of his society assembled to sing in his honor. A man named Falcon was killed in a fight with the Sioux near Red Lodge, Montana, at a time when the Mountain and River Crows were together. Some distance from his body, which lay dressed and painted on a pile of skins in the open air, the members of his society, the Lumpwood, sat in a circle, while all around was a great throng of people trying to see his face. Everyone had a bell or a rattle of some kind in his hand. Some carried spear-heads attached to arrow-shafts, with which they cut their heads in mourning. While the relatives wept and wailed, the members of the society began to sing, the Lumpwoods of the Mountain and River {view image of facing page 36} A burial platform - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 37} THE APSAROKE 37 Crows all joining. As they sang, other brave men, members of any society or not, rode wildly around the circle, shouting, and declaring their desire to avenge Falcon's death. Then all the three hundred of his brother members in one body danced toward the dead man, singing: Moderato. _ >A-3 (I; nI l.......d 1i _ > > > >> > > > > ># > > > > > As they came near they cut themselves and thrust arrows through their thighs, crying out their desire for vengeance; oth arrows through their thighs, crying out their desire for vengeance; others cut their heads, and the blood flowed in streams down their faces. Falcon's wife, her dress rolled up to the hips, advanced to the dead man, slashing her legs across the thighs and calves, and cutting her scalp until the blood spurted. Then the Lumpwoods drew off a short distance and sat in a circle. The property of the dead man was distributed by his parents among them without partiality, just as they came, which was the rule of the society; and the mourning relatives gave their property to others who came and sang the praises of Falcon and mutilated themselves. Old men came to the Lumpwoods and struck them on the chest, crying, "Young men, when you see the enemy, strike them. Do not be afraid!" When all the property had been distributed, relatives covered the dead man's face, wrapped him in skins, and tied them. Then the body was laid across the back of a horse, the face downward on one side and the feet on the other. The horse was led by the widow, blood running down her face, dress, and legs, while she and all the relatives {view image of page 38} 38 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN wailed loudly, for Falcon had been a great warrior. Many people followed as the wife led the way to a cave that had been enlarged by some of the Lumpwoods, and there on a pile of robes his body was placed. The entrance was walled up with stones, so that wolves could not enter, and there they left him. Historical Sketch At some uncertain time following the settlement along the Missouri, about the mouth of Heart river, of a hitherto wandering tribe of people who called themselves Midhokais, there arose between two chiefs a violent quarrel over the proper division of a buffalo. The animal having been found dead in the little stream between the village of the Shiptaise band and that of the Awatuhwf, men from each camp claimed the manyplies, and so bitter waxed the dispute that the former band under its chief No Vitals, IAhpudete, angrily abandoned its home and migrated westward. Red Scout, TsitahihAhesh, and his people continued to dwell on the Missouri and became the Hidatsa, while the seceding group formed the nucleus of the Apsaroke. This tribal separation, known only through native tradition, is of course vague as to date, and the best that can be said is that it occurred probably in the latter half of the seventeenth century. For the Apsaroke account for fourteen head-chiefs down to the year I904, beginning with the legendary No Vitals, and it is asserted with positiveness that during the chieftainship of the eighth, Young White Buffalo, the Apsaroke received their first steel knives from the Hidatsa, who had just procured them from white traders. Now Charbonneau, the interpreter who accompanied the Lewis and Clark expedition westward from the Mandan and Hidatsa villages in the spring of I805, had taken up his residence there in I796, and he was by no means the first trader to visit them. As constant intercourse existed between the Hidatsa and the Apsaroke, the acquisition of steel knives by the latter could hardly have been much later than the date last mentioned. Assuming, then, that Young White Buffalo became chief about I790, the last seven chiefs covered a period of a hundred and fourteen years; and if the first seven held the chiefship during an equal space of time, the migration of No Vitals and his people took place about 1676. Again, the tenth chief was Red Feather At The Temple, who led the Apsaroke at the time of the {view image of facing page 38} Scaffold burial - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 39} THE APSAROKE 39 council at Knife river in 1825, and he is described as having been then a man of about sixty. A man rarely attained the position of head-chief much under the age of fifty years, hence, assuming that Red Feather At The Temple won supremacy in 1815, the last five chiefs extended over a period of eighty-nine years, while on the same basis the entire line of fourteen chiefs ruled for two hundred and fortynine years, and the separation occurred about I655. Of course calculations based on such imperfect data are necessarily inexact, but approximately speaking the results cannot be far wrong. The first body of migrants was soon followed and joined by another party under Dahpitsf-dasadhitsidetsh, Bear That Has A Bad Heart Always, and this band is believed by some of the old men of the present time to have been the nucleus of the tribal division known as River Crows. As to this, however, there is no certainty. The combined offshoot pushed westward until further progress was impeded by the main range of the Rocky mountains, and from that time until they submitted to the restraint of reservation boundaries they roamed at will through the valleys of the Yellowstone and its tributaries, the Bighorn, Wind, Tongue, and Powder rivers, and north of the Yellowstone along the Musselshell as far as its junction with the Missouri. Southward they hunted as far as the Black Hills on the east and the headwaters of Wind river and the Platte on the west; while northward they seldom or never crossed the Missouri except to attack their foes. Surrounded by powerful enemies, who would have been glad, and indeed did constantly attempt, to dispossess them of their splendid hunting-grounds, the Apsaroke necessarily cultivated the militant spirit to a high degree. Along the headwaters of the Platte and extending to Green river were the Cheyenne and Arapaho. Toward the Wind River mountains lived the Shoshoni and the Bannock, westward Nez Perces and Flatheads, and northwestward the Pend d'Oreilles and the numerous and powerful Blackfeet. To the northward between the Missouri and Milk river the Apsaroke encountered the Atsina, with whom, however, prior to 1867 they made a treaty of peace that proved to be binding. Farther east were Assiniboin and Yanktonai. With the Hidatsa and their allies, the Mandan, peace was maintained, but from the villages of the earthen lodges to the Platte extended the Sioux, the "real enemy." In the decade following I830 they became so numerous in the region west of the Black Hills that the Apsaroke found it a dangerous hunting {view image of page 40} 40 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN ground and practically gave it up, retiring to the west of Powder river. Westward still pressed the Lakota, pitching their camps along Powder and Tongue rivers, and even in the valley of the Rosebud, until it seemed that all the territory between the Bighorn mountains and upper Powder river would become their permanent possession, rather than a common tribal hunting-ground. The mountaineers, however, kept up a constant harrying warfare against the Lakota camps, lying in wait and nearly every night killing or wounding one of the invaders immediately beyond the confines of the camp or even within the remoter lodges. The Sioux never obtained permanent possession of the region between the Bighorn mountains and the Black Hills, although, considering the relative numerical strength of the two tribes, there is little doubt that eventually they would have done so but for the interposition of governmental authority. But the Apsaroke were not content with defensive warfare: their war-parties were constantly invading the territory of their hostile neighbors, striking one swift blow and retreating. It is not to be supposed that such Indian forays usually resulted in pitched battles. The prime motive was the desire of the individual to win personal honor and renown, coupled in some instances with a popular outcry for revenge. But whatever their inspiration, the warparties of the Apsaroke served the purpose of restraining their swarming enemies and keeping alive a proper respect for Apsaroke prowess. In quest of Nez Perce horses their warriors sometimes crossed the Continental Divide, where they found streams flowing westward, and the banks strewn with the backbones of huge fish which the inhabitants had eaten. Into Blackfoot territory they penetrated north of Milk river, close to the Canadian border, where occasionally they had hostile encounters with Flatheads and Pend d'Oreilles poaching on Blackfoot ground. In their expeditions against the hated Lakota they sometimes travelled eastward as far as the middle course of the Missouri; and about the year I825 or I830 Twists His Tail, of the River Crows, led a party that was absent in the south two and a half years. In this country they crossed a desert, where throughout four days they were without water, where the pricklypear cactus "grew as tall as a man, with leaves as large as a shield." At last they came upon two lonely lodges, killed all the inmates excepting a young woman, whom they brought back with them, and who, from the description of her dress, was an Apache. Inhabiting a country traversed by most of the expeditions despatched by the fur companies from St. Louis, and later by the much {view image of facing page 40} The winter camp - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 41} THE APSAROKE 41 travelled Bozeman trail, the Apsaroke became commonly spoken of as "the thieving Crows," but it does not appear that they were more thievishly inclined than other Indians of the region. Many a traveller relates woful tales of horses stolen by the Crows, but it should be remembered in the Indian's favor that in his code the capture of horses is not theft, but a deed to be praised by one's friends and honored by one's enemies. True, the white men and the Apsaroke were not at war, and even Indian ethics does not countenance the capture of a friend's horses; but these friendly white men were subsisting on Apsaroke game and growing rich from Apsaroke furs. If we regard the question from the Indian's point of view, the Apsaroke is more to be commended for refraining from attack on the persons of traders and emigrants than condemned for failure to live up to a code that was foreign to him. The tribe first entered into relations with the United States Government on August 4, 1825, when both bands, the Mountain Crows under Red Feather At The Temple, and the River Crows led by Rotten Belly, moved in a body to Knife river, where, in a great council near the Mandan village Mitutahank, the Hidatsa, Mandan, and Apsaroke formally pledged their friendship with the Government. In I868, at Fort Laramie, they relinquished their claim to all lands except a reservation whose boundaries were described as "commencing where the one hundred and seventh meridian crosses the southern boundary of Montana territory; thence north along said meridian to the mid-channel of Yellowstone river; thence up the mid-channel of said river to the point where it crosses the southern boundary of Montana, being the forty-fifth parallel north latitude; thence east along said parallel of latitude to the place of beginning." This area has since been reduced by cession until it now consists of 2,233,840 acres. The agency, first established in I868 at Old Mission, near the present site of Livingston, Montana, was moved in I875 to Rosebud creek, a short distance above its confluence with the Stillwater, and in 1883 to its present location on the Little Bighorn. The numerical strength of the tribe was considerably underestimated by some of the early observers. Lewis and Clark placed their number at three hundred and fifty lodges, or three thousand five hundred persons, while Maximilian, Prince of Wied-Neuwied, in I834 counted four hundred lodges. Catlin approached accuracy more closely when in 1832 he roughly estimated their number as not more than seven thousand. Their former strength may be {view image of page 42} 42 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN judged with a fair degree of accuracy from the definite statement by old men of both the Apsaroke and the Hidatsa, that nine hundred and fifty lodges of the former tribe attended the treaty council at Knife river in 1825. So positive is this account that there seems to be no reason to question it, coming as it does from two distinct sources. In those days almost no lodge housed fewer than ten persons, hence it is safe to say that in I825 there were approximately nine thousand Apsaroke. It is probable that both Lewis and Clark and Prince Maximilian based their estimates on only one band of the tribe. In I864, a year made memorable by a great battle with the Sioux, there were more than four hundred lodges of the Mountain Crows, with an average of five or six occupants each, an estimate agreeing with that of the agent who in I87I reported two thousand seven hundred Mountain Crows and fourteen hundred River Crows. In I908 the population of the entire tribe numbered less than eighteen hundred. The division of the tribe into two bands, called officially Mountain Crows and River Crows, but by the Indians themselves Asadhaho, Many Lodges, and Binsuipede, was geographical and to a limited degree political, rather than ethnic. There is now a slight difference in the speech of the two bands, but as the dissimilarity appears only in such words as the equivalents of " coffee " and " sugar " - terms of recent origin- it may be said that no linguistic distinction exists. Whether the Apsaroke consisted of two bands from the time of their separation from the Midhokais cannot be determined, but the evidence afforded by tradition indicates that the division has always existed. Biddle's narrative of the Lewis and Clark expedition says: "The accounts which we received of the Minnetarees [Hidatsa] were contradictory. The Mandans say that this people came out of the water to the east and settled near them in their former establishment in nine villages; that they were very numerous, and fixed themselves in one village on the southern side of the Missouri. A quarrel about a buffalo divided the nation, of which two bands went into the plains and were known by the name of Crow and Paunch Indians." 1 Says Coues: "Lewis in his Statistical View treats these 'Paunch' Indians entirely apart from the Grosventres [Hidatsa]. He gives their native name as Al-la-k,-we-ah, with French nickname 'Gens de Panse,' and locates them along the Yellowstone on both sides, near the Rocky mountains and heads of the Bighorn river, with a population of 2,300, including 800 warriors and 300 lodges." 1 Coues, The Lewis and Clark Expedition, New York, I893, pages I98-I99. {view image of facing page 42} In the cañon - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 43} THE APSAROKE 43 "In his Statistical View, Lewis calls the Crows Kee'-kat-sa [the explorers spelled it Kee'-hat-s]... 'These people,' he continues, 'are divided into four bands.... They annually visit the Mandans, Minnetarees, and Ahwahhaways [the Amahafmi, a small cognate tribe, which later fused with the Hidatsa], to whom they barter horses, mules, leather lodges, and many articles of Indian apparel, for which they receive in return guns, ammunition, axes, kettles, awls, and other European manufactures. When they return to their country they are in turn visited by the Paunch and Snake Indians."' These citations appear to confirm the native tradition that two bands migrated westward from the Missouri River villages, and to predicate an early date for the beginning of a definite division into Mountain Crows and River Crows. From the fact that the country described as being the home of the Paunch Indians is exactly the region occupied then and now by the Crows, or Apsaroke, it might be supposed that the two tribes mentioned were in reality one and the same. But when we read in the Statistical View that both the " Ravin nation" and the "Paunch tribe " called themselves Kee'hat-sa, but that the latter referred to themselves also as Al-la-ka'we-ah, we have reason to believe that two separate bands of the same tribe are mentioned. If we accept the statement that there were two distinct bands, one of "300 lodges," the other of "350 lodges," we have but a comparatively slight discrepancy left between the Lewis and Clark estimate of the Apsaroke population, and the well-established fact that in I825 the tribe numbered nine hundred and fifty lodges. About the middle of the ninteenth century the River Crows were accustomed to spend the greater part of the year away from the rest of the tribe, but they never quite became a political or a social entity: practically every summer they rejoined the others for a time, when clans camped together and military organizations held their meetings in common. At about the same date (I850) the numerically strong Whistle Water clan were wont to absent themselves from the main body for considerable periods, undertaking alone long hunting expeditions to the headwaters of the Bighorn and Powder rivers, in the way that the River Crows frequented the plains south of the Missouri. Here was an incipient third tribal division. The only encounter between troops and the Apsaroke occurred in I887. In the preceding year Wraps Up His Tail had begun to declare himself a great medicine-man, able to perform many such {view image of page 44} 44 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN wonders as cutting through iron dishes with a sword. In the summer of 1887 Wraps Up His Tail and a company of young men, all dressed and painted for war, paraded into a camp that had assembled at the confluence of Soap creek with the Bighorn to receive an issue of cattle. There was general dissatisfaction with agency conditions at the time, particularly as to the disciplining of school children and the governmental prohibition of war-raids. Despite this interdict Wraps Up His Tail with a small party took the field against the Piegan. As they returned, a number of the raiders under their leader rode past the agency and shot into the buildings. Troops were immediately called for and scouts sent to all the Apsaroke camps, summoning the people to the agency and warning them not to shelter Wraps Up His Tail when he fled from the soldiers. The Indians camped near the agency in two groups, hostile and friendly. Nearly all of them, in obedience to the instructions of Wraps Up His Tail, who had predicted a tremendous wind-storm that would annihilate the troops, at once dug shallow pits in which to crouch while the devastating wind swept over them. An attempt was made to bring the medicine-man into a council, offering him a trip to Washington and holding out the possibility that he would be made the tribal chief. He spurned all advances and with his adherents proceeded to paint for battle. Later in the day they assembled, and their leader, accompanied by Spotted Jackrabbit, a young man to whom he had just given his medicine - for a consideration - rode out alone against the troops to prove that his new panacea would ward off bullets. The two were soon driven back with some shooting, in the course of which both were wounded. One of the soldiers was killed. The hostile Indians gathered on a low ridge from which the artillery quickly dislodged them; they scattered, and the threatened uprising subsided almost of itself, for the medicine of Wraps Up His Tail had been put to the test and found wanting. The medicine-man himself was making good his escape when Crazy Head, under the impression that his young son had been killed in the melee, captured him, and was about to deliver him to the soldiers when an Indian policeman rushed up and shot the fallen leader dead. To supplement this historical sketch are added the names of the tribal head-chiefs with a brief summary of what tradition has transmitted concerning each. I. No Vitals, I/hpude-t. His medicine was tobacco, and he {view image of facing page 44} Apsaroke youths [photogravure plate] {view image of page 45} THE APSAROKE 45 originated the Tobacco ceremony, having received it in a vision. Chief of a tribal division known as Shiptate? (a name referring to the glancing of an arrow when it strikes a buffalo's ribs), he led it westward after the quarrel with the Awatuhiwe over the buffalo manyplies, and became first chief of the Apsaroke. II. One Eye, Ithtuwute. His medicine was the very old bull with stump horns, and body so tough that arrows could not penetrate it. In fighting he used a heavy stone with a rawhide handle, painting his body and hair white, and wearing a baldric of buffalo-beards. Although no arrow could pierce his flesh, one did enter his eye and the point broke off in it. From that time pus ran from the eye, which he constantly wiped with a handful of buffalo-wool. He had previously been known as Raven Face, Ispedetisfh. III. Paints His Shirt Red, AhhueifhisihAeh. Morning Star, his guardian spirit, instructed him to paint his shirt as well as his body red, to represent the fire, so that the enemy could not seize him, and arrows would pass through him harmlessly, as through a flame. IV. Red Fish, BuuhisrhShSAh. The old, old people talk much about him, relating numerous tales respecting this demigod. In his time buffalo were butchered by means of a sharp sliver of black flint, and meat was cut for eating by holding one end between the teeth, the other in the hand, and sawing across it with one of the sharpened rib-like bones from the buffalo-hump. This chief's medicine was fish-hawk, and he painted his body black, so that arrows would glance off, as from a rock. His hair, massed on the top of his head, was surmounted by a stuffed fish-hawk; from the crown of his head floated a string of eagle-down dyed red with a certain moss. "This is my heart," he said; "only when it is cut with an arrow can I be killed." A medicine-song of his is still known and sung. Whenever he sang, making his medicine, the people rushed out of his way, for he would go into a frenzy and kill whatever or whomsoever he found in his path. V. Running Coyote, Buuttawosafh. He devised a new method of hunting buffalo by running the herd over a canon wall, an idea that was imparted to him in a vision. His was tobacco-medicine, which he bought, transmitted from No Vitals. VI. One Heart, Dasawutufh. The tribe had now become more prosperous and began to live like people. One Heart exhorted his young men constantly to fast and cry and offer their bodies to the spirits. "My body is not hard," he would remind them; "I want {view image of page 46} 46 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN some one to be bound to me so that it will be carried on." He meant that he desired a worthy man to carry on the work he had begun. Among the young men was one who never sat down; he was always in the mountains fasting. This was White Moccasin-top, who became the next chief. Jack-rabbit was the medicine of One Heart, and a stuffed ear of the animal with the tail attached and small strands of human hair fastened to it was worn on his hair. He became unbearably arrogant, making free with the wives of others, and so feared was he that even when he killed a man who protested because One Heart had taken his wife, no attempt was made to depose or punish the murderous chief. But Raven Face, brother of the slain man, charged angrily upon the chief, only to receive a broken arm for his rashness. He fled into the hills. As he wandered about, fasting, he came upon a bear's den, inside of which he found cubs only a few days old. He held one of them in his arms. Soon the she-bear returned, and, seeing him holding her cub, her heart was soft. She stood on her hind legs, raised his arms with her paws, and sang, BaskyotauAh bitsukatu -"Our enemy is but an unfledged bird." Strong with the bear-medicine Raven Face returned to the camp. A little later, when he was butchering after the hunt, One Heart came toward him, intending to take the choice portions of his game; but Raven Face rushed upon him, killed him, tore off his scalp, and charged into camp with face painted black as if he had killed an enemy. For that deed he was made a chief. VII. White Moccasin-top, Isapisfiau/h. He wore a head-dress consisting of a bear's scalp, with ears and nose, and with a strip of the fur down the back and the tail dragging behind. Its entire length was ornamented with a row of eagle-feathers. A sash of otter-skin with bear's claws fastened to it crossed one shoulder and passed beneath the other. He always carried a lance, its head a tip of elk-horn. White Moccasin-top is the hero of many stories still current. VIII. Young White Buffalo, TsipkadhzAhtatsihfh. In his time the Apsaroke first obtained from the Hidatsa steel knives brought by white men. These knives had handles of bone, dyed blue. Young White Buffalo led a war-party to Fat river (Green river) against the Rib-men (Winnebago) and brought back the first horses of the Apsaroke. His medicine was jack-rabbit. The place where he fasted on a small hill near the Bighorn (about two and a half miles southwest of Saint Xavier Mission) was later marked by the people with a low mound, which is still rebuilt from time to time as it becomes worn away by wind and rain. This chief rode a gray horse. Through {view image of facing page 46} A baby Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 47} THE APSAROKE 47 a hole in the centre of his shield peered the head of a jack-rabbit, and a rabbit-tail was tied to his medicine-lock. The lower part of his face he painted black, producing horizontal stripes by scratching the paint with separated fingers. His body too was black. Through the camp he would ride his prancing gray, waving his lance and singing, Bidhidhuke, biifsidhuke-"They shoot at me, they miss me. IX. Plays With His Face, Isakemanui. He would paint his face carefully, then before the day was half gone he would wash it and apply another color; hence his name. He painted his body slate blue, and on his breast outlined a dragonfly and on his back another. To his medicine-lock (scalp-lock) he tied a dragonfly made of rawhide with eagle-down fastened to its tail. He had two renowned warriors, Small On The Back and Hump Bull; led by these three the Apsaroke moved about fearlessly. X. Red Feather At The Temple, Itsuwa6ohpuAhe. He was the chief who led the Apsaroke in the council at Knife river in I825, and it was during his period of authority that the River Crows are said to have definitely left the others and lived much of the time by themselves north of the Musselshell. Red Feather At The Temple was reputed to be able to foresee events, and thus he became a great war-leader. His tutelary spirit was Morning Star, in representation of which he painted his face yellow, with a circle of red about it. A red stick with eagle-feathers fastened to it perpendicularly was thrust upright in his hair, which was rolled up in a bag of antelope-skin supported by a thong passing over one shoulder. His hair was remarkably long and is still preserved as a sacred tribal relic. He is the Chief Long-hair mentioned by Catlin, and the "E-she-huns-ka, or the long hair" who was the first signer of the treaty of 1825. He died about 1836. Contemporary with Red Feather At The Temple was Rotten Belly, EdhuapuuAh, chief of the River Crows. A young boy, he fasted in the Crazy mountains, where Thunderbird appeared to him, showing him how to lead a war-party and how to make medicine so that the trail would lie clear before him. The upper part of his shield, the segment of a circle, was painted black to represent a storm cloud, and down through this appeared the head and claws of Thunderbird. Although he was second only to the head-chief, his name is not appended to the treaty of 1825. The troops on that occasion took the precaution to train their cannon on the camp of the Crows, who, resenting the apparent distrust of their motives, proceeded to render {view image of page 48} 48 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN the guns useless by stopping the vents. In the ensuing broil an Apsaroke chief, Does Not Rain, the "Har-rar-shesh, one that rains," of the treaty, was struck on the head with the butt of a pistol, and his tribesmen drew aside to make preparation for war. The Mandan (no doubt fearing the consequences of hostilities) interceded, and Red Feather At The Temple at length consented to return to the council. Rotten Belly, however, would have nothing further to do with the proceedings, and, says tradition, so angry was he with the white men and the Mandan that he caused a tremendous rain to fall. The corn and squashes of the villagers were destroyed, the earthen roofs were washed from their lodges, and great fear possessed the Mandan. They brought presents to Rotten Belly, who cried out to the sky and checked the rain. Rotten Belly's song of victory became a tribal song. To white men and Apsaroke his name is well known: Irving in his narration of Captain Bonneville's Adventures has much to say of him. He was killed by the Blackfeet about I834. XI. Hair On Top, Iyakafh. Hair On Top was a small man, short, thin-legged, pot-bellied. When buffalo were scarce it was his custom to lie in his lodge and, shaking his huge rattle of buffalohide, sing the Sun Dance songs, while the whole camp paused to listen in awe. It was believed that the buffalo always came in response to his incantations. His medicine was the image of the Lakota used in the Sun Dance. Like Red Feather At The Temple he was credited with the power of prevision, and frequently he sent out war-parties to attack an enemy whom he had perceived in a vision. He once built a sacred lodge, such as the spirits had revealed to him, and in the holy place at the rear dug a circular hole, the depth of an arm, in which fir leaves were kept constantly burning. When the structure was complete, he predicted, "An enemy will come into this lodge and I shall kill him." His batsiwatkusua (children of one's father's clansmen) laughed derisively, and said, "You are the medicine-man, but that is not possible." But one night as the fire was dying out a person entered, went to the holy place, and sat down. One of the occupants, still awake, said, "You must not go there." There was no answer. Some one threw a piece of wood on the fire, and by the flickering blaze they saw a Piegan sitting there. Hair On Top went to him at once and shook his hand, calling out loudly, "Here is a weak person! Come and see!" Others came running in, two seized the Piegan, stabbed him where he stood, and dragged out his body. The chief commemorated the deed by giving to a girl-child the name Kills In The Back Of The Lodge. She was {view image of facing page 48} Sisters - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 49} THE APSAROKE 49 still living in I908, an old woman, wife of Blue Belly. Hair On Top died about I85I. XII. Twists His Tail, Tsisapuafh. Twists His Tail was a River Crow. His guardian spirit was the Sun, hence he painted a yellow circle about his face with the tip of his finger, which he first pointed to the sun. Around his neck was a rawhide stole ornamented with eagle-down dyed red, and at his throat a large disc-shaped shell with a feather attached. His entire body was painted yellow. In calling upon his spirit-father he would kneel facing the rising sun, and looking toward it through a hoop wound with wolf fur and with eagle-feathers fluttering from it, would blow upon the eagle wing-bone whistle that hung from his neck, and sing, Hiduwe ise amakak; binup kude amakak -"Him that is going, his face I see; holding a scalp I see him." It is said that a war-party seeking revenge for relatives slain by Lakota asked his help. He made medicine as described above, and said, "Three bodies of the enemy have been given to me. Go out early, hasten to Powder river, and in seven days return with three scalps. Be sure to bring the scalps, that none may dispute you." In the hills that border the river they waited until in the east they descried an approaching party. All night they lay quiet, and in the morning beheld three scouts leaving the enemy's camp. Those three were killed and their scalps brought back to Twists His Tail. When a young man, he led twenty warriors to the south and was absent two years and a half. They travelled many moons without finding an enemy, and arrived in a country where " the prickly-pear cactus grew as tall as a man and its leaves were the size of a shield." Yellow flowers grew at the top of the leaves. Southward still they journeyed, through a region where they were four days without water. It was a strange land, for "the sun, rising one day in the east, would the next appear in the west." At last they came upon two lodges of skin, not high and shapely like those of the Apsaroke, but broad and squat. They killed the occupants, all of them except a young woman, whom Twists His Tail brought home with him as his wife. When they arrived at the Apsaroke camp she was about to give birth to a child, whose father was her former husband. She wore a deerskin dress with fringe at the bottom from which dangled things that rattled and made a pleasant sound when she walked. There were many beads on her dress, and her moccasins, which turned up at the toes, were covered with them. Two striped blankets found in the lodge were brought back. Twists His Tail died about 1867. VOL. IV-4 {view image of page 50} 50 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN While the old chief was still living, Red Bear, Dahpitse-hishAAYh, a rising leader of the Mountain Crows, had attained such renown as an active war-leader that he "covered up" the older man, who seldom took the field, preferring to send out his warriors against enemies revealed to him by the spirits. To the Apsaroke of to-day the name of Red Bear is greater than that of any of the well-nigh deified chiefs of ancient times. When he fasted, the pelican, messenger of Morning Star, came and said, "Three beings will appear; pass them by, but listen to the fourth." The first three that came were Those That Deceive, spirits of the bright stars that make their children rapidly rise, but on the threshold of greatness suddenly abandon them and allow them to be killed. After them came Morning Star. Red Bear was told to wear an eagle-feather thrust horizontally into his hair at one side, and at the other a plume of twisted down-feathers of the pelican. In his hair he was to place also a piece of shell for the Morning Star, and his face he was to paint with close horizontal yellow bars, representing apiAhiAhiu (" air linked together "), the quivering of heated air (a phenomenon ascribed to a struggle between the hot and the cold air). He was given the power to foresee events, and many instances are related of his wonderful prophecies. He was believed to be able even to hold back the coming day when it appeared inopportunely for his horse-raiders. He struck dadkhe more than ten times and killed more than twenty of his enemies; eight times he captured horses tethered in the enemy's camp, besides great numbers of herded animals on some thirty raids; he took at least ten guns, besides many bows, and led forty war-parties that returned with scalps or horses. He was a swift runner. Red Bear met his death in a spectacular manner. Brooding over a gratuitous insult by a jealous tribesman, who struck his horse across the face (the chief of course could not engage in brawls), he was leading a jaded party when it was fiercely attacked by Sioux and Cheyenne near the mouth of the Bighorn. Though in the prime of life, that is, between fifty and sixty, occupying the highest position among his people, and mounted on a fresh horse that could easily have borne him away from danger, he leaped to the ground, crying, "My people, I have always tried to help you; but among you is one I hate! See if you can find another like me! " A single warrior joined him, and the two, totally surrounded by the enemy, with their lives checked the pursuit long enough to permit their fellows to escape. "No Indian on earth ever surpassed the deeds of Red Bear," says one of his warriors; "all the people who ever wore loin-cloth never could show a man {view image of page 51} THE APSAROKE 5I like him." And another adds, "He was a great man, and his Father wished to take him back before he became wrinkled." His death occurred in I862. XIII. Blackfoot, so called by white men, was known by his tribesmen as Sits In The Middle Of The Land, Awikyuadowat/h. His medicine was wild goose, and the head and tail of that bird were worn in his hair, two narrow pieces of red flannel streaming down his back from this head-dress. Two broad strips of flannel, with many scalps attached to them, passed around his neck and down his back, like a reversed stole. Blackfoot was a large man, about six feet two inches in height, proportionately heavy, and with muscles of a Hercules. He was a noted speaker. Stripped to the loin-cloth, painted for war, with his goose-head surmounting a mass of hair, and tomahawk in his left hand, he was an impressive figure in the firelight of the council-lodge. Before leading his people to Fort Laramie to negotiate the boundary treaty of i868, he assembled his principal men in the open and bade each in succession arise and announce what he would say before the white men. As each advanced his arguments, the chief would remark, "That is good; we will use that," or, "That we will throw away." When they entered the council at the fort each repeated what had been approved in his trial speech. Blackfoot succeeded so well that the reservation boundaries were established just as he wished them. He and Iron Bull are now blamed for having brought civilization too quickly by consenting to send children to school, submitting to reservation restrictions, and accepting missionaries. Blackfoot died about I877. Iron Bull, TsidupuwutiiAh, was contemporary and of almost equal authority with Blackfoot. He was the richest man in the tribe, and his lodge was made of fourteen or eighteen large skins treated with a mixture of white clay and red paint, so that the entire lodge-covering was of reddish hue. The door-flap was a hide with the hair removed only in horizontal lines, and the dwelling was kept so clean that a common expression was, "Iron Bull's lodge is like the lodge of the Sun." His twenty horses, which were of the finest, were guarded by his young nephews, who as a reward were permitted to eat in their uncle's lodge and to ride his steeds. Iron Bull always had a number of poor old men eating day by day in his lodge; nor was the food supplied by the gift of others, but by his own efforts, for he was a great hunter. As a war-leader he was successful, but not to the extent of some others. His hospitality extended beyond his own people; {view image of page 52} 52 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN in fact it was due largely to his friendship with white men that he became prominent. An old trader, named Deer by the Apsaroke, who had formerly lived among them and married one of their women, came with a young boy to Iron Bull's camp to die. The chief cared for the sick man until the end, when he took the boy and a written statement of what he had done for Deer to Fort C. F. Smith. He was at once honored by the officers and styled head-chief of the Crows. He died in i886. XIV. Pretty Eagle, Deaht'itsh. He was chief until his death in 1904. Religion and Ceremonies Spirit Beings ItfsihbadhYrh, He First Made All Things, is the creator of all. He is composed of all the vapory elements that existed before the world was formed by him. He is also called Akbaetsukadhatse^ He That Hears Always, and Akbahi'itsedheteO, He That Sees All Things. He made all things, he hears all things, he controls all things, and is everywhere present. The sun itself is usually conceived to be his visible counterpart, and even in the legends that personify the sun as a distinct spirit-power it is regarded as under the control of its creator. The old people sometimes say, "See this light that comes into the lodge: He That Hears Always is in it." The perceptions of Ifsihbadhish do not end with men, animals, and noticeable phenomena, but extend to the insects and the most insignificant things of plant life. In him, the personification and deification of the infinite, the Apsaroke have crystallized their religious instinct; and while every creature has its spiritual complement, and many objects and elements are specifically personified, these all are under the control of Ifsihbadhigh. Every star, the sun, the moon, the sky itself, every tree, stone, stream, animal, insect, and bird, every natural phenomenon, has its spirit above. These spirits may or may not exert supernatural power, but such as do are called mahpe, while all considered collectively are mawaih'p. This term does not, however, include He First Made All Things, who is Mawahpakafhe-, "the real mawahpe-." The mawahpe are often called Mahodhete, Those That Have No Bodies, and their earthly representatives are described as Maizhpidhadhe-te, Those That Have No Fires. {view image of facing page 52} Medicine tripod - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 53} THE APSAROKE 53 The spirit that talks to the soul in vision and gives it strength becomes one's hupad-hii 1 (with first personal pronoun, biyuhpa'dhiui), medicine, or tutelary spirit. Through visions men and women claim to have revealed to them events of the future, and how they shall conduct themselves to better their own lives and to promote the welfare of their people. Visions are experienced by those who fast in the mountains, and are not in any way to be confused with dreams. When a man fasts, he wails, "He That Hears Always, hear my cries. As my tears drop to the ground, look upon me." While he moans thus in his despair, he grovels on the earth and tears up grass and weeds in anguish of spirit. Then he hacks off a finger tip, or very frequently he cuts around the second joint, puts the finger between his teeth, and tears it off; then holding the severed portion to the sky, he cries, "Mawahpe- [supernatural powers], I give you this, my body. May I have many horses, and many women of good looks and industry in my lodge. May my lodge be the gathering place of men. I am poor; give me these things that through me my people may be bold because I live. Let them use me as a shield against the enemy!" While the body of the faster sleeps, there comes to the soul Akbatsivekyati, Little One That Tells Things, a spirit so small as to be invisible even to the soul. It stands behind the ear and instructs the soul what it shall look for; as for example, "When he comes, watch his feet. See how many steps he takes for each act." While no one has ever seen one of these spirits, of which each mahipe has one as its messenger, all men that have had clear visions have heard their voices. Following Akbatsivekyati appears the earthly representative of the spirit that has chosen the faster for his child, and either tells the soul all that the spirit wishes to say, or merely announces that the father himself is coming to bestow his powers. After the spirit or its representative has minutely described the way the faster is to conduct himself, - to paint, to dress, to sing, what plants to gather if he is a medicine-man, what things he is to avoid, - the soul returns to the body and informs it of these things; or, as some express it, "Perhaps the conversation takes place in the heart of the faster, and he knows what is being said." 1Both mahpg and ih'pacdhia seem to be traceable to the root h/, " above," ma- being the substantive prefix, and -p? and -padhi modifying suffixes. Formed in the same manner is the Dakota mahipiya, sky, "the above." Mahipf, the supernatural, means therefore "that which is above." Of course the Apsaroke of the present day do not recognize this etymology. {view image of page 54} 54 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Sometimes, but by no means always, the spirit that becomes one's hupacdhiu, if it finds its child worthy, enters the body and lives with the soul, and is then called bafsidihupe. A man may have more than one huipacdhii, obtained either by fastings or by purchase. If medicine is bought, he then must go out and fast, and the appearance of its spirit in a vision assures him that he has been accepted. If it does not appear, then it does not desire him and will not aid him; still he keeps the medicine, and tries again to obtain its power. The symbol of one's spirit is worn usually in the hair, and beside that the paint and the incense and other herbs revealed by it are constantly carried, wrapped in a piece of deerskin enclosed in rawhide. Since the great supernatural power hears all things, a man never falsely claims a vision, for such an act would incur the anger of Itsihbadhih, and he would probably lose his life, or some other great calamity would befall him. If wilfully or inadvertently a man commits an act that might displease his tutelary spirit, he at once makes offerings and prays that it may not withdraw its aid. All success in life is attributed to one's spirit guardians, and to exhibit pride or take personal credit for one's welfare would be to offend mawahpe and result in misfortune. The Sweat Sweating is strictly a part of the devotional observances of the Apsaroke, practised not for material cleanliness, but for such purification as will make their bodies acceptable to the spirits. Young men rarely enter the sweat-lodge except when they desire to purify themselves for the four days' fast in the mountains. Close by every dwelling even to-day can be seen the sweat-lodge where men and women go together for ordinary devotion and for special occasions. It is a sacred spot, where frivolity is not to be thought of. The most important of their ceremonial sweats was Awuih-bahpe, the Medicine Sweat-lodge, which belonged only to great war-leaders. It was said that in their fasting the spirits gave them the rights of this ceremony along with their other medicine. When such a man was ready to lead a war-party, he would tell those who wished to join him to cut willows: four strong large ones about an inch in diameter, and one hundred smaller ones. The four large ones were thrust into the ground and bent to form two parallel arches. Then the hundred were planted to complete the circle, crossing the arches, fifty on each side, making a framework some seven feet in diameter. In its centre was dug the pit for the heated stones, and around it the {view image of facing page 54} Sweat-lodge - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 55} THE APSAROKE 55 grass was cut away for about eight inches. From there to the opening the grass was removed, so that the earth exposed was in the shape of an eagle-tail, and the rest of the ground was covered with sage. An entire buffalo-robe was thrown over the lodge after the frame had been covered, the tail hanging downward at the back, and the nose in front, facing the east. On the top of the robe were placed the warleader's medicine, a holy pipe, and a tobacco medicine-bag, these last two not necessarily the property of the priest. Other war-leaders now came and deposited their medicine with that of the priest, the one who was to receive the heated stones and begin the pouring of the water placing his nearest the door. Those who were to participate in the sweat entered and sat down, warleaders on the right and warriors that stood high in the estimation of the leader of this party on the left, while those who intended to accompany the party, but were not prominent enough to have a seat in the sweat-lodge, passed in the heated stones, one at a time. Not a word was spoken inside as the first three were handed in, but when the fourth was received by the old leader at the door and placed in the pit, each man made a feint as if seizing it in his hands and drawing it to him, at the same time expressing some wish, such as, "May I take a horse!" "May I kill an enemy! " "Here comes the enemy's gun!" When all the stones were in and the cover down, water was poured on from a horn cup four times, and as the steam arose, the leader began to sing, all joining with him. After singing four times, he said, "Throw the door up," and as the cover was raised he told a dream in which he had seen a certain season, and each person prayed briefly that he himself might live until that time. Then the leader spoke: "I have said! Close the door." When the cover was down he poured water seven times, and the one at his left sang his song four times, the rest joining. Then the door was raised again. Next he poured water ten times, and the second at his left sang four times, and finally the leader poured the remainder of the water on the stones, while the third man sang his song four times. Then the door was raised for the last time, and all came out slowly and went into the stream. When a man had a vision of the sweat-lodge of a hundred sticks, he went at once to a war-leader who owned the medicine and employed him to make the lodge. When there was need of haste in taking the war-path, the hundred-stick lodge could not be built, so a few small * The sacred bundle containing a man's medicine - that is, the various symbols of his guardian spirits - was, when not in ceremonial use, suspended from a tripod, which in fine weather was removed from the place of honor in the lodge and stood out in the open air. {view image of page 56} 56 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN sticks were hastily made into a miniature sweat-lodge, and placed in a lonely spot as an offering symbolizing their observance of the ceremonial purification. Medicine and Medicine-Men The means taken for healing the sick and wounded are much like those of neighboring tribes. Herbs supposedly having curative properties are used, but nearly always they are those that have been revealed in visions, and both healer and patient consider them purely as a part of the healing ceremony. Not only are such plants revealed by the spirits, but they are believed to be themselves possessed of spirit-power. There is no fixed number of days through which the healing is continued. The fact that a patient has failed to recover creates no resentment against the medicine-man; but should a healer be unsuccessful in several cases, people would consider him as having offended the spirits and lost his power, hence no longer would seek help of him. More than one medicine-man may be sent for, and if they seem to lack the ability to cure, others may be summoned, until six or more are endeavoring to drive away the sickness, the belief being that each man brings his spirit-power to the assistance of the others, and as two men can lift more than one, so can the combined power of two medicine-men cure where one can not. The Apsaroke man who has had a vision is not yet a medicineman; he is simply one who had a vision, and even when his hupa'dhiu has proved itself good and powerful, either by carrying him through danger in battle or by causing his recovery from illness, still he is not a medicine-man: it is only said of him, "His medicine is supernatural." Hunts To Die relates his own experience to show how a healer is created: "I had been shot, and they could not pull the arrow-point out of my hip; my body was dead. In a vision I saw a Buffalo Bull, which came and began to fall and roll from side to side. He transformed himself into a man. This was while I was lying in the lodge; and they thought that I was dead, and that my shadow had gone. The Buffalo sang his songs, and took a live coal and made incense; I smelled the smoke. He put his hand over the coal and rubbed it downward over my face, and I saw my eyes open. Then he took water in his mouth and spurted it over my body, and put my hands on the ground and swayed from side to side. That made the blood flow {view image of facing page 56} Medicine lodge - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 57} THE APSAROKE 57 from his hips and from mine. Then he switched a buffalo-tail and told me to hold it in my hands, and by that he raised me to my feet and led me around the lodge. When I awoke I found myself dressed and painted ready to be buried; but I was well, and the arrow-point had come out. The Buffalo gave me three kinds of herbs. After that any person shot in the body sent for me, and my treatment never failed." Before having a vision of that kind a man is not summoned to treat the sick. In an ordinary vision the spirit simply tells the faster how to dress, paint, and sing: that is the personal medicine to help him in battle, and is not to be used for doctoring. When a man has been given the healing medicine in some such vision, and it has proved itself potent, he is called Akbadiu-mahpe", Doer Of Supernatural Things. When a man's medicine enables him to see into the future, making him thus a great war-leader, and also carries him safely through danger, and gives him further power to heal sickness, he is then known as Bid1uhpak-mahpe, Supernatural Person. At times medicine-men quarrelled, and in their bitterness exerted their supernatural strength to cast a spell on each other, as was the case when a dispute arose between Hidatsa Horse and Bull Backbone over the wife of one of them.1 Both were men of prominence and were well supplied with horses. Their medicine was powerful. Hidatsa Horse said: "Before you die you shall be so poor that the people will laugh at you." Bull Backbone retorted: "How can a man be poor when he has plenty of horses, and many children to look after him when he is old? You think you are an Apsaroke. You think you love your people, but before you die you shall go among another tribe and there you shall live and die. You shall not die among the Apsaroke! " Said Hidatsa Horse: "There is no Apsaroke like me. I am the real Apsaroke. How can I die among other people?" Then each went to his lodge to make medicine. Bull Backbone lighted his pipe and in the dust drew an image of his opponent with a trail leading to the northeast. At the same time Hidatsa Horse made the image of Bull Backbone in the dust and blew a whiff of smoke upon it, driving the dust away and wiping out the figure. 1 This and the succeeding illustration of medicine practices are selected from several related by old men who knew the contestants and believed firmly in the ability of men to exert supernatural power over the destinies of others. See also the life of Big Ox, page I97. {view image of page 58} 58 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Soon after this occurrence Hidatsa Horse started out against the Lakota, but during the raid he came to the Hidatsa village and married an old woman. He never returned. Before Bull Backbone became old his horses were all stolen by the enemy. His lodge was very large, and as there were no horses to carry it, he exchanged it for a smaller one, and then the property inside the lodge began to disappear. In a great battle he said, "I know Hidatsa Horse is a medicine-man. I know he will not take back his medicine, nor will I mine. I do not want to be poor always." Then he went among the enemy and let them kill him. At other times men of prominence, with no other purpose than to determine which was the more powerful, entered a contest, a battle of medicine against medicine, that ended in the downfall of one or both. The strife between Medicine Child and Hair In A Lump illustrates this practice well: They smoked, and Medicine Child asked, "Are you great?" "I am powerful," affirmed Hair In A Lump. Medicine Child said: "Did you ever see these reeds that tremble in the high water of springtime? My medicine shall make you like them!" Hair In A Lump answered: "My medicine shall make you so blind that you will walk in darkness all your life!" They went apart to their lodges and made medicine. Hair In A Lump soon began to tremble so that he could not drink water without spilling most of it from the cup, and Medicine Child became blind that very day, and so remained for the rest of his life. Hair In A Lump was a great chief with well-earned honors, and said to his nephew, Hunts The Enemy: "What is the good, my son? I can never live as I used to live; I must always tremble like this. Dress me in my war garments, paint me in my medicine, and then kill me." He kept coaxing his nephew, who at last said, "Good! I will kill you." He dressed the palsied man, painted him, and said, "My father, look at me. You see my forefinger. You shall take it with you!" With that he chopped it off, then placed his gun to his uncle's chest and pulled the trigger. The aim of all men was to attain greatness in the eyes of their people, and to this end it was necessary to acquire the aid of the greatest number of spirits, through offerings, fasting, and supplication. In offering parts of the body they were making the greatest sacrifice within their power, and even that was not always efficient in bringing a vision to the faster. An old medicine-man tells of eleven {view image of facing page 58} Hunts The Enemy - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 59} THE APSAROKE 59 long fasts with but two visions. In these long periods of self-denial on the mountain-tops there was no prescribed form or definite limit of time, but one was supposed to continue through four days at least. In the story of Matted Hair are shown many of the forms their supplications take. Matted Hair was a miserable, thieving youth. An austere baisiwatkusua ' talked with him in an effort to impress on him his utter worthlessness, and the severity of the criticism convinced the boy that he must change his ways. He therefore asked to have ten of the great men of the tribe tell him how they won their positions, and the old man invited ten of their war-leaders to his lodge. After the pipe had been passed around the circle, the host made a present to each guest, saying, "It was not I who invited you, but my young brother. He wishes to question you. Hold nothing back, but tell him with a straight tongue what he wishes to know." "Brother, what mountain did you climb in your fasting?" asked Matted Hair of one of them. Several of the men smiled, but one said, "The boy has made us presents; it is right that we should answer him." The left forefinger of this man was a stub. He raised his hand and spoke: "My son, you see this hand. Once I climbed a high mountain, and as the Sun came up I held my hand out to him and said, 'He That Sees All Things, I wish to be a great man. I want horses, a good woman, and a large lodge. I desire to be treated with respect by my people. I offer you my body. I cut off this finger and give it to you.' When you have cut off your finger you must fast four days and four nights, and on the fourth night something will surely happen to you. It is because of this that I have become a great chief. In no other way can you win honors. My medicine is the Hawk. It is good." The second man moved slightly forward, threw back his robe, and showed scars on his breast. He said: "I cut these strips of flesh from my body and offered them to the Sun, crying, 'I am a poor man. Pity me. Give me of your medicine.' The Golden Eagle, servant to the glittering Star, was sent to me; he has given me of his power. I take my pipe and go on the war-path, and return with many scalps and horses. Because I do this I am chief." The third man spoke: "See where I have cut flesh from my arms and wrists in the shape of hoof-prints. Of the spirits above a Blackbird came to me in my vision and showed me how to capture horses from the enemy." 1 See page 24. {view image of page 60} 6o THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Then a great warrior said: "I was a poor boy. I had nothing but a piece of jagged flint with which to cut off my finger, so I hacked it with that and then tore it loose with my teeth. In my vision the Sparrow-hawk came to me, transforming himself into a spirit-warrior, and it is through me that our people are still a people. When the enemy come I advance without fear, and they run." The fifth guest displayed the scars on his breast, where he had thrust skewers through the flesh: fastened thus to a pole he had danced for two days and two nights on a high hill. "I was told that He That Sees All Things was looking down upon the people," he said, "and I did this that he might take pity on me. In my fasting I saw a man come out of the water, who brought many plants in his hands and showed me how to cure sickness, and through these secrets I am a great man. All my family are happy and prosperous." "I went to a hilltop," said the sixth, "and lay under a scaffold on which a dead man had been placed. His spirit-body came to me and taught me many wonders. The Ghost is my medicine." Another informed the youth: "In battle I was shot through the body, and they carried me away and laid me down. My body was hot, and while I lay there a Bull came and showed me how to cure those who like myself were wounded. He gave me plants and songs by which I cure men, and it is this that has made me a man like the others." Said the eighth: "I was a poor boy. I had one mare and I cared for her like a babe. I took her to water and to places where the grass was fresh. I had a vision in which she transformed herself into a spirit-man and made known to me the secrets of multiplying the herd. You see the great drove I now have. If you are patient and care for the horses as you would a child, the spirit-horse will pity you and you will be prosperous." "I came to a freshly killed buffalo," spoke the ninth man, "and I skinned it carefully, even the head and tail, and cut a strip at each side. These I fastened into two slits in my shoulders, and so carried the hide all day long through the mountains, crying out to the spirits to help me." The last man wore a frown on his face, and turned away when Matted Hair offered the pipe to him. "My brother," said the boy, "how did you get so many fine horses and the beautiful things in your lodge?" "If I tell you, you will not do what I did," said the other; "I am the only man whose heart is strong enough. It is only wasting words to tell you." {view image of page 61} THE APSAROKE 6i The boy insisted, but still his guest hesitated. "If I tell you, will you go and fast as I did?" "I will go there," said the boy. "We will see," answered the man. "Far to the west is water called Wild Horse lake. It is there that I fasted and got my horses. The shores are covered with cacti, and I took off my moccasins and walked around the lake four times. In the evening, when it begins to darken, there will appear men who have been scalped, whose hands have been cut off, but who are not really dead. They will try to frighten you, and you will run away. After sunrise in the morning the wild horses come to drink, and if you are in the way they will trample you to death, and when they come near you your heart will be faint. Only I can do these things." The boy replied, "I will show you that you are not the only brave man." In the spring Matted Hair went on his long journey to the western lake, and in his supplication there he derived the power of the horses and became a great leader among his people. The Soaking, a Tobacco Ceremony Next to the Sun Dance the most important rite was the Tobacco Ceremony, called, from the method of preparing the seed for planting, Ma/hzssuu, The Soaking. Tobacco1 is a sacred plant, regarded with absolute awe. It is a person, a spirit, different from other plants, which to be sure have spirits, but are not in themselves mah'pP. It not only possesses power to bless, but is capable of working bodily harm to one who should lay a defiling hand upon it: for its seeds, touching the skin, would cover it with horrible sores. No person not a member of the Tobacco order would even now think of planting tobacco or even of touching the seeds or gathering the leaves. The plant has a sacred name reserved for ceremonial use. The myth relates that when Ifsihbadhigh made all things he created men of clay and gave them life, and to the parents of each tribe he imparted a certain power that was to be peculiar to it. To the Apsaroke he gave tobacco seeds, placing them in the palm of the clay man's hand. The man said, "What use shall I make of this?" 1 The tobacco, itsihits, planted by the Apsaroke is a variety different from that raised by the Hidatsa and Mandan. The latter sort exclusively is used for smoking by the Apsaroke. The Soaking, in a degenerated form, is still observed. {view image of page 62} 62 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN "You shall beg help from him," answered the creator. "If you are angry with anything, you may do harm by this, as well as good. Take the seeds and scatter them in the air, and carried by the wind they will cover people with sores." The man of clay replied: "That which you say is the deed of foolish people. I do not wish to do that. I hate it. I wish to strike my enemy; I wish his arrows to pass around my body. By this, when I charge upon my enemy I wish his heart to become weak." "It is that way, as you ask," responded Ifsihbadhigh. "The offspring of your children will have children and grow plentiful by this." Then the clay man became inquisitive: "Who owns this? Who is this?" Said the creator, "It belongs above, to all powers above. You shall look upon the bright Morning Star as the chief owner of this." "When anything is given to a person," said the man, "there are songs to be sung and incense to be made. What you have given me, has it songs and incense to go with it?" Then He First Made All Things sang: Iisihts~ wa; hid~ndiuwui -" Tobacco, I say; right here put it, I say." Moderato. — 1 E i > 21 > > > > > > > > > > > sf>-, > > > > mf ~ MSf-F —. Aid- -^^=Ii-^_- A irF-!,. ba 1 Gi As he sang he walked slowly in a circle and pointed to the ground to show that the tobacco was to be planted there. He gave a root to be used as incense when the seeds were planted. The ceremony itself is said to have been instituted by No Vitals, the chief that led the seceding band of Midhokafs westward to the mountains. He took tobacco seeds and fasted on a high peak, where the Tobacco spirit came to him and revealed what should be done in planting its seeds. No Vitals therefore performed the rites and taught them to many of the people. These initiates he called his children, and they were the nucleus of the Tobacco order. From him certain men bought the right to mix tobacco seeds in the way the spirit had revealed, and they became known as Akbai/hihide, He That Mixes. {view image of page 63} THE APSAROKE 63 The order was divided into several families, which had their inception when certain leading members, taking their medicine-bundles into the hills to fast, there saw spirits, which sang songs of tobacco. From these spirits the father and his children, that is the faster and those whom he had initiated, took their names. At the present time there are Those Of The Weasel, Those Of The Otter, Those Of The Real Tobacco, Those Of The Blackbird, and Those Of The Prairiedog. When any one, man or woman, wished to join, he sent a friend to a member of the order and made known his desire. Nothing was said in answer. If the message was brought a second and a third time, the member sent word among those of his own Tobacco family: "We are about to have a child. We must feed our child." Each one provided food or other gifts. When the messenger came the fourth time, the member sent his reply with a present. On a subsequent night a dance was arranged and only members of that Tobacco family attended. A member was sent for the candidate, who was made to sit at the left of the pipe-filler, who sat by the door at the right of one going out. The entire time until midnight, or sometimes until daybreak, was spent in singing, dancing, and feasting. As the candidate was to be given four songs, each male member sang, with the assistance of the others, from one to four of his own songs, to which the father listened attentively. This was repeated on the following two nights. On the fourth the father asked some man to sing a certain one of his songs, saying, "I want my child to have that one." He thus selected four songs. As each song was chosen, the owner sang it, and then rising took the candidate's arm and danced with him while the other members sang. The candidate was now pledged to pass through the initiation in the ensuing spring. The day after the ceremonial planting,1 one of the men that had bought the medicine of "putting up the lodge" was selected from the order to be Akaschitse, He That Builds The Lodge. He selected from the members as many helpers as he needed, and they erected a large lodge, using four covers of the ordinary size. A warrior with recognized honors was appointed to remove the turf from a rectangular space in the centre some fifteen or twenty feet in diameter. This was surrounded by three small logs laid on the ground and pegged 1 See pages 64-66. {view image of page 64} 64 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN down with U-shaped willow withes, the side toward the door being open. In the centre was the place for the fire. Around the cleared space sat the members by Tobacco families, and back of it were placed the medicine-bags on fine buffalo-robes. Each candidate sat beside the one who was to initiate him or beside one of those who had given him a song. One of these latter took a candidate by the arm and led him to the open end of the cleared space, and stood at one side of him while the Tobacco father stood on the other, and some of the Tobacco family's members took their places in the row. They danced and sang, and then the man who had given the song to the candidate sat down, and one by one the other three came and danced with him. After the fourth song all sat down, and the crier went through the camp calling to the members of the candidate's clan and society, "Your friend has sat down! Bring presents!" Great quantities of gifts were brought into the lodge and piled before the initiators, the horses being staked outside.1 Each candidate passed through the same form; then the presents brought for each were distributed among the members of the family that initiated him, and among the relatives of the Tobacco father. In conclusion, those who had medicinebundles danced four times around the cleared space, then all rushed out, each endeavoring to be first to his own lodge, for to do so would insure a vigorous growth of the lucky individual's tobacco. The next day the camp moved a short distance, and each initiate built a sweat-lodge for one of the men who had given him songs, and at that time he might buy the right to build sweat-lodges for himself. In fact the purchase was very apt to be urged upon him, for the price of the sweat-lodge medicine was always a large one. Following each of the succeeding three movements of the camp the initiate made sweat-lodges for the other three song-givers, and in each case the four men participated in the sweat and were attended by the initiate. Then the father called the four to his lodge, and they placed all their medicine unreservedly before him, whereupon he selected one from each and gave it with its songs and secrets to the initiate. In the spring, when one of those who owned the right to mix tobacco seed had a vision that tobacco must be planted in a certain place, he announced through the crier the fact and the place. A tobacco garden was always at the base of a mountain, with its lower end 1 In a recent initiation sixty horses were brought in honor of one candidate as presents for the members. Forty to fifty horses were not uncommonly given. {view image of facing page 64} Tobacco ceremonial lodge - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 65} THE APSAROKE 65 toward the rising sun. Sometimes there were several parties planting in different localities, the number depending on the number of the men who had the right of mixing. Each Mixer's chosen ground was marked with a mound, or a pile of brush, or a stick planted in the earth. When the cherries were in full bloom, that is, in May, each Mixer prepared the seed for planting by placing it in a large bowl with red fruit of the prickly-pear cactus, "bear root," turnips, and dry elkdung, adding water and stirring until the whole became a thick, sticky mass, and constantly singing: _ - - > > > _> DRUM [IdP_ _ -- - I t — 1 -El r~r -^~~_ _ _ -e- -ez'al_ > > > > >1 -|-a A=____-=-P _ _C.S -____ -Tm __g-Ad ___ h.-,Zi7:^f,} grJ -"- -M- -- ^- ^ -t — -- The bowl was then covered with a piece of tripe. On the following morning the members of each Tobacco family came to the lodge of their Mixer. All were dressed in their finery, painted as their medicine had taught them to paint, and wearing their medicine symbols in their hair. The mass containing the tobacco seeds was placed on the tripe, the edges of which were gathered and tied. Four times they sang the holy tobacco song: Iisiht'sk aafhpami, hu; itsihfsi aa'hpami — "I am going to take tobacco outside, come; I am going to take tobacco outside " - and at the conclusion came out, one of the women leading. She, the Masakuu, Made To Lead, bore a stuffed VOL. IV - 5 {view image of page 66} 66 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN otter-skin, or sometimes a beaver-skin, for both were water animals, ascribed with power to bring rain on the crop. Encircling her head was a wreath of ground-cedar. She was followed by the other women, abreast in the arc of a circle, then by the men in the same formation. Each member carried in his arms, like a baby, a deerskin bundle containing a pod of tobacco seed, not that which was to be planted, but his medicine. They were followed by a crowd dressed for the solemn occasion, most of the young persons carrying bundles of dry branches and twigs. On the way the procession stopped four times, each time singing the tobacco song, or else one belonging to the Mixer. The last halt was about a hundred and fifty yards from the planting ground, and here the medicine bundles were given to young men who were fast runners. The Masakuu stood alone, and no one dared go near her. From her relatives was selected the best runner to carry the otter-skin. Four warriors were chosen; each sang one of his sacred songs, and at the end of the fourth the young men rushed for the mound that marked the ground to be planted, striking it with sticks as if counting coup on an enemy. When the members arrived, the medicine bundles were restored to them, and the young people gave their fagots to them, receiving in turn a ball of pemmican or a buffalo-tongue. The members of the order cleared a space about fifteen feet wide and three times as long. The brush was piled and burned with the help of the dry branches, and around the garden was burned off a space for a fire-break. Then a great warrior was selected to run over the ground, down its length and back, after which he recounted his deeds, and added, "I went against the enemy, killed one, took his scalp, and came back with a clear honor; and the people had moved away, but I saw the tobacco growing green and tall. May this be the same! " The Mixer divided the space among the leaders, who in turn assigned to each of the members, whom they severally had initiated, a width of four hands extending across the garden. A portion of the mixture was given to each leader, by whom it was divided among his initiates, each receiving his portion in a buffalo-skin bag, the same as that in which the leader received his. The leaders themselves did not plant, but the others paired off, and while one thrust holes about three inches deep with a pointed stick, the other dropped the seeds in and covered them with earth. After the planting, the members danced around the garden just inside the ridge of earth and rubbish that had been heaped up. They sang the sacred tobacco song, wish {view image of facing page 66} Tobacco ceremony - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 67} THE APSAROKE 67 ing that the seeds might grow well; for failure of the tobacco crop signified an approaching defeat at the hands of the enemy. The tripe was divided among the planters, who tied the strips to their planting sticks, painted the latter red, and thrust them into the earth at the end of their respective pieces of ground. Each stick bore marks to help individuals remember the location of their tobacco. Poles were laid in the forks of posts set around the planted ground, and cottonwood brush and willow withes provided by young men anxious for honors in war were rudely woven into a fence. That night young men who had had no success in war asked permission from the Tobacco members to fast in the garden, and if the request was granted they lay all night inside the plot, between the garden-space and the ridge of earth. On the fourth day after the initiation a member of the order was sent back to the garden. He crept upon it as if it were an enemy, and brought back the word, "It may be well." On the seventh day another was despatched, and his report was, "It is coming up." On the ninth a third man brought the news, "It is breaking through;" and on the tenth day a fourth messenger informed the people, "What we have planted is above the ground." Then there was great rejoicing throughout the camp. The Sun Dance Instead of attempting to describe in general terms the ceremony of AshkiShiidhuu, Make Lodge-like, Hunts To Die related the story of Big Shadow's remarkable dance, which occurred in I844. Big Shadow's brother, Dancing White Horse, was killed by the Lakota. The heart of Big Shadow was sad. In the spring following he announced to the people of the tribe through the chief medicine-man, who at the time was the head-chief Hair On Top, that he was going to make a Sun Dance. Soon thereafter the chief sent scouts throughout the country, especially along the river-bottoms, to see where the most buffalo were ranging. On the return of the scouts, Hair On Top rode through the great camp, calling, "It is reported that on the streams west of Wolf mountains are many buffalo! We will camp there!" When the camp was pitched in the buffalo country the chief ordered that each young man able to hunt should go out and kill as many buffalo as he could, skin them carefully, and take out the tongues. Many hundreds of buffalo were ranging there, and hardly one escaped, for our medicine was good. The morning after the hunt the relatives of Big Shadow sent out four mules and two horses, {view image of page 68} 68 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN a man leading each animal; the men with the horses collected the tongues, which were strung together by tens, five hanging down on each side of the pack-horse, while those with the mules gathered the hides. Leading the way went Mountain Tail, the medicine-man who owned the song of the creation, chanting his song and singing the praises of the men at whose lodges he stopped. At each place he left either ten hides or ten tongues to be prepared: the tongues sliced and dried, the hides stretched but not tanned. The tongues became sacred, and could not be touched by any person outside of the family that prepared them. On this occasion a hundred hides and a thousand tongues were thus distributed. After this the chief said that all men who could come forward and say that they had led a war-party successfully should go out to look for a place on the river where the cottonwoods were tall and straight. These lodge-pole scouts returned and reported a favorable spot not far up the Little Bighorn, and men with good war records and of good character were sent to this place, where the dance was to be held. There they built a pile of logs and poles, raising it to twice the height of a man. Hair On Top had already ordered the camp forward to the place of the dance. Being the medicine-man and chief, he pitched his lodge west of the pile of logs, and the others in a circle about it, all facing east, in which direction was left an opening. Between the chief's lodge and the centre of the camp-circle was erected the dancer's lodge for Big Shadow. He lived there alone until the dancing began, eating little food. No woman was permitted to enter that lodge. In front of it four crotch-posts were set in the ground, supporting a framework covered with leafy branches on the roof and three sides. The ground within was spread thick with cottonwood leaves. Next morning a crier rode about, calling, "Young men, prepare your hair, prepare your hair! Young women, make yourselves ready for the dance!" The chief selected the man with the clearest record for having counted a grand coup, led a successful war-party, taken a gun, and captured a tethered horse, and sent him out to find the four principal poles for the sun-lodge. This man soon returned, saying, "I have found an 'enemy' where the river runs close to the hill. He is helpless, and we can kill him without harm to ourselves." Then Big Shadow came to the chief, and said, "For doing these things I will give you many presents. Now select what chiefs you need to help you, and they too shall have presents." 1 AkbatsikyadA, He That Sings Praises, the Praise Singer. {view image of facing page 68} Apsaroke maiden [photogravure plate] {view image of page 69} THE APSAROKE 69 Then the Soldiers, fearless men who would carry out any order, went from lodge to lodge, looking in to see what woman was there, until they came to one whom they thought virtuous, and to her they said, "Consider yourself!" She sat and pondered, and then said, "No, I cannot claim it." So they passed on until they came to one who said, "From the time when I was a child I could not make up my heart to marry a man, but my husband bought me and made me his wife. From that day I am free from all men." They gave her a cooked tongue, which she passed to her husband, who ate it. At the head of the procession of Soldiers was the Praise Singer, Mountain Tail, and at his side the woman was led through the camp, while he in a loud voice announced, "Young men, look at this woman. See if you can put her back!" After she had been taken through the entire camp and no one had disputed her honor, all young men and young women came into the circle, and word was given that the centre poles were to be shot at. The woman led the way with an elk-horn wedge and a stone hammer with rawhide handle. She was followed by the Praise Singer, Big Shadow, and Hair On Top, all in single file; then the chiefs abreast, the old men, and the throng of young men and women in a great semicircle. They came to the first tree selected by the scout and arranged themselves in the same order, the leaders about the tree, the others farther away. The Praise Singer called out, "Be quiet, the woman is going to speak!" She faced the morning Sun, held up her hand, and said, pointing her finger at the Sun, "Old Man Above, as you look down upon me, you know me. You know that my husband bought and married me. Since I was a child, to this day no man but him has touched my body. I have been appointed to do this thing. You have heard what I have said. Give this man an easy victory over his enemy. If the enemy walk toward my country, give me their scalps, their horses, all they have. May my young men come out without harm." The leaders then stood back, and the young men from the crowd prepared to rush in and strike the tree, as if it were an enemy. The woman held her elk-horn wedge close to the tree and raised her hammer, while the Praise Singer stood be1The mother of Scolds was once brought forward by the Soldiers, but when she cried, "Young men, consider me!" a voice came from the crowd, " Her moccasin has no bottom " (that is, her pretention is false). The medicine-man at once said harshly, "Go back where you belong!" and she staggered away in disgrace to her lodge, where she threw herself upon a pile of skins, weeping and tearing her hair. It was never forgotten, and the children of her dssakkg taunted her with reminders of this public humiliation. {view image of page 70} 70 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN hind her and sang his song, at the end of which she raised her hand as if to strike. Three times more the song was given, and at the conclusion of the last, while the young men began to press impatiently forward with lances raised, the woman struck the tree, and at once the air was filled with shots and yells and cries of "An'he! A"'he! " as the young men struck the "enemy" with lances, guns, and bows. A captive woman of the Lakota now came forward. She took a vessel filled with red paint, representing the blood of her own people, and with her hands painted one broad band about the tree. Then a berdash came forward, and raising an axe, said, "May all our enemies be like him," and felled the tree. Another great outburst of war-cries, and the young men struck again. The other three poles and twenty more were cut down without this ceremony, young men doing most of the work, because the trees represented enemies. The poles were all cottonwood, about twelve inches thick and at least forty feet long, the four principal ones a little larger than the others. All were trimmed nicely, but left unpeeled. Warriors on horses dragged them out to the edge of the timber with ropes, and left them in a row a short distance apart. Then all stood back facing the logs, the successful war-leaders decorated with war-paint and each with a woman standing behind him. The Soldiers were mounted bareback on the swiftest horses, ready to pursue any man who should try to get away, for the young men were trembling, knowing that some would now be chosen to bear the brunt of battle. The Soldiers went among the crowd, and selecting a brave man, seized his bridle; if he tried to get away, they took him by the hair. Big Shadow, carrying a pipe and an eagle-feather fan, came and touched the man's body with the sacred feathers, whereupon the struggling ceased and the man gave his death-cry. Then he dismounted, advanced to the logs, and made an attempt to lift the first one; sitting down on it, he cried, " My lodge-pole is heavy! " thus signifying that in the next battle, when hard-pressed by the enemy, he would not retreat, but would jump from his horse and cry, "My lodge-pole is heavy; I can drag it no longer; I will die here!" Then his relatives and friends came forward and heaped before him a pile of presents, not for him, but for the Priest,' who had already been appointed by the chief to paint the dancer and to do the other sacred things in the sun-lodge. Ten men in all were selected by the Soldiers, one for each of the ten poles, and each declared himself 1 Akbaiih'tsia, He That Does Sacred Things. {view image of facing page 70} Flathead woman - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 71} THE APSAROKE 71 with the words, " My lodge-pole is heavy!" Each called for seven friends, members of his society, and the eight tied their reatas to the log in four places, four men on each side, mounted, and dragged it with songs and shouts around the camp-circle to the lodge-ground. As they passed the lodges, little boys rushed out and struck the log, crying, "Here comes the dead enemy!" The noon meal followed. Soon after midday the crier called, "Remount! Remount!" and all did so, some of the men taking women behind them, and went to gather willows. This was an occasion of much merriment. Lodge songs were repeated over and over, the women joining in the singing. Great bundles of osiers were cut, and carried around the camp and into the centre of the camp-circle. With the close of the day's work fine garments were put away and all went to the river to bathe. In the evening the Soldiers went through the village in search of four of the best hunters, men who could kill, skin, and butcher game most quickly. These men were to go out in pairs and kill two strong young bulls, whose hides were to be used in the sun-lodge to cover the eagle's nest. These bulls were not to be killed with guns, but each with a single arrow-shot. The announcement of the names was made that evening, and the men were instructed to go early in the morning for the bulls. The night was passed by the members of the societies in singing, dancing, and feasting, while the four hunters spent their time sharpening knives and preparing bows and arrows. Their horses were selected from Big Shadow's herd, five to go with each party: two for packing the hide and meat, two for riding, and one for chasing the buffalo. The Priest went the round of the hunters' lodges, giving each one a fine eagle down-feather with a deerskin thong attached. At the earliest break of day they arose, leaving behind all clothing, and dashed away, for to return late from this sacred hunt would bring misfortune.' One man of each pair was named to be the shooter, another to be the chief butcher. We ran our horses all the way to a hilltop, and it was just daylight when we arrived there. A bull was trotting along on the other side. I got on the buffalo horse and chased him, while my friend brought up the pack-horses. When I came up to the bull he held up his head, pawed the ground, and kept turning to look at me as I rode around him, so that I could not get close enough to shoot hard and kill him. So I rode fast and got behind him, and struck him many times on the root of his tail with my quirt. That 1 From this point to the return of the hunters the narration is by Mad Wolf Bear, who was once appointed to fill one of these sacred positions. {view image of page 72} 72 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN made him throw his head down: buffalo always throw their heads down when they are hit on the tail. Then I rode around and shot him in the side, and the arrow went far into him. As he staggered, my friend came up, and we both jumped off and tied our eaglefeathers to his hair, one at the tail and the other at the head. This had to be done before he fell. The feathers were tied on because the skin was to be placed on the top of the sun-lodge, and they would show that the whole lodge was offered to the Sun. As the young bull fell, we took his horns and threw his head under the shoulder, which always keeps the body firmly on its back ready to be butchered. A finely tanned buffalo-hide that we had brought along we spread beside him. One at the head, another at the tail, we soon had him skinned. The skinning had to be done carefully, and every part of the buffalo had to be brought to camp. So we took out the entrails and cleaned them and laid them on the grass. We turned the buffalo over and skinned the back, and laid the hide carefully on the tanned skin. Then we cut up the meat and strung it. While we were doing this, four men who had been appointed scouts the previous night had put on white paint and thrown coyote-skins over their shoulders, and two of them had followed each pair of hunters. At daylight they had observed us from a high hill, and when the meat was being packed on the horses they started back to camp, in sight of which they gave the coyote-cry and rode in a circle, waving their guns in the air. That meant that they had really seen the enemy and not a mere sign like smoke. Then they rode into the camp in a zigzag line, and reported, "We have seen the enemy and they are very weak." We packed every part of the buffalo on the horses, except the head, and the hide wrapped in the tanned skin was placed on the buffalo horse. We loped back to camp and halted outside until a messenger came to tell us to come in. We entered the camp-circle from the east and stopped just inside. Thence to the dancer's lodge the way was lined with two long rows of people. Down between them came Mountain Tail, singing his song. He stopped beside the first hunter, seized the bridle of his horse, and led him and his companion back to the shelter in front of the dancer's lodge, where the old people sat around the walls. There the Priest called two men who had counted grand coup on the Lakota. Each of them stood up, and said, "On a war raid that you know of, I charged the enemy and counted coup, which was good and clean. May these young men do the same. May those who are {view image of page 73} THE APSAROKE 73 in mourning among our people have their revenge on the enemy without harm to the rest." Then the hunters were carefully placed on a robe spread on the ground outside the wickiup. The old people were there, because we had respect for the old and thought that behind them was some power that had brought them through the many dangers, and we wanted these powers to help us in the same way. Then the liver and other choice parts of the buffalo were cooked, and distributed among the old people, a small piece to each, and afterward the meat itself was divided among them. The other pair of hunters did the same things. The Priest's herald charged the young people to put on their fine clothes, and the young men to search for poles to be used in raising the sun-lodge timbers. A man and his friend would each get a pole and join the two near one end with a short rope. On this rope the lodgepoles would rest while they were being raised. When the young men were ready, the four principal lodge-poles were raised, and their upper ends rested on the pile of logs that had been built before the camp was made. Then a man climbed to the top and wrapped the crossing place of the poles first with ground-cedar, the sacred wood, then with red birch, the strongest of wood, until it looked like a great eagle's nest. Next one of the buffalo-skins was placed over the top and the other under the nest, and the edges of the two were fastened together with large wooden pins. To the tops of the poles were fastened ten long rawhide ropes, four to be used in raising the lodgecovering and six by dancers. When we raised the poles we always had a man whose medicine was the golden eagle and who was known to be a real medicineman. For Big Shadow's dance it was Hidatsa Horse, whose medicine was very powerful. The Priest called him, and he came forth. His medicine, an eagle's head with the tail fastened to it, sat on the top of his coil of hair, and he carried the two wings in his hands. He stood at the foot of the western pole and sang his eagle song: Moderato. Poco meno mosso.> I> > > >>> rit. a tempo. _ -_ -- _kk 'i\ {view image of page 74} 74 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN This man with the golden-eagle medicine seemed now to partake of the nature of the bird, and to be no longer a man: he flapped with his wings and assumed an attitude as if he were about to fly up the pole; he had a whistle in his mouth and made sounds like an eagle, and after singing his song the second time he walked like an eagle up the pole to the nest. Then the young men rushed in under the poles. There in the nest he perched and sang his song, and when he had finished, the men all shouted and raised the poles once, then stopped to rest. This was enacted four times, until they were in the right position and the butts dropped into the holes prepared for them. The eagle man was all the time up there in the nest on his knees, making his medicine, flapping his wings, singing and whistling; and though there was no cloud in the sky, great drops of rain fell. All the tribe knows that. Everybody watched the eagle medicine-man anxiously, and trembled while the song was being sung for the fourth time and the poles were being raised and dropped into the holes; for there he was far up in the air, flapping his wings and looking down, just as if he were really an eagle. Then the men rushed eagerly for the other poles, sometimes ten men to a pole, and threw them up quickly to the crotch, where the medicine-man hopped about like a bird, getting out of the way of some poles and putting others into place, until finally all the twenty were arranged properly. Next the young men thatched the lodge with osiers, tying them firmly and climbing up on them until they had nearly reached the top. Then the medicine-man came down. The hundred skins for the cover were fastened together with thongs into four large wedge-shaped pieces, each one of which was tied to the end of one of the long ropes. Some climbed up, raising the walls of buffalo-skins with the hairy side outward, while others on the ground pulled on the four ropes, which extended over the tops of the poles, until the whole lodge was covered. Before coming down the men at the top threw four of the dancers' ropes outside of the covering. The lodge was about twenty steps in diameter. After the noon meal the young men and women were called to go into the timber and gather firewood for the sun-lodge. Each couple brought a bundle to a certain place, and sat down while the Soldiers selected a woman of virtue. She stepped forward, and said, "All young men, look upon me! If at any time I have committed any act that will undo me, come forward now! " No one challenged her, and she went to the place where the wood was piled, and addressed the Sun: "Old Man, you look down upon me and know what I have done. {view image of facing page 74} The eagle medicine-man - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 75} THE APSAROKE 75 You know I have been true to what I say. As this dance is to be made, may all success come with it, that we may have revenge upon our enemies and live long upon earth." She then picked up a bundle of wood and took the horse of the young man with whom she had come out, and so led it into the camp. The others followed in the same way, the women leading the horses, and all the bundles of wood were placed outside the sun-lodge door in a great pile. A clansman of the woman's father took her arm and led her around the camp-circle singing her praise. Then all were sent back to bring earth from an open hillside, but first the Soldiers picked out a celibate to lead the party. That time they took White-bellied Wolf, a man about forty years of age. The young people returned with the fresh earth in small bags. While the wood and earth were being gathered, the men who had led war-parties dressed and painted with their medicine just as if for war, and whoever had been a scout did the same, painting with his chief's medicine. They came to the sun-lodge, the scouts ahead of their chiefs, single file. As each party came to the rear of the lodge, they stopped and the chief made his medicine, singing his songs and making himself into whatever his medicine was, and whatever he then saw regarding the enemy he told at once. Then they passed on around and out, while the next party came in and did the same. The herald called, "Young men, prepare for the dance!" This was only for Good Young Men. The Praise Singer, Big Shadow, and the Priest had gone into the dancer's lodge, the one that was pitched inside the camp-circle, and the Priest sent the Praise Singer and assistants into the sun-lodge to prepare a bed in the rear for the dancer. This was made of fresh earth brought by the young people and was covered with ground-cedar. Back of it was planted a small cedar-tree. Then the Praise Singer returned to the dancer's lodge. All the Good Young Men were in their own lodges putting on war paint and dressing. A buffalo-chip lying in front of the Praise Singer was lighted, and powdered leaves of ground-cedar were dropped on it from time to time to make incense, in which the Priest lowered the medicine objects four times. Then he put his hands into a bowl of white clay four times, singing a song, and each time stretching his hands out before the dancer's face as if to paint it, and the fourth time he really did so, brushing down over every part of Big Shadow's body. He put a skunk-skin on the dancer's neck, and a deerskin apron about his waist; then an eagle down-feather was tied to the medicine-lock and an eagle wingbone whistle was put between his lips. Eight old men with strong {view image of page 76} 76 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN voices came and sang twice, while Big Shadow slowly arose; and they sang twice more while he danced, just as if in the sun-lodge, holding an image of a Lakota in his hand before him. This image was of deerskin stuffed with buffalo-hair; its face was painted yellow, with two black stripes from the eyes across the cheek; an owl-feather was fixed to its head. It was hung in an oval hoop set with eagle-feathers. Eagle-feathers had to be used, for the hoop and effigy were an offering to the Sun, but the single owl-feather was in mockery of the enemy. People had begun to gather about the sun-lodge, men, young women, girls, and boys, who, the moment the dancer entered, threw up the covering of skins and leaned against the willows, peering through. The Praise Singer replenished his incense fire, where he made the sacred smoke of ground-cedar. That fire was never allowed to die until the end of each day's ceremony. Big Shadow came out and went to the sun-lodge, followed by the Priest, the Praise Singer, and the singers. They circled to the left, and the dancer sat at the end of the bed, the Priest at his right and the Praise Singer next, while the singers went around to the right and sat down beside the cedar-tree. Then the other men who wished to fast came in and took their places in little willow booths that had been prepared around the edge of the lodge, where the ground was covered with sage. Each one had painted himself and wore his medicine, and brought shield and lance, which he placed before him. In front of them sat the Good Young Men in two rows, one at each side of the lodge. Two women who knew the songs and had strong voices sat behind the singers. With the first song Big Shadow began to dance, ever facing the image of the Lakota, which had been tied in the branches of the cedar-tree, and two Good Young Men, one on each side, leaped up, advanced toward each other, and pretended to fight. If one had been wounded in battle, he fell down when the other shot at him. Then they returned to their places, and two more fought. As each pair rose the others sounded the war-cry, and this continued until all had taken part. Two old women were boiling buffalo-tongues in big pots hung over the fire, and as fast as they were cooked, forked them out with long sharp sticks from the handles of which dangled Lakota scalps. When the dance ended, at midnight, the tongues were divided among the Good Young Men, the singers, the Priest, and the Praise Singer. Some were passed out through the willows to the young men and their sweethearts. After the feast, all went home except the dancers, the {view image of facing page 76} The sun dancer - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 77} THE APSAROKE 77 fasters, and the fire-makers - two young relatives of Big Shadow appointed to keep the fire in the sun-lodge. The dancer, covered with a buffalo-skin, lay on his back facing the east where the sun would rise, in anticipation of a vision. If at any time in the night the dancer went outside, the two fire-makers swept a path for him with willow brooms, and when he came back they brushed away his footprints, for they were sacred and no one was allowed to step on them. During the whole night the mourning relatives of Big Shadow continued to weep. In the morning, just as the sun appeared, the herald rode through the camp calling with a loud voice, "Your friend has slept long! Your friend has slept long! Warriors, paint your wives and have them carry your honors to the sun-lodge!" Only great warriors could join in this. The Priest was already in the sun-lodge dressing the dancer again with his medicine things. At the same time came the men who were going to fast in the expectation of finding medicine. Each one had a medicine-man, with whom he came to a post about twice as high as a tall man, which his friends had set up in the ground just after the building of the sun-lodge. These posts, forty or fifty of them, were in a circle around the lodge, and two ropes hung from the top of each. The medicine-man painted the dancer with white and tied either his own medicine or the dancer's or the dancer's father's medicine on the top of the post. Their shields and lances were there too. Each medicine-man cut the breasts of his votary, pushed and twisted the skewers under the flesh, and slipped the two ropes over them. Putting his hands against the man's breast, he pushed him away three times, then threw him with all his strength. Two other men were similarly pierced and tied to the ropes leading down from the eagle's nest, dancing there in the centre between the rows of people; and four others were cut and tied to the ropes hanging outside. This was all done at sunrise. Inside, the Priest and the Praise Singer sat beside the dancer, who was still lying on his bed of ground-cedar and not yet painted for this day, and the burning incense rose before them. In front of the fasters stood a row of the old men. Then the men who had counted grand coup entered, each with all his wives, who carried on their left arms the trophies, or symbols of the trophies, their husband had captured in battle. Each woman was painted on the face with yellow, over which were close horizontal stripes of red. As each man entered, one of his father's clansmen took him by the wrist and called, "All men, consider my son! I want him to sit near the honor-place!" If a man's deeds {view image of page 78} 78 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN were not sufficient, the sons of his father's clansmen shouted, "No!" and he was not allowed to sit with the men thus highly honored. But any who had counted a good, brave coup was given a place there, with his wives beside him, until the ones so distinguished formed two large semicircles extending from the Priest to the door. The Priest raised Big Shadow and painted him again, for the sweat during the night's dancing had washed the other paint off. Then the singing and dancing began, while fasters, old men, warriors, and women uttered war-cries, and all the people felt like striking the enemy, and sang their war-songs until it seemed like a great war-party. Inside of the lodge Big Shadow was dancing and praying for visions, and the two men were swinging and jerking on their ropes in an endeavor to break loose. Faster grew the singing to make them excited and brave to bear the torture. On the outside the forty men tied to their posts and the four to the long ropes were looking from their medicine to the eagle's nest and the Sun, crying, "0, Sun, I do this for you!" and always pulling and falling back on their ropes, crying and praying for strength and visions. All around these men fastened to the posts were many more who with thongs tied to slits in their shoulders were dragging fresh buffalo-heads, buffalohides, and bear-skins; they walked about with staffs in their hands, praying, crying, groaning, imploring for medicine, and asking the Sun to give them an enemy. The singers and people gave war-cry after war-cry, and fathers, friends, and relatives sang songs in praise of the fasters, that their hearts might be brave to do this thing. This was a great time, and many men fasted for visions. All around the camp on every high hill or peak were men praying to the Sun. They would cut off the end of a finger and hold it up, praying, "O, Sun, I give this to you; send me visions and give me an enemy! " Then hearing the sounds of the camp like a battle greater than their people had ever fought, their hearts would grow strong, and they would cut off the tips of other fingers and offer them to the Sun, and then flesh from their bodies, crying out again, "0, Sun, I give you this flesh from my body; give me some of your people!" In the camp men who claimed honors in single-handed combat mounted their horses and, with war-songs and shouts, rode up to the sun-lodge, thrust their spears through its skin covering, and shouted the deeds they claimed; and if no one disputed them they were given buffalotongues to bear away on their spears. Occasionally the singing stopped, while the singers drank and smoked, and Big Shadow stood still, looking at the image of the Lakota. {view image of facing page 78} For strength and visions [photogravure plate] {view image of page 79} THE APSAROKE 79 But in a moment the dance was resumed. As the day wore on, the shouting, singing, and war-cries became louder in the effort to excite the dancers and make them forget themselves and go outside of themselves. Some of those who had been pierced began to growl like animals and froth at the mouth and utter strange cries, while others made prophecies and described visions they were seeing. All day and until midnight it was like this; but four times during the day the singers had to stop and rest, and the dancer sat down. After midnight he lay down, and those outside went closer to their poles and lay on their backs; but if they let the rope slack too much, it touched the raw flesh of the breast and burned like fire. They remained there, tied to the posts, fasting, until they experienced a distinct vision, sometimes two, three, or four days. If the skewers were torn out before the vision came, they lay on the ground awaiting it; if it came before the skewers were torn free, the man called his medicine-man, described what he had seen, and if it was clear and satisfactory, the flesh was cut and the dancer liberated. The rule was that the dance should last not less than four days and that the dancer had to remain until he obtained a clear vision. Sometimes dancers stopped in less than four days, having had their vision, but this was not often the case. Itsihbadhish said in the beginning, "You will fast, shedding your tears on the ground, one, two, three days, and on the fourth day you will see something." On the seventh day the Priest, thinking something was wrong with Big Shadow, - perhaps he was impure from contact with woman, for he had experienced no vision, - decided to make medicine before him in order to determine if anything would happen. So he took the image of the Lakota from the tree and did before Big Shadow just what his medicine had done in the vision in which he received it. Suddenly Big Shadow fell dead. He was dead all day, his spirit travelling with the voice that was showing him his vision, and when that voice brought the spirit back to his body Big Shadow jumped up, but that was not until the evening. Nothing was done by the medicine-men to bring his spirit back to the body. The sun-lodge was filled with old men and women, waiting silently for his story. Just before sunset his spirit came back, and the old medicine-men washed him, gave him a sip of water, and said to him, "You cannot lie. Never have the Apsaroke danced seven days in the Sun Dance. You, Big Shadow, are the chief man. Now tell us the truth, and tell us, without hiding anything, what you have seen." He answered: "I heard a great shout as though two opposing {view image of page 80} 80 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN war-parties were coming together, and a voice said, 'Come and see!' And I went up on a hill, and looking down into the valley saw many Lakota, forty or fifty, lying dead and scalped, their weapons strewn about, and victorious warriors gathering up the spoils." Then a great shout went up from the camp, for we knew that Big Shadow would have his revenge. He was then put on a robe and carried to his own lodge, and the whole camp followed, but instead of rejoicing, turned into mourning to see a man so weak with fasting for revenge on the enemy. The image of the Lakota was put into the Priest's medicine-bag, and the hoop with its dangling eaglefeathers was tied to a bunch of sage, painted black, and hung from a long pole leaning against the lodge. To another pole was fastened a mountain-lion skin, a white buffalo-skin, eagle-feathers, and the skin of a silver-tipped fox. The lodge remained as an offering to the Sun. The fulfilment of the vision is thus described by one of the old chiefs: "'Between now and the time when the grass is green is my time,' said Big Shadow. 'My father has given me a great victory in that time; he has given me Lakota and no other enemy.' "In the following autumn we moved up the Bighorn to the Stinking Water [Shoshone river], in the Land Beyond The Mountains, and there had a great fight with the Lakota, one of the greatest we ever had. A war-party had sighted us and left their boys and inexperienced men behind on Sage creek. They were hiding behind a hill, and as we came up they shot and killed the Pipe-bearer, Eats With Dog. He had been appointed in the place of the chief Hair On Top, who was off with most of the men on the north side of Stinking Water chasing buffalo, while we marched along on the south side. There were no scouts out. Red Bear did not do such things when he became chief. He was a chief! "When the hunters saw the commotion in the line, they crossed the river and charged the enemy, driving them up to the top of a butte and surrounding them there. The fighting lasted about an hour. One man whose son was killed in the first part of the battle ran up the hill and, without pausing, leaped in among the Lakota. Another did the same thing. In all four Apsaroke were killed that day, and not one of the forty Lakota escaped. "After all were dead ropes were put around their necks, and they were dragged down the hill and laid in a row. One of them had his face painted white. In the fighting, when they were all on top of {view image of facing page 80} The sun dance votary - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 81} THE APSAROKE b the hill and our men were climbing up to them, shooting, he leaped out among them and stabbed three men before he was killed. His body was laid by itself ahead of the rest, for although he had not killed the men he stabbed, he was a brave man. As they lay there, all scalped, they looked like a lot of baldheaded men.1 The following songs reveal something of the spirit that prevailed in an Asparoke Sun Dance: Moderato _ 5iu moto DRUM I21 rnr-^-*=^ ^ i^ ~=^9 -__ > > - > 4 ~~~~~* ______ ___| 1ita _ See Volume III, p. 175, HIGH HAWK'S WINTER-COUNT, year 1845. VOL. IV-6 ~~t i I- P" r, dJ I ~~~~~~~~~~LLid II IJI — IIII-[r= -A ~ -. j~~~~~-o0 J ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~DRU do ~I.I~ -., _j. ~ ~[~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~d_~i. {view image of page 82} 82 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Allegro non troi5pio DRUM ' - l~t~mmI~tm~tt~t~tt — N- AP _- > > >_ > > > > > >..... /" -"_ _ *^-r -'I:J-i> > >-__ --- fModerato DRUM 1- r - -- r --- x ---- -t-_ t" ---. {view image of page 83} THE APSAROKE 83 > > >!^ J J HJ. X 11 —IgIr __ __ _ > > > > > War and the Chase 1 Campaign Against Shoshoni In 1858 about nine hundred lodges of the Apsaroke formed a camp along the Yellowstone near Rock creek and Clarkes fork, in southern Montana. The Whistle Water clan under Red Bear were at the mouth of Red Lodge creek, and the Kick Bellys were on Clarkes fork a short distance south of the Whistle Waters. The latter moved down to Red Bear's camp in early spring. Three months previously three strong warriors of the Kick Belly clan had been killed by the Shoshoni, and their relatives craved revenge. The parents of the dead men carried the pipe to Red Bear, and the rest of the band marched behind them, all wailing and mourning. Red Bear's lodge was much larger than the others; the skin of a black bear formed the door. It was a sacred lodge, and before entering people must make a noise outside to announce their arrival, and they must lift the flap over the entrance reverently. The people stood outside of this lodge crying; one of the men pulled aside the door-covering, and the m c i th e e advanced o Red t Re ThRelated by Hunts To Die. 1Related by Hunts To Die. {view image of page 84} 84 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Bear, who was sitting in the honor place. On the left sat prominent members of his clan. The pipe-carrier held the mouth-piece to the lips of Red Bear, and in supplication slowly laid his hand on the chief's head. After the pipe had been passed around, the relatives of the dead warriors brought in a young woman, and said, "Red Bear, we give you this woman for your wife," and she seated herself at his left. The men of the other clan entered and took places on Red Bear's right. All were silent. The chief directed a man to cut the turf from a small space in front of him, and between that and the fireplace to dig a hole as deep as his arm. Another man brought in a smouldering buffalo-chip and dropped it into the pit, and on it Red Bear placed sweet-grass and fir needles. The rising smoke drifted toward the south, and as the people saw the good omen, they exclaimed, "Anh6, a"ho, a"ho6!" Then fresh earth was scattered over the cleared space, and on it Red Bear spread a white-tanned deerskin. He took his medicine bundle from where it hung in the honor-place, and after holding it in the incense, laid it on the deerskin. "I have been waiting for some of my tribesmen to bring me the pipe," he said; "we will have a great victory! " From the medicine bundle he took some pelican-down, the head and tail of a spotted eagle fastened together, the head and neck of a pelican, the skin of a black fox, and a twisted strip cut from the back of an otter-skin, including the skin of the head and the tail. To the head of the otter was fastened a disc of brass, through which were inserted an eagle-feather dyed blue and a pelican-feather. As he brought forth each article he held it in the incense and laid it on the deerskin. The elder brother of the chief put on his medicine, painting his entire face yellow, and across it horizontal stripes of red. The forelock he tied with a strip of flannel, so that it hung to the left. Red Bear himself fastened the otter-skin on the crown of his brother's head, in such manner that a feather stuck out at each side, and then painted his own face red, with a spot of white on the right temple. In their hands the two mixed yellow paint and applied it to their hair, and each had an eagle-bone whistle suspended from his neck. An eagle-feather was in Red Bear's hair. Then the chief said: "Be silent. I wish to look over the country and see what is before us. Throughout the camp let no one move from the lodges; keep the dogs and the children quiet." All knives, axes, and weapons were removed from the lodge. "We are looking for good," said Red Bear, "and these things are bad." {view image of facing page 84} On Top - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 85} THE APSAROKE 85 It was now dusk; the fire was burning low, and the people waited with bated breath to see the chief make medicine. He said: "When I fasted, I heard this song," and then commenced to sing: Moderato rit. a tempo > > > > > > i.-,,~. —!!!!!-A' I m_ I ] — 1: I:iSk i ---I I' - The song finished, Red Bear held up the black fox-skin,' and said "I shall go straight. I shall bring a white horse. I shall bring many horses." He sang: "I shall charge on my enemies all over the earth; they have been given to me. As I look, they are coming." The chief and his brother rose to their knees as he sang, and peered about like eagles in search of prey; they moved their arms like wings, and trembled. At that moment their souls left their bodies to roam about and look over the country. Red Bear sang his medicine-song: "From all the earth the white birds 2 came to me; good things will come to you." Andante quasi allegretto > > > > > > > > > - ~-a' —^ ^J a- - -. _. -J.- ' -q -J -t? When the singing ended, wood was thrown on the fire, and as the lodge became lighted, one of the Whistle Water clan filled a pipe and offered it to Red Bear. After he and his brother had smoked, they removed their medicine, and it was wrapped up again. The chief turned to his brother: "Let us hear what you have to say." The scouts of Red Bear always carried this black fox-skin to aid them in discovering the enemy. 2 The pelican, messenger of the Morning Star, his medicine. {view image of page 86} 86 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Black Eagle replied: "To the south of us, at the foot of the mountain, the real bird was throwing his head from side to side; in his beak he held a woman by the hair, her feet just touching the ground, and he was bringing her to me." Red Bear said: "A little beyond where you saw the woman, I also saw the eagle carrying a woman in his left talon, and in his right a mottled sorrel horse." Then turning to the people he instructed them briefly: "Make many moccasins; 1 prepare yourselves. In three days we start." The crier rode through the village, proclaiming the instructions, while runners went to the camp on the Yellowstone, and those who desired to join the party soon began to arrive. On the third day we started, about two hundred warriors, with a few women, wives and sisters of the dead men. There is nothing in the world a man enjoys so much as a campaign of this kind, especially where there are a great many warriors and a good leader. At night the different societies, Lumpwoods, Foxes, Big Dogs, and Muddy Hands, camped under separate shelters. After five sleeps we moved up Clarkes fork, half of us on foot and half on horseback; we crossed Heart mountain 2 and came to the Stinking Water. Here we stopped and killed many buffalo and dried the meat, for Red Bear said there must be no shooting from this point on. Crossing Stinking Water we came on the eighth day to Sage creek, where the sage-brush grows higher than a man. We made shelters of it. The scouts reported that they had seen nothing. Early the next morning Red Bear went down to the stream to bathe, and when he returned, he announced, "The enemy has come over the mountains to the Bighorn country to hunt buffalo among the white grass." 3 He came to me and said, "Take another young man, a swift runner like yourself; go to the Old Woman's Sack,4 and see what you can discover." I took Buffalo Comes From Below, and we started, running wherever we could, a little faster than a trot, A pair of moccasins with rawhide soles lasted four days in rough campaigning. In passing through rocky country or land where prickly-pear cactus was abundant they made a false sole, which was fastened to the upper part of the moccasin with a draw-string. A warrior usually carried ten pairs of moccasins, rolled up and placed in a rawhide bag, with awls and sinew for mending. 2 A spur of the Shoshone range. 3 Salt-weed, a very nutritious plant on which the buffalo fattened in the spring, while the herds to the far north were poor and lean. 4 A cluster of hills south of Stinking Water, so called because it is a jumbled mass of rocks, broken country, and high buttes. {view image of facing page 86} The scout - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 87} THE APSAROKE 87 and just as the sun was resting on the mountain we came to the Old Woman's Sack and climbed to the top of the highest butte. Through the chief's telescope I saw a black streak in the distance, the Shoshoni trail, and we went down to examine it. We found where they had broken camp three days before, counted the spots where seventeen lodges had stood, and picked up some worn-out moccasins, several pieces of fresh meat, and a broken arrow, to take back to Red Bear. We could see the tracks of horses and of women and children leading to the northeast. Long afterward, when we made peace with the Shoshoni, we learned that this band under Split Nose had left the tribe after the chief Washaki had warned him against separating from the main body and going so far north. "There is no Split Nose among the Crows," he had answered. "Take me and eat without fear." We returned to the scouts, who looked like pine-trees on the hill, far in the rear, and together we went to the camp. Wood was heaped on the fires until the whole camp was lighted, for now it was so dark that it seemed like holding your hand over your eyes. We threw down the moccasins, the meat, and the arrow before Red Bear, who looked at them closely and showed them to Spotted Horse. Roasted meat and buffalo-back fat were placed before us, and we ate. Many of the warriors were singing medicine-songs, and the women were wailing for the men who had been killed. Holds Back The Bear said, "When I hear these mourners it makes my heart cry. To-morrow their sorrow shall pass away." When I had finished eating, and put on fresh moccasins, the chief said, "If you were leading this war-party, I would return to the Old Woman's Sack, where I would have a good view of all the country at daybreak." So I understood that I was to return to the butte. Six other fast runners went with me, afoot, for the country was so rough that we could travel faster than horses. Just at daybreak we reached the butte, and by the time we had climbed it the sun had risen. I turned the telescope toward the Bighorn river and saw the smoke from the Shoshoni camp hanging in the trees. I could see even the horses. Farther to the south was the smoke of Washaki's band on Sunlodge creek. "It is good," I said; so we painted our faces with white clay, and started back to Red Bear's column, which looked like a shadow creeping over the land. We followed a little dry creek, and just as we ran into a hollow we gave the wolf-cry, and though they had not seen us, when they heard the cry they halted. {view image of page 88} 88 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN As we came nearer we heard them singing the song that many tribes use when the scouts return with news of the enemy - Apsaroke, Lakota, Hidatsa, Mandan, Assiniboin, Piegan, and others: Moderato F12 DRUM > > > > > > 1iP'. - ' '-TzC.., >5 > > > > > > 2 > >.> > > F _>i [> 1 ' ' >i 1 - ' _______ I_, _> > > > > ^> >__ I>___ j, * * *.' *. * I-i - I "What have you seen?" asked Red Bear; and we replied, "On Sunlodge creek is a large camp, but nearer is one of seventeen lodges, whose trail we found yesterday." Everyone was trembling {view image of facing page 88} Old Dog - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 89} THE APSAROKE 89 to meet the enemy, eager to kill. The chief sent out the crier, who rode along the column, shouting "We are near the enemy! Remember our young men who were killed and cut to pieces! Fight bravely, and we will wipe out their camp! Do not talk, but think of victory!" We moved on to the butte and remained there the rest of that day in a hollow at the top, where there was plenty of grass, and water from a melting snowdrift. We scouts slept a short time while Red Bear and several other chiefs went to the highest point and carefully scanned the country. When the sun was low we started in single file down a dry creek, Red Bear in the lead. His plan was to reach the Bighorn river that night, and strike the Shoshoni camp in the morning while the men were running buffalo. Twice that night we stopped to make medicine, but not until almost morning was the great medicine-making begun; then the chief lighted a buffalo-chip and burned sweet-grass on it. The warriors sat at each side of him in a half-circle, while he sang a medicinesong and held his gun in the incense, and said, "I want you to strike the enemy in the head and thigh." All in turn we held our guns in the incense and struck them with our gun-rests, singing the chief's medicine-song in low tones, so that the guns would shoot straight. He told us not to bring bows and arrows to the incense. One man did so, and Red Bear said, "You must not bring these weapons here, for I saw only guns in my vision, and if bows and arrows are held in the incense, some one of us may be killed." We slept until morning. Then we saddled our horses, but after going a short distance Red Bear halted us, and said "Spotted Horse, look upon me. If you have good medicine, bring it forth; do not hide it. There are many mourners among us, and they seek revenge. The enemy is before us, and they are many." Spotted Horse was stripped to the loin-cloth; his body was painted yellow, and red was around the scars on his breast and arms where he had cut off flesh for the Sun. His hair hung in a long braid behind, and in it were eagle-feathers and brass rings. He made his medicine, and went slowly toward a pool of water, his body bent as if he were looking for something. Suddenly he leaped back, turned about, and sang the victory song. "What I see in the water is men, women, children, horses! " he cried. "Blood flows in the stream!" One of the men said to him, "Spotted Horse, if I capture a gun, you shall have my horse." The sun was shining, and Spotted Horse pointed his finger at his Father, and said: "This man has given me a horse. Help him to take a gun this day!" {view image of page 90} 90 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Everyone was opening his medicine bundle, and little clouds of incense were rising all about the place. Bear Cap painted his forehead with a reddish-black paint, and burned a root for incense, over which he stooped, and sang: "When the paint touches his body, he is mad. When the paint touches his face, he is proud." Then he imitated a bear, and the teeth seemed to show between his lips as in a bear's jaws. I went to the chief, and said, "You have worn me out on this march. Look upon me. If I win honors I will give you a horse." Red Bear carried a buffalo-horn, half black, half white, and decorated with bells. We went to a freshly made buffalo-wallow, where he rubbed the horn in the mud, and pawed the ground like a bull. Then he threw on the ground the loop of otter-skin that was fastened to the horn, and told me to step in it. When I did so, he fastened it around my body, and rubbed some of the mud from the wallow upon my chest. Finally we were ready to start, and I was sent ahead to locate the camp and to see if the country was such that we could charge upon it. We left our blankets in a heap, and wore only loin-cloths, war-paint, and medicine. When I returned with my report, Red Bear gave the order to charge, and we swept down upon the camp like a herd of stampeded buffalo. The few men left in the camp were too surprised to fight much, and we shot them down like prairiedogs. The women and children ran for the stream, which was covered with ice; but we caught nearly all of them, and dragged them back by the hair. The Shoshoni had beautiful lodges of elkskin. We threw them down, pulled out the parfleches and tore them open. War-bonnets, shields, elk-teeth, food we found, and some tobacco. The tobacco was the best thing we found, for ours was gone. Whatever we did not want we threw into the fires. Some of the people had not finished cooking breakfast, and we overturned the kettles. Split Nose lay behind a log. He had two guns, and it was hard to kill him, but at last some one shot an arrow through his neck. We scalped the dead, and then, with the captives in front of us, started away. Behind us were bare lodge-poles and a few stray dogs. We left a child in a carrier leaning against a tree. In all we had about forty captives. A Shoshoni woman came running out of the woods making signs, and we stopped until she caught up with us. One of our men who knew Shoshoni asked her why she came. "My child is with you," she said; "I came to take care of it." She was the wife of Split Nose. When she learned that {view image of facing page 90} Big Ox - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 91} THE APSAROKE 91 her child was not with us, she wanted to go back, and begged us very hard to let her go, but we took her along. We had rounded up a big herd of horses, so there was a mount for everyone. We had not gone far when we found that one of the women was shot in the side, and the man who had captured her tried to pull out the broken arrow, but it would not come. Some one cried, "Kill her!" We called an Apsaroke woman who was mourning, and she came with a club; but when the Shoshoni woman saw her, she jumped up, and the Apsaroke woman turned and ran, the other chasing her. Crazy Head crushed the skull of the Shoshoni woman with a stone. We scalped her and went on. Long afterward we learned that a Shoshoni boy herding horses near the camp when we attacked it rode to Washaki's camp and told the news. The men were excited, and wanted to follow us and avenge their friends, but the chief said, "Split Nose said there was no Split Nose but himself. He wanted to give away his horses and children, and now he has done it. No man shall leave this camp." And no one did. We travelled the rest of that day and all night, and in the morning camped on Stinking Water. On the way home as we passed through Pryor Gap we made the Shoshoni women sing their own songs and dance with the scalps of their dead. A Sioux Invasion Just below Lodgegrass canion, where the creek emerges from the mountains, is a level but stony place. Here occurred a battle 1 between the Apsaroke and the Arapaho, in which three of our enemies were killed and the rest driven across a gully. On the other side they drew up and stopped, and we were on this side along a low ridge. They looked pretty with so many different colors shining in the sun. One man rode out from their line, came down into the gully and up on this side. We said to one another, "Keep quiet, and when he is close we will kill him." When he came near he made signs: "Be quiet, my friends. I am coming. I am Horse In The Night." So he came to us and we took him among us. He was an Apsaroke of the Bad Coup clan, born in captivity, for his mother had been taken by the Arapaho. He could speak Apsaroke. The members of his The date is placed, with a fair degree of accuracy, at August, I864. {view image of page 92} 92 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN clan took him to one of their lodges and gave him many presents, and the Arapaho moved away. Horse In The Night said: "Listen well. Do not think I am lying to you. I have put my life in your hands by coming among you, hoping to save your lives. Right behind us the warriors of all the Lakota tribes are coming. They mean to kill every man and take your country, your women and children. They are coming. Perhaps they have seen you already. Move westward to some place where you can make a good fight, for they are very great in number. I begged these Arapaho not to have this battle, but they were foolish and it is good that you have killed some of them. But now throw away your lodge-poles and go. The big bands have smoked the pipe together and are coming!" Soon after his speech the things that had been given him were packed on horses and he went back to the Arapaho. We were then on the headwaters of the Little Bighorn, whence we moved northwestward, but we did not throw away our lodgepoles. It was dark when we stopped on the Bighorn, about twelve miles south of where Fort C. F. Smith was afterwards built. In the morning, before sunrise, the crier went through the camp calling, "Horse In The Night did not lie! Be on your guard against the enemy and keep moving! " We were sure that Horse In The Night had not lied, because in the darkness a certain man had heard his horse, whose voice he knew, nickering; then the sound was repeated from a greater distance, then came another sound as if a man had struck its face trying to make it be quiet. In the morning the horse was gone, and we were sure that Lakota scouts had taken it. As we learned afterward from the Lakota, they got to that camp while the fires were still smoking. We had no time to put out fires. They placed ten men at each camp-fire, and even then there were men left. Seeing how great they were, they all gave war-cries, and shouted, "This day we shall take their wives and children and have their country! Their women shall be ours and their boys shall herd our horses!" We were about four hundred lodges: some were with the River Crows visiting, and some of the Kick Bellys were away in the Gallatin valley. With the Lakota were some of the Cheyenne and Arapaho. That day we moved around Pryor mountains on the north, and on the night of the following day the camp was between East Pryor and Tattooed Face creeks. There we danced with the three Arapaho scalps. The boys were playing outside, filling their loin-cloths with {view image of page 93} THE APSAROKE 93 dust and throwing it at people. Two men crept up on them, seized one of them by the arms, and began to run with him. The other boys thought they were Apsaroke men playing with them, so they pursued and threw stones at the men, while the boy cried and finally threw himself down bodily, and the men released him. He came back, and the boys ran to camp and told what had happened. The boy himself said the men were Lakota, because they used a kind of perfume different from that of the Apsaroke. Then the old men rode through the camp cautioning the people to be watchful: the enemy were growing very bold. That night and the next we spent in moulding bullets for our flintlocks. Some had Springfield rifles and made their own cartridges. There were neither Lumpwoods nor Foxes, everybody was only Apsaroke. The next day, as we moved down Tattooed Face creek to Arrow (Pryor) creek, two or three hundred warriors rode in front leading their fast war-horses, and as many more behind. Others rode at the sides. White On The Edge, an old man and a great medicineman, carried the pipe. Blackfoot and Iron Bull were the chiefs, but their medicine was not potent enough to enable them to carry the pipe at the front in such a time of danger. About a mile below where Keiser now is, we camped on level ground. On the east was Arrow creek, and on the south another small creek; on the west was hilly, broken ground, and on the north a small dry ravine. Inside these four protections was a high, level piece of ground on which we camped. Many of the stragglers halted in the bottom, some of them five or six hundred yards away from the main body. The Lakota would have to cross the creeks and the ravine to attack the camp, and between them and the high place the low land was narrow. We had about five hundred good warriors of more than eighteen years of age, but counting the boys of fifteen and upward there were more. On the march from Tattooed Face creek to this place a small war-party, which had left us on Lodgegrass, rejoined us and reported that a great army of Lakota were following us. A few of this party were missing. Early the next morning, while the women were packing, - we intended to make our stand at the Yellowstone, - an old man crossed Arrow creek to look for his son from the high places. White On The Edge had announced that he would smoke four pipes, while the stragglers closed up, and he sat smoking with his chiefs, when the old man across the creek was charged by three or four Lakota, who had crept upon him in a ravine. They chased him down the hill and stuck him in the back with a lance, tumbling him off his {view image of page 94} 94 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN horse. Some of our men, having by that time crossed the creek, rescued him, and the Lakota went back. Then all the Lakota in the world charged down from behind the hills in two great divisions, one on each side of East Pryor creek. The line was half a mile wide, and they were thick. We galloped down to the creek. One of them, riding a roan horse, crossed to meet us, and Wolf Head struck him and was struck by him, but the Lakota, instead of coming into the thick of us, turned and rode toward his people. He was stuck full of arrows in the back, and Bear Cap following put an arrow through him, and the man fell into the creek. It was about the time when the sun is half-way to midday. Someone shouted Navadhi, navadhi, nadvadhi! "Now charge!", and everybody yelled the war-cry and dashed across the creek.' We drove them back up the hill, but when they reached level ground at the top there were still coming behind them so many Lakota on foot that we could not move them. They were like ice in the river when it breaks up in the spring. Then they began to push us back, but after we had given way a short distance High Swallow and His Horse Is Spotted turned into the thickest of the enemy's line, and the rest of us, seeing that, charged after them and pushed the Lakota up the hill again. High Swallow was shot through the head with an arrow, but His Horse Is Spotted was not hurt. When we forced them back to the thickest part of their line again their numbers checked us once more, and as we were pushed down the hill, Fights Recklessly jumped off his horse to fight and Shot In The Hand started toward him to rescue him. By that time the whole Apsaroke line had got almost to the creek, leaving these two alone. It seemed as if every Lakota there shot at them. They swept down upon the two and covered Fights Recklessly, but Shot In The Hand rode down the hill surrounded by Lakota, who stripped him of everything he had - shield, bow, quiver, and lance; but before they could kill him he galloped over a place that no horseman since has ever dared to descend. When they pushed us back it was little by little, not on the run. We were fighting for our home that day! While the fight was going on, a great many Lakota were up on the hilltops smoking and looking on. When the first charge came, the lodges had been quickly put up again in a close circle, and the women, after gathering all the horses inside and hobbling them, had dug a trench inside the camp-circle; and 1 The command to charge did not necessarily come from the chief; any good warrior might shout it. {view image of facing page 94} The lookout - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 95} THE APSAROKE 95 between the earth thus heaped up and the lodges, they lay with the children out of the way of stray bullets. The lodges were so close together that one could not pass between them, and the covers were turned inside out, so that everything was black. This looked warlike and fierce, and reminded the Sun of the skin-covered sun-lodges that had been erected for him. About noon the Lakota succeeded in forcing us across the creek. We gathered between the camp and the two creeks, and they combined their two forces and crossed. I was tied on my horse, for this battle was after I had my bad wound that took away my hip, and every time I shot he bucked and reared. It was fine that day! Everybody except me dismounted there, so that the fighting should not go up the hill to the camp. On the west side of the creek the prairiedog village was covered with horses, some lying dead and some kicking. In one small space 1 were eighteen horses dead. Some of the enemy came around to the north where the dry ravine was, and we placed men there. Four of these men were like mountain-lions: they did not yield; every time they shot, somebody on the other side fell. The Lakota spread out to the west too, and men had to be stationed there in a washout. We were being pushed back toward the top of the hill. I rode up into the camp-circle, got off, hobbled over to the ravine on the north, and got into a little washout. I was going to stay there. Bullets were striking the lodges like hail. I shouted to the men below me, "Face the enemy!" Sometimes the Lakota, with war-bonnets streaming, would appear above the edge of our side of the ravine and then fall back shot. They looked pretty. Those four brave men were like that many angry bears. They would push the enemy back clear across Arrow creek, and then run back to their places south of the ravine. We shot so much that our guns were hot. When the sun was close to the hills in the west, all along the line men were shouting, "Powder! Powder!" and women came running down from the camp with powder. In the ravine some young men rushed forward into a clump of brush, from which a draw led to an open space where about thirty Lakota were standing and shooting from a distance. These young men were only about twenty yards from them. They fired together, and the Lakota fell like a lot of sticks. The rest of them ran, and the sudden killing of so many seemed to dishearten the enemy all along their line. Besides, a woman had stolen out of the camp and set 1About three acres. {view image of page 96} 96 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN fire to the timber down the creek, and the Lakota thought that the cloud of smoke was a signal from another band of Apsaroke. The shout arose, "The Lakota are running!" Kadhakinadhai, kadhadkinadhui! "Mount again!" My young nephew brought my horse as soon as he heard the shout, and I got on and tied myself in the saddle. It was like a nest of ants swarming out when one kicks into their hill as we charged all along the line and pushed them into the creek. We drove them up the hill, and some in the panic threw away their dead and wounded; they left seven behind, and we lost eight altogether. The men on the hilltops stopped smoking and got on their horses and went. I wondered why those men had come. When we got to the level above, we stopped driving them, and they went away moving slowly like a big herd of buffalo after they have been chased. All along their line we could see them repacking the dead on their horses. Apsaroke and Nez Perces Against Lakota Five years after the fight at the mouth of East Pryor, about two hundred lodges of us - the rest were away with the River Crows -were hunting buffalo along Arrow creek, and some animals were seen with Lakota arrows sticking in their backs. Scouts were sent out, and we moved northward to the Yellowstone country where we could have a good fight. We found the Lakota along Crooked Face creek,1 about four hundred of them, a war-party in search of us, living there in little low lodges that looked like sweat-lodges. They saw us at the same time, as we could tell by the signals they flashed to one another. With us were eighteen lodges of the Nez Perces under Looking Glass and White Bird, who had been visiting us. That night we had a war-dance, and so did the Nez Perces. Looking Glass came forward and struck the drum, and said, in signs, "Crow Men, look at me. To-morrow I am going to get off my horse and fight. Beat the drum once for me." White Bird stepped out, and said, "When my friend jumps off, if no one helps him, I will. If a Lakota gets off his horse and is surrounded by Nez Perces and Crow Men, I will dismount and take his gun away from him. Beat the drum once for me." 1 A stream flowing into Pryor (Arrow) creek, a few miles upstream from Huntley, Montana. The fight occurred in I869. See HIGH HAWK'S WINTER-COUNT, Volume III, page 179. {view image of facing page 96} Apsaroke camp [photogravure plate] {view image of page 97} THE APSAROKE 97 In the morning scouts were sent out, and they reported the enemy divided, a portion being on each side of Pryor creek. So we separated to meet them. As the sun came above the earth, the division on the west side charged down from the hills and one of our parties went to meet them. Those on the east side, seeing our camp empty, charged down from the hills, intending to cross the creek and strike us in the rear; but just then our other party, which had been concealed in the hollow, rose in front of them. They were surprised, and went back. I was with this band, and the Nez Perces were divided among the two forces. They were proud men. The Lakota on the west side were pushing the Apsaroke back when Looking Glass dismounted. The Lakota came on each side of him, so that we could not see him for a moment; but the Apsaroke turned quickly and charged, driving the enemy back. Looking Glass still had his horse with him: the Nez Perces and the Flatheads, when they dismounted in battle, kept their horses and did not turn them loose as we did. A Lakota horse was shot, and his rider ran on foot. A young man who had been captured from the Shoshoni when a child rode after him and struck him. The man on foot shot him through the stomach. Another man caught up and struck second, and was shot through the breast. A third Apsaroke counted third coup, and the Lakota shot him through the thigh. Then suddenly another of the enemy appeared from somewhere and took his friend on his horse and went. White Bird kept his promise. When a Lakota was on foot and shooting, he rode up behind, jumped off, seized the gun, and ran. We always knew when the Lakota were ready to run, and now when the time came we gave war-cries and charged. They began to run, and their friends on the other side went too. We chased them over the heights, and stopped there to catch horses, pick up robes and weapons, and to plunder their abandoned camp. In the running fight we killed eleven horses and then broke the heads of their riders. War-bonnets were flying loose, and they threw away robes and ledhorses. There were about a hundred and fifty of us and about twenty Nez Perces; we lost three and our friends one. Death of Iron Eyes and Escape of Among The Willows Bull Rises Small and Blackbird On The Ground raised a warparty against the Lakota to avenge the death of ten Apsaroke, who VOL. IV- 7 {view image of page 98} 98 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN had been killed some time before. Iron Bull was in this party. He was always doing strange things, yet he afterward became chief. Probably it was he who had the warriors of the party ride through the camp before dusk, their women behind them, stopping before different groups of lodges, singing the song that was always used before leaving for war against the Lakota. The swiftest runners among them were wearing long wolf-skins whose tails swept the ground. I went out for my horse and began to saddle. My father usually said nothing when I wished to do anything, but now he said, "My son, from the time I was born to this day never have I known our warriors to sing the war-songs in broad daylight. Something will happen to these people. Do not go." So I threw off the saddle. Iron Eyes sat in the midst of his friends, and his father, No Neck, came and beat him on the breast, and cried, "My son, when your friends have fear on their faces and weep within themselves, and run this way and that before the enemy, stay behind and fight! Do not come back! Death comes, and you cannot leap over him. I want to cry before I am old! " There were many great fighters in that party, and one of the greatest was Big Otter. He was the chief who would call the young men to him and try their bows, and if they were not good, break them, and say, "Go to a certain man and have him make you a good bow. Pay him." He would test their other weapons in the same way. With the seventy warriors were five women and a child, and three boys learning how to fight. Passing near the country of the Hidatsa, they turned southward and on the fortieth day camped at the foot of Rainy Hills.1 Scouts informed the chiefs that in the east they had seen the smoke of four fires. Everybody began to paint, but Bull Rises Small said, "We know that many sit around one fire. There are four. This day we will be no more!" They left their women and boys at the foot of the hills, and went on to the east toward the camps of the Lakota, some of whom were already on their way to the west, a great hunting party, and the two passed each other without knowing it. The enemy came upon the women, children, and horses. Two of the women, the little child, and the three boys escaped; the other three women and the entire camp outfit were captured. The last band to leave the villages was attacked by the Apsaroke, who got there just about that time. Our men killed two or three, scalped them, and 1 North of Grand river, South Dakota. {view image of facing page 98} Hairy Moccasins - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 99} THE APSAROKE 99 withdrew, when another large party came and struck them. In the first fight the Apsaroke had become divided into three parties, two of which made their escape from the field. In the third party were forty or forty-five men. They rode rapidly toward where they had left their women and children, but they were set upon continually by fresh parties of Lakota returning from the attack on the women and boys. As they retreated, fighting, Iron Eyes and Bull Rises Small, who were mounted on fine horses, would turn and hold the enemy for a moment, then dash forward and join their friends, who in the meantime had got a good start. At last Bull Rises Small leaped from his horse, and, dodging from side to side, shot at the charging enemy. The Lakota surrounded him, dashing around and back and forth, and finally killed him. They covered him up with their numbers and came on. Then Iron Eyes would turn and hold back the enemy alone. His friend, Three Thighs, was put on the ground by a shot through his horse's hip, and Iron Eyes took him on his own horse. Then he shouted, "My friends, I have helped you long enough! My flesh is hot with running, and I go no farther! The words of my father No Neck are sticking in my throat! Tell him for me that I died like a brave man!" When the Lakota came close enough to hear, he sang the Apsaroke death-song, the one a man uses when he is going to dismount and hold the enemy: Moderato. >-> > > > > 1L:S.Z.__" 4 _. * I I~_'l l dl W N, L>_> > do- -4 --- -- -- -__ Just then Only Boy found himself afoot, and called on Iron Eyes for help. He also was taken on the horse, and then Iron Eyes leaped down and shouted to the others to go home and tell {view image of page 100} THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN I 00 his father how he died. The others wheeled the horse and jumped off, slapped it in the face, and stayed with him. Three more men turned their horses and went back, leaped down, and stayed: Iron Eyes was not the only brave man. These three were Big Forked Horn, Loin, and Golden Eagle. They were surrounded by Lakota, a great swarm, while the most of them continued the chase. It took a long time to kill those six. Iron Eyes was left lying alone nearest to the Lakota camps. Big Otter was in another division of this large party, for they had become further separated in the retreat. As the enemy pursued them, he looked back and saw a man 1 pointing, and directing his warriors. He said, "I will see if he is a man, that person who talks and points! " and leaping from his horse, he went back. The Apsaroke stopped, and the Lakota held back as their chief jumped down and came forward to meet Big Otter. He put an arrow to his bow and shot as he ran. Big Otter ducked his head and the arrow struck on the top and glanced off high into the air. The Lakota shot again, striking him in the shoulder. Big Otter fired his gun, a flint-lock, but the powder had fallen out, and the bullet merely rolled out of the barrel. He threw the gun behind him and ran forward, and before the Lakota could draw another arrow from his quiver, Big Otter grasped him by the left wrist. The Lakota raised his bow and began crying aloud. He was afraid to die. Big Otter was a strong, big man. He pulled out a long knife, and taking his enemy by the throat, plunged it into his breast and ripped him open through bones and flesh down the breast and out to the side below the ribs. Then he gave him a push and the man fell, and all his entrails gushed out on the ground. Big Otter turned away and walked toward his friends, then looked back, and shouted, Lakota biukate, navahi!t-"Come on, Lakota women!" But when they gathered around their chief and saw what that strong man had done, they signed to him, "Go on!" and cried for the dead man. Big Otter mounted behind a friend who had ridden back, and they went on. The whole prairie was dotted with little parties of Apsaroke retreating before swarms of Lakota. In another band of our men was Strong Falcon. His mother's brother jumped from his horse and cried out, "Strong Falcon, when you get home to the Apsaroke camp, whose horses are you going to ride?" Strong Falcon had taken care of his horses and ridden them, and he meant that he was not going to 1 This was the father of Sitting Bull, say the Hunkpapa of Cheyenne River and Standing Rock reservations. {view image of facing page 100} Goes Ahead - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 101} THE APSAROKE IOI return home, but would die there. The young man at once turned back and dismounted beside him. They were quickly surrounded, and the older man was soon killed. Strong Falcon kept on fighting, and as his medicine began to manifest itself - it was bear - his teeth came out between his lips and froth was on his mouth. He rushed at the Lakota, just like a mad bear; they fell back, and finally ran and left him. In that day's fight eighteen Apsaroke were killed or captured, including the women and children. Many Lakota were killed. When the warriors got back home they sneaked in at night like whipped dogs. No Neck came to the lodge of the first one, and asked, "How is it?" "Many will not return," was the answer. "Tell me about Iron Eyes," said the old man; "how did he act?" "The last time I saw Iron Eyes he was facing the Lakota, fighting to give his people a little time to run; then I saw a hundred Lakota surround him and from a hill I saw him covered by the enemy." No Neck tried to laugh, and started to walk to his lodge, but stumbled and fell. When he was alive again he took a knife and slashed his arms and legs. "Iron Eyes, Iron Eyes, I did not know it would be this heavy or I would not have said what I said! I thought it was a good thing when I said, 'Stay behind!' but, my son, it is bad!" So he wept and cried. The wife of Iron Eyes wore a dress covered to the ankles with elk-teeth, and two long strings of them hung from each ear. As soon as she heard the mourning of No Neck, without waiting to take off her elk-tooth dress she seized a knife and stabbed her head many times, and slashed her arms, so that the blood ran over her clothes. Every night after that No Neck sat in his lodge, weeping, and crying over and over, "Iron Eyes, and the bay horse with the split ears, I shall never see you again! I did not know it would be this way. If I had a hundred sons, none would be like you, Iron Eyes, Iron Eyes, my son!" All night he would wail such words, and the whole camp heard them, and the hearts of the young men became hot against the enemy. In the day-time he was alone in the hills, mourning. His hair was shaved close, and he wore nothing but a piece of old lodge-covering. As he sat with his head on his knees, the magpies would perch on his shoulders and peck at the old buffaloskin, and mountain-rats gnawed holes through it. For more than two years he mourned thus, until a great victory was won over the Lakota. Then for the first time he washed the blood from his face. {view image of page 102} 102 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Among The Willows, one of the women captured in this battle, relates her experience among the Sioux: I was twenty-one years of age. There were seventy warriors in that party, and as they moved away, my husband, Bull Rises Small, came back and said to me, "North of here on the river are the Hidatsa. They are our people. If you get on that fast horse and make yourself light, you can pass the line and outrun anything." We five women and a small child and three boys were on a knoll from which we could see far to the east, but to the north was broken country. A Lakota hunting antelope saw us and crawled away through a coulee. We did not see him until he was far away, and then we thought it was one of our men. He went back and met his people, who had already broken camp and were on the march toward where we were. They passed to the north of our men, so that they did not meet. I saw something moving far away on the crest of a hill north of us, and said so, but another woman said, "No, it is sagebrush." So we sat and looked to the east where our men had gone, hoping they would take scalps, and fearing some would not return. We had a large herd of horses down in the hollow, more than a mile off. Two women got on their horses and hurried away, and called for me to come, but I stopped to straighten a pack. We had not seen the enemy yet; they were down in a hollow. First they went among our horses and quarrelled over them, and we saw men hurrying about in the herd, but we thought they were our men returned for fresh horses. The two women were far away. Another one said, " Sisters, I am talking through the pipe-stem. Those are not our people!" She made ready to ride off. The men were about a mile away, and one made a sign to stay where we were, so then we thought again they were Apsaroke. As they got closer we could see a lance which looked like that of Iron Bull, and when, about two hundred paces distant, the bearer shook it at us, we saw for the first time that they were Lakota. We tried to escape, but one woman could not get on her horse, and looking back I saw the Lakota striking her on the head with their coup-sticks, while she defended herself with an axe. The three boys rode fast and got away. I was on a buckskin horse and leading a black mare, the fast runner, and as the first one was not good I pulled the other up beside me and scrambled over on her. But in doing so I lost my quirt. In that act my fate came upon me; for {view image of facing page 102} Moving - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 103} THE APSAROKE Io3 without the whip I could not do much, though I kicked the mare and did all I could. The other woman rode behind me and whipped my mare, and that did some good. I looked back and saw a great many Lakota chasing us, all strung out along the prairie, and one young man was near us. He made signs, meaning, "Stop, you will not be killed." We stopped, and he struck us and all our six horses with his coup-stick. As he then grasped my arm, another man came up and seized the other arm, and they pulled me this way and that until the second one became angry, raised his lance, and struck at me. I threw up my arms, and the spear went through the right forearm. The other woman had been struck in the head, and blood was flowing. All this time the Apsaroke men had been fighting with the other Lakota, and some of the enemy whose friends had been killed would rush up to us and try to kill us, while others stood between and protected us. Good hearts and bad were mixed that day. I could see a little of the fighting, and it was like a bad dream. When we got back near the hill we saw someone shoot at the woman they had captured there, and we thought we would find her dead, but the bullet had only gone through the bosom of her dress and made a furrow in the palm of her hand. When we were taken back to the Lakota camp we found four large circles of lodges, and I recognized many horses of our men, who that morning had been so anxious for the fight. Some of them had arrows in their bodies; others had run so hard that they were standing with their noses touching the ground. I saw a man named Kill, who had visited among us: his sister had married an Apsaroke. In the village was one lodge very much larger than the others. I went into that and saw a large bundle in a calf-skin, and knowing that it contained the sacred pipe,1 I sat down under it. It was hanging on a tripod. The lodge had two beds in it, with head-rests covered with buffalo-skins, and the owner was a No Bows (Sans Arcs) man, who wore his hair tied in the back in a bunch. The other Apsaroke woman was there too. A Lakota woman carrying a child came in, took the pipebundle, rubbed it over my body, and put it into my hands, telling me to hold it. Kill entered and sat beside me. Another man came in, and Kill said, "These are poor people. Let us help them to escape." "No, their husbands and brothers are like mad bulls," said the other; "I shall have nothing to do with them." Then another man came, and said, "The River Crows spared my life once. I am going to do See Volume III, pages 55-56. {view image of page 104} 104 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN what I can to help you get home." That night I stayed in the medicine-lodge. The second night I was in the lodge of the man who took me, and a brother of Sitting Bull came and cried, and wanted to kill me because his father had been cut open by Big Otter; but the people of that family gave him many presents and he went away with them. The same night the young man gave me to his uncle, and then later he came and took me back. That made the uncle angry, and he was going to kill me; but I ran to the lodge of another man, Yellow Buffalo Tooth, who had been among the Apsaroke. Some men followed and wanted to kill me, but Yellow Buffalo Tooth said, "If you kill this woman you will have to kill me! " So they went away. Soon after that I heard that the other two women had run away, and I screamed and cried, for I was alone. The man said, "Woman, do not cry. Your tears make my heart bad. I will see that you go home." The Lakota moved to another stream and held the Sun Dance. I had a hard time then. In the sun-lodge they had an Apsaroke scalp hanging, and a man cut off a braid of my hair, tied it to the scalp, and raised them both to the pole, as an offering. The man who had been released by the River Crows came and stood by me and prayed to the Sun, "Grandfather, you see all things! Let this woman go to her people! " Another man came and prayed, but I do not know what he said. After the dance the people in the lodge where I was living began to make moccasins for me, and one night they packed food on my back and sent me away. They told me the foolish young men were north of there waiting for Apsaroke who were said to be in the country, and that I should keep on to the south until I could see the Black Hills, from where I would know the country. I ran, then walked, then ran again. I slept only a little at night. My soul was gone from my body and I did not think of myself. I did not get tired. In four days I went from north of the Black Hills to the Little Bighorn, near where the Custer fight took place later. There I found the Kick Belly band in camp. The tops of the hills were dotted with little brush shelters of people mourning for the men lost in that fight at Rainy Hills. They all came down to meet me, and Blackfoot, the chief, came cutting his body and arms with a sharp knife, and threw his arms about my neck. The other two women had got back in ten days. They had started while the Lakota were east of Rainy Hills, and I when they were north of the Black Hills. {view image of facing page 104} Bull Goes Hunting - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 105} THE APSAROKE Io5 Campaign Against the Sioux In 1858 the camp of the Apsaroke was on the Bighorn at the mouth of Dipper creek.1 The Kick Belly band's leader, First Feather Of The Tail, and a man named Three Owls had been killed by the Lakota and Cheyenne, and the Kick Belly people sent a sacred pipe to Spotted Horse, a great war-chief, in order to enlist his sympathy and have him lead them in a great expedition against the Lakota. Spotted Horse at once had the crier announce that warriors should come to his lodge prepared for war, the scouts with wolfskins and others with buffalo-robes, and all with moccasins tied to their bodies ready for a rough campaign. We came to his lodge. After hearing his talk, we took our guns with the gun-rests tied to them and went about the camp singing the songs that were used only before going to war against Lakota or Cheyenne. Young women rode mounted behind us, assisting in the singing and praising us. That was at night. Then we went back to our own lodges and prepared, and early the next morning started, one hundred warriors - a little more. All the people in the camp were stirring to give their young men a good start. I was a scout. We took the very best horses, only one each, and no one was allowed to ride except a few who drove the herd, for we wanted to have them strong for the charge. Some had no horses, but led dogs on which were packed moccasins and food. It was midwinter. The snow-drifts were whirling. We followed Rotten Grass creek to its head in the mountains the first day, about thirty miles. As we moved up the creek, Spotted Horse told us scouts - there were thirty of us - to spread out to the sides of the valley, and, if nosign of an enemy were seen, to kill some buffalo and bring in meat. When the halt was made, many of us brought in buffalo-humps on our backs. In the woods the snow was deep, but on the heights the wind had blown it away. That first night with dead logs we built a sort of stockade in a circle, and filled the cracks with dry grass; overhead we piled brush, leaving a smoke-hole. Within was a good warm shelter. Each man had one buffalo-robe, and the horsemen had for saddles large pieces of old lodge-covering, which were now hung around inside the lodge. We wore cloth shirts, which our women had made of stuff bought of the traders; and each had a flannel overcoat with a hood, Beauvais creek, an affluent of the Bighorn. {view image of page 106} io6 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN also made by the women. We had a good many flintlocks. At night the horses were placed in sheltered spots by herders from each society, who then returned to the lodge and rubbed their bodies warm with dry buffalo-chips. The trees were covered with frost. The next morning was so cold that the smoke went up straight. I did not stay inside much, but was always up on a hill, looking. Balky was chief of the scouts for this party, and we scouts had to obey him. He sent different ones to different hilltops, and sometimes if we saw no enemy we sang to our sweethearts back at home and taunted the men belonging to other societies. Scouts had only one meal a day, and that was after going in at night. That day we moved to the head of the Little Bighorn. Nose That Shows, whose brother had been killed by the Lakota, had shaved nearly all the hair from his head, and sang as he went along, "Young men, I have no one to run to!" That was to excite us young men. Our third camp was at the place where Aberdeen, Montana, now is, and in that country the snow was becoming very deep. All this time we had had no buffalo cows, only bulls, but between there and Tongue river we found plenty of buffalo and killed a great many cows. The back fat was half an inch thick. We camped northwest of where Sheridan, Wyoming, now is. Then we followed up Tongue river for some distance, and saw the trail of the Lakota and Cheyenne who had killed First Feather Of The Tail and the brother of Nose That Shows. There had been about forty of them. The same day, the fifth, we came to a frozen lake that was surrounded with buffalo. We scouts crossed on the ice, but it was thin, and cracked a good deal. In the middle was an open hole: we thought that was a mystery-place. The next move was to Piney creek, toward the place where they afterward put the Piney creek soldiers,1 and the seventh camp was on the south fork of Piney. Then we went to Crazy Woman creek, thence to a place about half-way from there to Powder river, and next nearly to the river, on a creek flowing into it. On the morning of the eleventh day Spotted Horse, who had been very quiet, was more active, and said, "My men, it is good. I am growing excited. The enemy has moved camp toward us from Rattlesnake Hills to Powder river, and they are camped there. It is a big camp. Half are Cheyenne and half are Lakota." He had made no medicine, but had seen these things in the night. He sent ten men on toward Powder river, picking out only the very best scouts, 1 Fort Phil. Kearny. {view image of facing page 106} Approaching winter - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 107} THE APSAROKE I07 telling them to go to a certain butte on the north side of the river and look over the country. They were to go afoot. I was one of them. When we got to the butte we saw smoke rising straight into the air on the north side of the river. With our glass we could see herds of horses. The sun was still low, and we sang the war-song of the discovery of the enemy: Mfoderato, sostenuto. > > > >> -> > V MWA I 8 3 8 8 8 8 1) R >Il "..11,,j I -AR I I::10 —* I - N..q /1-N 8 8 8 8 8 8 w w~~~~~~ — 8 8 -d *p 8 8 8 8 IVt 8 8 dw dF w 0 -.I --- 8 8 Yell twice during remaining drum-beats. 8 8 8 8 3 888 8 8 {view image of page 108} io8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN We went back to the camp, all except two who had been told to stay and watch the enemy, to see if they moved, and if they did not, to learn just what they were doing with their horses, and then to come back in the night. After we had journeyed a short distance back, we stopped and painted with white clay, and when we approached the moving party we gave the coyote howl. They spread out into a half-circle and threw up a heap of buffalo-chips. We ran zigzag in single file, and when close to them trotted in a circle, then started again singing and howling and giving the war-cry. That made great excitement in the party. Then as we shouted and sang, we got to the heap of buffalo-chips, and the leader kicked it over. We were all out of breath. The young men were on their horses, racing back and forth, singing their medicine-songs. We stopped before Spotted Horse, and said to him, "We saw the smoke, we saw the horses, but we did not see the camp." Some young men were trembling with excitement. Medicine-men began to make medicine for little groups of warriors. "This is what we have been looking for; now make your medicine," they would say. The sun came out, and it seemed warm. Spotted Horse said, "I am going to make medicine. Now everybody be quiet and look at me." The young men opened a path toward the enemy, and Spotted Horse began to strip off his clothing, throwing his leggings down to his ankles, and some young men were called forth to paint his body yellow. Then with red he was painted wherever he had offered flesh of his body to the Sun. While being painted he stood like an eagle, feet apart, body bent, and arms spread out like a bird's wings. One man tied the chief's hair all in a mass on the top of his head and strung many metal discs along his medicine-lock, putting an eagle-feather into the central hole of each one. He had an eagle-bone whistle in his mouth all the time. Some old men were shouting, "Hurry! Hurry!" Spotted Horse sang his song, "Whenever I open my eyes, I know." He stepped proudly about like an eagle, and sat down. Then he sang again, making motions like an eagle, and again, looking at the Sun and saying, "His spirit has come to me." Then he sang the fourth time, stepping high and twisting his head like a bird when he looks about. After that he sang other songs and held his finger toward the Sun, then put it on a piece of red paint and marked a circle all about his face, and a spot on each cheek-bone. Then the Sun, which had been shining clear, put on his paint. Whenever Spotted Horse painted, the Sun seemed to paint too. Finally the chief sang a song in which he said, "I am the only bird." He called out, "Did you see that {view image of facing page 108} Spotted Jack-Rabbit - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 109} THE APSAROKE IO9 bird just flying by, carrying a man and a horse in his claws? Did you see him?" Then he said, "It is well; it is time." Just then the other two scouts came over the hill, giving the coyote cry. The buffalo-chips were piled up, the two came in brandishing their guns and kicked the chips over, and cried, "They are coming toward us; they will pass just to the north of us!" Spotted Horse called, "Men, be brave, be strong!" Everybody then put on his own paint, and we were all ready. We mounted bareback and left our packs in the hollow. Following a ravine that led to the way the Lakota were coming, Spotted Horse guided us. We could hear the bells of the moving party and the beat of horses' hoofs on the frozen ground. We came out on the top of a hill, and there down below were the Lakota and Cheyenne. Down we charged like a big bird and broke the line. Everything was upset, travaux carried away by the stampeded horses, children and women crying. I was third in the advance. Guns were banging everywhere. I grasped the arm of a pretty woman, but she put her hand to my face and pushed me away. I was young and proud, and no woman could put her hand in my face: I thrust my gun against her breast and fired. There were eleven bullets in the gun. She had a fine-looking boy; his hair was wrapped with otter-skin. I took him. All along the line I saw people falling everywhere, and men taking women and children. We routed the rear half, drove the herd of horses away, and retreated. The first half of the line did not turn to help the others, but went on as fast as they could and made a camp; the others that escaped went back to Powder river and camped. As we moved up the hill we saw some warriors from the first band ride back to the place of the fight, singing death-songs. We went to the hollow where our packs were; a natural stronghold was on one of the hills that surrounded it. The Lakota and Cheyenne came toward us and stopped opposite on a knoll. Then the shooting began, and the smoke was like a thick fog. Shields and lances appeared all along above our ridge. Leading out from it was a little spur that reached almost to the enemy. A man named Shipiiu took that place and held it, shooting over the edge and boasting back to us of his bravery. I shouted, so that everybody could hear, "Shipiii is not the only man that is proud!" I sang my medicine-song of the sparrowhawk, "I am rising, I am rising," and then jumped out between the two lines, leaping from side to side, while arrows and bullets were whistling around my head. I joined Shipiu, and we were only about {view image of page 110} IIO THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN ten paces from the enemy. Soon my friend was shot, and I took him on my back and ran to our line. Then Spotted Horse gave the command to retreat to level ground, where we would have a better chance. Everybody ran for the horses, which were tied to sage-brush in our rear, and we drew back to a level place. One man had a long-haired Lakota girl whom he had captured, and in the retreat he took her by the hair and threw her from his horse. She ran to the Lakota. The enemy thought we were running in a panic, and when we stopped suddenly and dismounted we knocked over a good many of them. We retreated again, for Spotted Horse was trying to get to a certain ravine, since our enemy outnumbered us. Once more we retreated; this time one of our men had a horse shot under him, so everybody again dismounted. We were fighting so close we could see the gun-wads flying. I and another were shot here, but no one was killed; I was helpless then. Just before we came to the edge of the ravine and dismounted, a man had his backbone shot in two, but was not killed outright. We loaded his gun for him with two bullets, then stood behind on the other side of the slope. A lone Cheyenne loped toward him to count coup, but he shot and killed both rider and horse. After some fighting they forced us from this place, and we retreated again; but from the next place we did not move. After shooting a while there the Lakota and Cheyenne gave up, and cried for their dead. We lost only two men; we killed twenty warriors and three women, and captured six boys. It was just about sunset when the fighting ceased. The enemy were moving back to their people in a great column, crying. We returned for our packs and started home, arriving on the eighth day. I was carried on the top of a big pack on a horse. Bull That Turns Around, a medicine-man, had doctored my wound in the hip right after the fight, and had taken care of me on the way home, and I felt all right. When we arrived in sight of camp, in a long column, with scalps on our lances and guns banging, we caught sight of a great crowd of women and children coming out to see if their relatives had been killed. Those who had counted honors painted their shirts black, and all of us painted our faces black. The women, dressed and painted for the dance, stood in a line to receive us, and we gave our lances and scalps to our relatives. Old men led the sons of their clan-brothers around the camp, singing their praises; while other warriors marched before the lodges, with the women carrying the scalps. Then a great ring was formed by all for the Long Dance, women and men {view image of facing page 110} The parade - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 111} THE APSAROKE III alternating, taking short steps and swaying from side to side, moving about slowly in a circle. Everybody sang. The next time the camp was moved and the procession came to a narrow place, the warriors who had just returned stood in line on each side as the people passed through. They sang songs like this: "You men who did not go out to fight, your enemies are the buffalo!" That made those men very much ashamed. This was called Make The Narrow Road, and it was a thing we always did. A Buffalo Hunt The Mountain Crows under Red Bear were moving northward from the Yellowstone toward the Musselshell. One night, when the stars had moved nearly across the sky, I was sent out to search for buffalo. Long before daylight I was gone. I ran most of the time, and when I came to the top of the hill to which the chief had told me to go I looked down and saw the lake surrounded with great herds of buffalo. It was as if a black blanket had been spread over the earth. After watching the animals for a time and noticing that everything was quiet, I started back, and at sunset came to the camp of my people, not far from the Yellowstone. They had just finished eating. I went to my lodge, and when Red Bear heard that I was back he sent for me. He was sitting in the rear of his lodge, and around the wall sat a circle of the chief men. He asked, "How is it?" and I replied, "At the head of Long creek the buffalo are so thick I could not see the ground. From there to the lake and all around it are big herds lying quiet." His crier, Medicine Crow, a large man with a very strong voice, went out and announced to the camp: "The scout has returned. He says that at the head of Long creek and from there to the lake near the Shell river the country is covered with buffalo. Grind your knives; see that your bowstrings are strong. To-morrow before day comes the lodges shall be thrown down, and we move on to Raven Woods to camp. From there we shall go forth and kill the buffalo. All young men who wish to get fresh meat for your sweethearts, now is the time! Young women, this is the time to tell young men what you wish!" On the march at such times Red Bear rode ahead, with his robe tied at the neck, the hairy side outward. He looked like a big black eagle. From time to time he would pluck hair from the robe and throw it back over his shoulder to keep the wind from going to the {view image of page 112} 112 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN buffalo. He stopped to smoke, while the Soldiers went among the people and selected a man who was not only a war-leader but a good hunter and a medicine-man with control over the wind. They took him by the arm and led him before all, saying, "We wish this man to be the leader of the hunt." When the women began to put up the lodges in Raven Woods, I was sent out again to see where the buffalo were, and before the sun went down I saw them and came back to camp. The next morning we started out early, the hunters leading fast horses for the chase, and the scouts far in front. The leader rode ahead, and at the sides were the Soldiers, keeping us in our places. If any one tried to ride around to the front, his horse was clubbed. There were about three hundred men riding, and behind were many young women, more than a hundred of them, finely dressed and painted to deceive the eye of man. Young men who had sweethearts among them sent friends back with their hunting horses for them to ride. We stopped about a mile from the herd, waiting for the scouts to return, and when they came, the leader of the hunt announced, "Now is the time! Mount your fast horses!" The maidens brought up the fast horses, and we gave them our slow ones. This hunt took place in the fall, when the fur was at its best, and we were looking for robes for the winter, as well as meat. In the spring we hunted for skins to be made into lodge-coverings. We took our left arms out of our overcoats to give our bow-arms play. Six-shooters were strapped at our right sides. Our horses were wild and jumped into the air, so that we could not hold them back, and the Soldiers were beating them in the face, and crying, "Keep back!" Red Bear was with us; but he was a hunter now, and not careful and dignified as when he led the march. On his left arm he carried a long gun, and he rode a buckskin horse, which kept rearing in the air. I was watching him. He was a man! The Soldiers kept riding in front and holding us in line while we rounded a hill, and as we caught sight of the herd, about gunshot away, the leader of the hunt gave the word, and we charged. The buffalo began to move away, but they could not go fast, for the herd was so big there was no place to run. Cows of two and three years were what we wanted for robes, so we singled them out, rode alongside, and, to avoid making large holes and spoiling the skins, used arrows, shooting from behind so that the arrows entered just back of the ribs and went into the heart or the lungs. The skins of older cows had to be split before they could be tanned, and {view image of page 113} THE APSAROKE II3 then sewed up again to make a robe. Old men and women wore these, but they were not handsome enough for young men. After killing four or five young cows, we looked for good fat ones for meat, and shot them with guns. I killed six that day, two for meat and four for robes. When I began to butcher, my sweetheart came, and I cut out the soft bone in the nose for her, took out the manyplies and cleaned it, cut the gall and squeezed its water into some blood into which I dipped the manyplies to give it flavor. Then I broke off the shin-bone, and got a stick with which to take out the marrow. These parts I gave to her, and she sat down nearby, but turned her back so that I should not see her eating. Sometimes one man killed as many as fifteen buffalo in a run. He would then cry, "I do not take the arrows back, nor the skin," and it was known that all but a few, which he kept for himself, were for the use of the poor old people who had come hurrying out from the camp when the butchering began. When the buffalo were not so plentiful, a poor man with a weak horse might not kill any; then he could come to others who had killed, and take whatever meat he wished, but not the hide. Even if he took all, the other was a man and said nothing. After the hunt a broad level stretch of land was dotted with dead buffalo, men butchering, old men hurrying to and fro receiving a piece of meat from this one and that, girls in bright-colored dresses sitting on the ground eating, and horses standing by cropping the grass. That was fine! We young men who had no wives loaded the horses of our sweethearts with meat and hides, and packed the remainder on our riding horses, covering it with hides, on which we sat. The girls rode our hunting horses and led their own: everything belonged to them! Other members of our families, our fathers and elder brothers, provided for our lodges. The sun was low when we reached camp. The next day old women were to be seen everywhere, slicing the meat and hanging it on long poles to dry, and young women were staking out hides on the ground at the edge of the camp. Old men were repairing arrows, young men rubbing down horses, while some returned to the hunting-ground to bring in the meat and hides they had left. To keep wolves from the meat in the night, a stake was thrust into the ground and a shirt hung on it. At this time of the year nearly all the meat was taken; but most of the heads were left on the ground, a few being brought in for roasting in pits. VOL. IV-8 {view image of page 114} II4 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN We remained in that place eight days and hunted during the first three, but after that the buffalo scattered, and we spent the rest of the time drying meat and hides. The second and third days I hunted for my family. There were about six hundred lodges, some of them having as many as four men, and only the very old men remained in camp during the hunt; men of my age [about seventy-five] still hunted in those days, but the number of horses fast enough for chasing buffalo limited the number of hunters: if there was only one good horse in the family, they could send out but one hunter, and the other men followed to do the butchering. Besides, many parties were away on the war-path, and that was one reason why there were only half as many hunters as lodges. A Winter Hunt One summer, about the year I860, Red Bear led a war-party of about forty men into the country of the Nez Perces, and did not return until the winter was half spent. In his absence there was no order in the tribe, no strong leader to make the people obey, and everybody did about as he pleased. So the buffalo were scattered by many small parties that did not hunt together, and but little meat was dried. When the chief returned, the tribe divided into small camps and moved about looking for game. With about a hundred and fifty lodges of the Whistle Water clan he went up Bighorn river, then across the Bighorn mountains into Amite (Land Beyond The Mountains - northern Wyoming). There was much snow on the ground, and the Shoshoni had been there hunting, but were gone, and the buffalo with them. So we found nothing, and meat became scarce. When we came to Stinking Water (Shoshone river), opposite Heart mountain, the whole country to the westward was black with some living things. I was sent out as scout, and through my glass saw a great band of elk. I went back and reported to the chief, and we all started out to hunt elk, each man with his slow and his fast horse. Crossing to the southwest we divided into two bands, and one on each side of the herd we chased them like buffalo, for down there the soil is soft, so that the elk could not run fast. We killed a great many and had something in our stomachs. Then the chief and his old men talked together: "There is noth {view image of facing page 114} Winter hunters - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 115} THE APSAROKE 115 ing in this country; let us run back to the Bighorn and see what there is north of the Place Of Many Fasts" (Pryor mountains). So we moved north. That night we camped on Many Dry Heads; it was very cold. Red Bear instructed me to scout ahead early in the morning. "We shall move northward to Muddy creek," he said. "Go up on the high places and look to see if there are any buffalo." I put on my belt of cartridges, hung my gun over one shoulder and the telescope at my side, and started out before camp was broken. When I got on the high places on the north side of Many Dry Heads, the snow was deep everywhere, even down below. It came about half-way to my knees. All the country from the Bighorn river on the east as far as I could see toward the Yellowstone in the northwest was dotted with buffalo. In the meanwhile the people had passed by me on the east, and about sunset I joined the camp at Muddy creek. That night the chief gave orders: " In the morning camp must be broken early, and we will go to the creek beyond East Pryor creek." This was a long journey, but we made it. During the night at Muddy creek everybody was grinding knives, sharpening arrow-points, and testing bowstrings, for the next day the hunters were to start out while the camp moved down East Pryor to Pryor creek. We were very anxious to kill buffalo, for though everybody had parfleches full of buffalo-berries and a little elk-meat, that did not taste good; too much elk-meat is not good. Early in the morning, when the women began to throw down the lodges, we started, wearing flannel overcoats with hoods of buffalohair, and buffalo-skin mittens fastened to the shoulders with strings. Besides the coats we had buffalo-robes, for the weather was very cold. We crossed Pryor creek, and just then a hard cold wind fell on us and the fine snow was thrown in our faces. That was the coldest day I can remember. It was so cold that the order was given to run the buffalo, kill some, cut out a few pieces of meat, and then rush for camp. I rode a big bald-face horse, the fastest one in the party. My saddle was a little pad cinched around the horse, and it had stirrups. My father was with me; though he was an old man, he was strong, and I gave him my riding horse, saying, "I will kill a fat buffalo, and you come to me quickly." The cold went into the skin, and we could not even throw off our robes to shoot. When we got very close to the buffalo they began to run through the snow, but I was soon 1 A creek running at the bottom of a steep-cut bank over which buffalo herds were frequently driven. The bottom was therefore strewn with buffalo-skulls. {view image of page 116} II6 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN in the herd and alongside of one whose back was broad. My knees almost touched her, and I put an arrow into her side. Then before my hand was bad I sent another arrow into another fat one and jumped off my horse, and while he ran around me I put my hands under my arms. They were stiff and had no feeling. My father rode up and cut the buffalo down the belly, took my hands and thrust them in between the two sides. It was just like putting them into fire; the ends of the fingers pricked as if cactus needles were going into them, and I wanted to pull my hands out, but he held them there. When he took them out, the finger-nails were black. He rubbed my hands in the snow, then I put them under my arms again, and soon I was able to use them. In a short time we had the buffalo cut up and the pieces strung together as they should be; we threw them on the horses, hurried to the other buffalo and cut it open, took out the calf, and ran for the camp. Most of the men took only a few pieces. My father was riding the fast horse and I the packhorse, sitting on the load of meat; but it was too cold, so I jumped off and drove the horses before me on a run. We found our lodges all pitched, and inside the fires were leaping and cracking. The moment the heat struck our bodies it made them tremble. Every man in the party had either hands or face cooked by cold, but that night we all feasted and were happy. The next morning the weather was better, and we took short-handled axes and cut up the meat that had been left on the ground. We stayed in that place a long time, for buffalo kept coming in from different parts of the country for shelter along the creek. Myth and Legend Creation Myth In the beginning water covered all the earth. Ifsiihbadhih, He First Made All Things, wandered about on the water hunting for thoughts, looking for land. He called to a small black duck, a helldiver, flying overhead: "Come here, my brother; dive under the water and see if you can bring up mud. With that we will make land." The duck dived thrice unsuccessfully, but the fourth time he came to the surface with a little mud in his bill. Ifsihbadh~ih laid it in the palm of his hand and kneaded it; then he blew it out of his hand, and it scattered over the water and became the land. With his thoughts he created streams and mountains. {view image of facing page 116} A winter day - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 117} THE APSAROKE II7 Ifsihbadh'ih pondered deeply, and from a lump of the newlyformed land he made four small images, which he rocked four times, singing slowly: A ndante e - > - - ji -:J rI 1__> | 2 > > > > FT> > > > FF> At the fourth repetition of the song he cast the images from him, and as they struck the earth they sprang up living creatures of human form and size, two men and two women. The two pairs were placed in different valleys and commanded to multiply. Thus the human race began. For food Itsihbadhigh caused plants bearing roots and berries of many kinds to grow. Then he moulded clay into the shape of animals with four legs and with a hump on the back. "Live!" he commanded, and buffalo filled the prairies. The deer family and other animals he made in the same manner, and the birds, to whom he said, "You shall give songs to the people, and supernatural strength to those who fast and cry." Then the creator thought, "I have made everything, but out of this earth come creatures that I do not know." He looked closely, and saw that they were ants, and their bodies became tobacco seed. He thought, "The people I am making shall live over all the earth, but those to whom I give this plant shall be few, and it shall make their hearts strong." As the people multiplied, he scattered them, and gave them different tongues, and a desire to fight with one another. To the Apsaroke he gave tobacco seed, saying, "When you meet the enemy, this plant will make you as strong in proportion to your size as are the powerful little ants from whom these seeds came." Corn-Silk and the Seven Stars In the long, long ago, the chief had a very beautiful daughter. Long and brown like corn-silk was her glossy hair, so they called her {view image of page 118} II8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Api.h.l Handsome young men, brave warriors and good hunters, wooed her, but she gave them no encouragement. Neither the greatest deeds in battle nor lavish bestowal of presents could soften her heart. One day, when she refused an unusual profusion of gifts brought by a young man hoping that he might be accepted with them, her brother in anger said, "Apish must be waiting to marry Ihbishetbishe." Ilhbighetbishe lived far away, and his medicine was so strong that women fell in love with him on hearing his repulsive name of Worm Face. Thus he had married successively three of the most beautiful women from other tribes, but after a short time he had fed them to his fathers, monsters of the water. So when the brother of Corn-silk spoke the name of Ishbih&etbihe', her heart left her, and from that time the thought of him was in her mind constantly. While her parents and brother were away from the lodge one day, she prepared a soup of turnips and marrow-fat, and a bowl of choice pemmican, and invited several old women noted for their wisdom. Placing the food before them, Apish said, "Grandmothers, tell me something about IUhbishetbighe, and where he lives." They were so amazed that for a moment they could not speak; then one of them said, "We cannot tell you, for your father would kill us;" and leaving the food and presents they went out hastily, murmuring, and shaking their heads. Apish threw herself on her couch of buffalo-robes and said weeping, "ILhbi&hetbihee, no matter where on the earth you are, I am coming to you!" Her mother, returning, noticed her red, swollen eyes, and asked, "Api,2 what is the trouble? " "My heart is bad," replied Corn-silk, "from remembering my brother, whom the enemy killed. It came to my mind and made me sad." Again when the others were away, she called in an old woman whose poverty would cause her to tell what Api~h wished to know. "Grandmother," said Corn-silk, after the old woman had eaten and accepted presents, "where does Ighbishetbishe live?" The woman clapped her hand over her mouth. "Hida, hida!" she exclaimed in her surprise. "My pretty daughter, how did you 1 The name Corn-silk proves the tale to be either a relic of an earlier agricultural life with their former brethren, the Hidatsa, or else a myth borrowed bodily from the lore of that tribe. 2 The final Ah of personal names is dropped in the case of direct address. {view image of facing page 118} The chief had a beautiful daughter [photogravure plate] {view image of page 119} THE APSAROKE II9 ever think of him? He is a monster who lives in the form of a man and with his invisible arrow steals the hearts of beautiful young women! When they come to him he throws them to his monster fathers in the water. Ihbi hetbighe lives far toward the rising of the sun. How far I cannot say, but beyond that hill, in a coulee covered with rose-bushes, is a lodge where lives a family of old women who can tell you. Take this root-digger, which will protect you from harm. Kick this ball before you, and its speed shall be yours." Now Api~h became very light-hearted. She spent her time in preparing pemmican, and moccasins for herself and Ighbishetbishe. She wore a beautiful dress of mountain-sheep skin, embroidered with colored porcupine-quills and fringed with rattles of deer-hoofs. One day, when her preparations were completed, she stole away. From the top of a high hill she looked back at the great circle of lodges over which her father was chief; she thought of the many lovers she had had, some of whom had even lost their lives trying to win her - and now she was going to a strange land to marry a man she had never seen! She turned again to the east and kicked the ball toward the land of Ighbithetbihe, and its mysterious and wonderful power carried her through the air with it. When she stopped, she looked back and found herself in a strange land. Nearby was a lonely tipi; an old woman was gathering sticks. As Apiih approached, the old woman saw her, and in surprise exclaimed, "Api-i-i!" and scurried into the lodge. Corn-silk could hear others asking, "What is the matter?" and the answer, "Apish is far from her home. What can it mean?" She entered, and saw that they were old women of the Mice people. "What can we do for you?" asked one of them. "I wish to go to the country of Ihbihietbifhe," answered Api.h. "Hida!" they exclaimed. "We cannot tell you anything about it, but in the second coulee from here live the White-breasted Mice, who perhaps can help you." So Api~h travelled on and was directed by the White-breasted Mice to the lodge of the Gophers, who said to her, "You are going in the right direction, but the Mole people in the next coulee can tell you just where to find him." At the end of the fourth day Apish came to a dirty little lodge, discolored by the smoke of many winters. The old women who dwelt there were blind, and they travelled under the earth. One of the oldest said, "My daughter, Api, listen well; do as I say and you will come to no harm." Then she explained carefully what Corn-silk was to do. {view image of page 120} 120 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Apilh kicked the ball and again she flew through the air toward the home of Ighbi&hetbighe. When the sun rose she was standing on the top of a hill looking down upon a great village in a beautiful valley. Men were playing the hoop-and-pole game, and they seemed to divine her mission, for they remarked as she passed, " Ihbighetbighe will have another wife." She asked the way to the lodge of the chief, and when they pointed out a miserable smoky little lodge near the water, her heart was heavy and she sat down to rest. A Mole came out of the ground, and said, "Api, do not forget what we told you." That cheered her a little. IghbiSh&tbighe was not at home, but when he returned later in the afternoon, Apigh found him so handsome that she was delighted. "You have come," he said; "I sent for you long ago; you have worn my patience." But she threw her arms around his neck, and he treated her kindly. In the early morning she awoke, and, stirring the embers of the fire, was terrified to see that her husband's face was covered with worms! "It is not morning; come back to bed," he said impatiently. She lay there thinking sadly about all the handsome young men, her tribesmen, who had wooed her. "On the fourth day I shall give you to my fathers for thinking what you are thinking," said Ishbi&hetbihe, who seemed to know her thoughts. In the morning he was again handsome; only at night was his face repulsive. On the morning of the fourth day the crier went about shouting, "Ihbithetbihe' is going to throw away his fourth wife. All people come and witness the sacrifice!" Everyone rushed to the heights. Ihbi~hetbibhe came leading Apigh by the hand, and addressed the water far below the bluff: "Fathers, because you asked it I have destroyed three of the handsomest women in the land! Here is Apigh, who considered herself better than any other woman of her tribe!" The water heaved and waves dashed against the rocks below. "Stand on this," the chief commanded, pointing to a whitened buffalo-skull near the edge of the bluff; but Apish retorted quickly: "I will not; I am to die anyway," and she kicked it over the brink. Before the skull could strike the water, one of the monsters leaped upward for it, baring his long white teeth. Apish stepped on the spot where the skull had rested, and sank into the earth to her ankles, for {view image of facing page 120} Two Leggings Lodge - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 121} THE APSAROKE I21 the Moles had dug away the earth beneath, and all the underground people laid firm hold of her moccasin-strings. INhbishetbibhe pushed her thrice, and the fourth time threw all his weight against her, when the ground gave way beneath her and Ilhbighetbighe plunged over the edge of the bank, with her blanket tightly grasped in his hand, and was swallowed up by one of the monsters below. The people all shouted, and opened a pathway for Apigh, who ran back to secure her ball and stick and started through the air for the distant hill, taking with her the sacred red paint of Ighbifhetbighe, his porcupinetail comb, four sacred arrow-shafts, and his arrow-straightener. "Brothers," said the creature that had swallowed Ifhbighetbihe, "I am sick. I think I have swallowed our son," and he vomited him up on the land. "Wherever she has gone, follow her and bring her back to us," said they, as ILhbighetbighe started after Apigh. The medicine-power of the ball was almost exhausted, and Ifhbighetbighe was gaining when Apigh scattered the red paint in his path. It became a fog, so dense that he knew not in which direction he was travelling, and as it settled to the ground he had to stop and pick up all the paint, piece by piece, for without it he was powerless. Again he approached, and Corn-silk threw back the stone arrowstraightener, which became a high wall extending across the path in each direction as far as the eye could see. He searched for a place where he might climb over, and at length scrambled to the top, but on the opposite side there was no foot-hold. So he shut his eyes and leaped. He picked himself up sorely bruised, and looking back saw only the little stone arrow-straightener, which he recovered, and started on. As he once more shortened the distance between himself and Apish, she threw the porcupine-tail comb behind her, and it became a great forest, the trees so close together that he could not force his way through. He climbed one of the trees and crawled over their tops to the other side, and when he again reached the ground he found only the porcupine-tail behind him. "I shall catch you and feed you to my fathers! " he shouted; but she threw back the arrow-shafts, and a whirlwind carried them just above his head. Ishbishetbighe followed them, springing up into the air in order to reach them, and they took him back a long distance before they fell to the ground. By this time Corn-silk had reached the stone lodge of the eight brothers, of whom the Mole woman had told her, and she called out, {view image of page 122} I22 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN "My brother, let me in! Ighbighetbighe is behind me, and I have run a long way!" A voice replied, "Run around the lodge four times and enter." She did so, and the stone doors closed behind her just as Ishbishetbihei came up and stood outside, breathing hard. "Api," he called, "come out! Ivakidhish, open the door!" Ivakidhfiuh was a dwarf, who received the name of Greasy Breast from his habit of dipping the tail of a wildcat into a kettle of soup and licking off what did not drip down upon his breast. "If you do not send her out," threatened Ishbithetbilhe, "I will kill you!" But Ivakidhfiuh continued to eat his soup, pausing now and then to shoot an arrow at a mark on the ground. Ishbi(hetbishe continued to storm and threaten, and at last the little man said, "I shall go outside and throw him to the ground." First telling Apigh what to do, he spoke a word, and as the wall of stone slipped aside he rushed out and grappled with Iihbishetbi.he. After a fierce struggle he threw Corn-silk's enemy to the ground, and she quickly covered the two with wood and lighted the pile. As the sparks flew aside she carefully gathered them and threw them back into the fire. When only ashes remained, she stirred them with a stick, and found a small hard lump, which she rubbed with grease, painted red, and rolled up in the robes of Ivakidhufh. Suddenly the dwarf stood before her, boasting, "I am great! I have killed ILhbishetbishe!" Later in the day he said, "Conceal yourself, sister, for a little while; my brothers are coming." She crouched behind a pile of skins, and soon heard the rumble of deep voices as the seven brothers entered and threw off their packs of game. Black Wolf, the eldest, had noticed the bare spot where the contest had taken place, and murmured: "Haaaaa"! Ivakidhfih is always doing something. He must have found some one with whom to play!" While the meat was boiling in the stone pot, the brothers sat around the fire, telling of the events of the day's chase. "I do not care what you killed," interjected Ivakidhuih, "I have something very beautiful." "You must have stolen one of my arrows," said one. "I make better arrows than you," replied Ivakidhiuh, quickly. "I left my eagle-feathers up on the rock; you must have taken them," said another. "I can catch in my pit all the eagles I wish," retorted the little {view image of page 123} THE APSAROKE I23 brother. Then he called out, "Sister, come here!" and Corn-silk stood before them, her long hair gleaming in the firelight, her eyes downcast before their gaze of astonished admiration. They leaped up, each one eager to marry her, all except Black Wolf, who said, "You are all fools; this is our sister!" So it was decided. When the next hunt was arranged, Ivakidhuih, who had always remained behind to guard the lodge, said, "My sister is here and she can guard as well as I;" so the seven took him along. Before they started, he said to Apigh, "If any strange woman comes near here, tell me at once when we return." They had not been gone long when Apish heard a woman's voice singing, and uttering the name of Black Wolf. Her body chilled, and she was even more frightened when the voice sounded in front of the lodge. "Api, my daughter, I have heard about you and have come to see you," it said, and there entered an ugly old woman, very bony and with white hair. It was Red Woman. Api~h prepared for her a dish of buffalo-tongues, which she greedily devoured. Soon the old woman departed, and from the distance came the sound of her song. When the eight brothers returned, Apigh was kept so busy with the meat that she forgot to tell Ivakidhiush of her visitor. Three times, while the brothers were away on their hunts, Red Woman visited the lodge, but Apish always forgot to tell them about her. After the fourth visit she wrapped a strip of deerskin about a stick and put it in her hair to remind her that she must tell Ivakidhuih. While they were hunting that day, Black Wolf noticed that Ivakidhfiuh was gloomy, and said: "My brother, why are you sad?" "Because in my dreams I see our home being defiled," was the answer. As soon as they returned, he saw the stick in his sister's hair, and knew that something had happened. "Api, what have you in your hair?" he asked. She drew in her breath sharply and clasped her hands together, while the other brothers stopped eating and looked up. "Has Red Woman been here?" demanded Ivakidhiuh. "Four times," said Apish, "and her medicine has caused me to forget everything." "We can live here no longer," said Ivakidhfih; "our home has been defiled, and Red Woman can now do us injury." He told his brothers and Corn-silk to stand under the smoke-hole of the lodge and to hold each other tight. Then he shot one of his {view image of page 124} 124 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN four medicine-arrows, and they all followed it through the smokehole and until it fell to the earth a long distance from the lodge. "Now, Ivakidhiuh, which way shall we run?" asked Black Wolf. "Of all animals the swiftest is the antelope," he answered. "Let us become antelopes. Our sister shall keep watch on this high hill, and when she sees a cloud come from the east, she will know it is Red Woman, and she can warn us." So Apigh sat upon the height, her eyes fastened on the clear blue sky. Her gaze wandered, and when she again looked up, a heavy cloud was almost over her. She started up and ran swiftly to the antelope in a little green valley through which ran a clear stream fringed with willows and birches. Said Black Wolf, "Rather than die upon some barren hill, let us remain here." So they resumed their human form. Red Woman came up to them, and cried tauntingly, "0, Black Wolf, shoot me through the heart; it is right here," and she placed her hand on her left side. Black Wolf shot her through the breast, and she said, "How good that feels! Shoot me in the eye, Black Wolf." He sent an arrow into her eye, and she mocked him, "Now the other eye!" and when he had shot that eye, she suddenly leaped toward him and beat him to death with her stick. The other brothers rushed to his rescue, but she killed them in the same manner. When Ivakidhuih alone was left, Meadow Lark standing behind him whispered, "Her heart is on her head," and looking closely the dwarf saw a bit of eagle-down floating above her, held by an almost invisible thread of sinew. "Of all men, Ivakidhfigh is the most clever. I fear he will kill me," said Red Woman, sarcastically. "Kotkafhik!" cried Ivakidhfiuh. "It is really so!" An arrow flew at the thread of sinew. When Red Woman knew he had discovered her secret she turned to flee, but his second arrow severed the thread, and she fell lifeless. Ivakidhufih built seven sweat-houses in the shape of the stars of the Dipper, and in each he placed the body of a brother, and by the sacred sweat he restored life to them. He left them for a time and went in search of a place of safety. When he returned, he said, "All things on this earth perish, my brothers. You shall dwell in the sky and be called the Seven Stars, and at night all people shall use you as a guide. I shall be a screech-owl." Before they separated he told Apigh that her home was toward the east. "On your way you will meet four infants; do not touch them, {view image of page 125} THE APSAROKE I25 for if you do, disease will come upon your people." Then as the seven brothers went up into the sky and Ivakidhfiuh flew away in the form of a screech-owl, Apigh started on her way. She passed three of the infants in safety, but the fourth, a pretty child, ran after her, calling, "Mother! Mother!" She thought, "Perhaps I can take this child home and people will believe it is mine." So she carried him on her back in her blanket. The people all rejoiced at her return, and her father made a great feast in her honor; he was happy, for now he had his daughter to lighten the burdens of old age. Soon after this, when all was still one night, the child arose, and, passing up through the smoke-hole, went to another lodge in a distant part of the village and killed all the people in it by sucking out their hearts. The next night another family was mysteriously killed, and the people becoming alarmed, the chief summoned all the medicine-men and the wise ones of the tribe to consider these strange happenings. Now, one of these medicine-men had a wonderful arrow, which helped him to discover hidden things; if one of the feathers became loosened, he would look through the aperture between the feather and the shaft and behold things that others could not see. He took this arrow and threw it in the buffalo-trail, where it would be trampled and the feather loosened, and the spirit that was doing the mischief would suspect nothing. The third night the imp slowly put his head out of the smoke-hole of the lodge when everyone was asleep, and looked carefully around. He caught sight of the arrow, and noticing that one of the feathers was loose, he dodged back, exclaiming, "He sees me!" In the morning the medicine-men assembled again, and the owner of the arrow said, "The one we are seeking is among these lodges. He saw that this feather did not quite touch the shaft in the middle, and he dared not come forth." That day it rained and the shaft swelled so much that the feathers fitted tightly to it, leaving no opening, and at night when the evil child looked at it, he saw all the feathers close to the shaft, and ventured out to kill a third family. The medicine-men were as greatly puzzled as ever, for the mysterious arrow, of course, could tell them nothing. But the bad weather continued and caused the sinew that held the feathers to the shaft to loosen, and so there was a very small space between the shaft and the feather next to the ground. When the child looked out of the smoke-hole that night, all seemed as usual to him, for the loosened feather was hidden from his sight. So he went out and destroyed a fourth family. {view image of page 126} 126 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The next morning the crier called all men to the lodge of the medicine-man of the arrow. "How is it?" they asked. "The child that Apish brought is destroying us," said the medicineman; " he is an evil spirit, a disease in the form of flesh." They resolved to burn him alive, and the women were all told to gather wood and place it in a huge pile in the centre of the village. They came to Apifh, and said, "Api, is this your child?" "Yes, it is my child," she wept. "You are lying!" they said. "If you do not tell us the truth we will burn you with him!" So she then told how she had found the child and taken it home and pretended that it was hers. They burned the child until only ashes remained; then the lodges were struck and the people all moved to another locality far away. Apish was disgraced forever: no one would associate with her, and in spite of her youth and beauty she lived alone, poor and forsaken, in a solitary lodge by the river. {view image of page 127} The Hidatsa {view image of page 128} {view image of page 129} THE HIDATSA Tradition, Habitat, and Customs T HE Hidatsa, commonly known under the inappropriate appellation "Gros Ventres of the Missouri," differed from most of the tribes of the northern plains in that they were a sedentary and semi-agricultural people, gaining part of their livelihood, of course, by the chase. Their habitat for many generations has been along the Missouri from Heart river to the Little Missouri, in North Dakota. Fortunately the traditions of the Hidatsa are sufficiently clear to give a comprehensive idea of their movements since reaching their present home-land, and of the time previous important glimpses may be had from their legendary lore. According to these legends, for a long time after their mythical emergence from the under-world they called themselves Midhokats.' From time to time the Midhokats moved toward the land of snows, away from their primal land where summer was perpetual and the birds were ever singing. They were so undeveloped a people that very little account of their wandering was preserved in the stories of the old men. They lived nearly naked, and raised corn, tobacco, squashes, beans, and sunflowers. Their efforts were directed solely toward preservation of life, and they had no songs nor ceremonies. As they drifted northward a tribe of people resembling them in appearance and speaking a language like their own was met near a lake. The wanderers inquired of the lake people: "Whence came you?" They answered, "We came from under the earth, far down in the country where corn, tobacco, and other things grow in great plenty." "These must be our brothers," said the Midhokats, "as they speak our language and came from below as did we." Together they moved about in search of game, going ever southwestward. They found the country very level and the winter severe, so they turned southward and came to a great river, which they 1 Compare midhoki, we, ourselves. VOL. IV-9 {view image of page 130} I30 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN called Awati. This is the Missouri. They moved down the stream until they arrived opposite the place where Heart river enters from the west. On the other side were a strange people, who came down to the shore and shouted to them in a language of which they could understand a little. Someone said, "Let us cross, and see who these people are." Finally a few took courage and crossed Awati, a quarter of a day's walk south of Heart river, and this place a long time after came to be known as Hida`ta-adhutacdhih, Hidatsa Crossing. They were called by the inhabitants, the Mandan, Minitadhi, Cross The Water, whence the name Minitaree, by which they have sometimes been known. The newcomers asked the others whence they had come, and received the reply, "From below here, where Ashiltia, Big River (Cannonball river), goes into Awati." Here with the Mandan the Midhokaft lived for a long time. Buffalo and antelope becoming scarce, a band of the Midhokaft (according to the kindred tradition of the Apsaroke a thousand lodges strong) together with a few of the Mandan migrated far to the west, passing through the Black Hills country and into the foothills of the Rocky mountains. Again they travelled long and returned to the Missouri. It is impossible to determine the length of time consumed in this western migration and the return. Lean Wolf, the Hidatsa, affirms, "So many lifetimes that no one knows." Hunts To Die, Apsaroke, says, "I know nothing for myself, only what was told by the old men of long ago. They did not live so long in any one place that it was a home to them, as where children are born and grow to be men. They were gone many snows, not many lifetimes of chiefs." It is probable that Hunts To Die is nearer right than the Hidatsa. While they were away on this long journey, continues the tradition, a great flood came upon the land, destroying many creatures and people who dwelt in the lowlands to the east of Awati. This seems to be a traditional destruction by high water and not rightly associated with a mythical deluge; however, some native informants believe this period of high water to be the basis of the deluge myth. The returned wanderers settled about the confluence of Heart river with the Missouri, a short distance north of the Mandan, building four villages, three to the north and one to the south of the smaller stream. During this period a small band seceded and went permanently to the west, and some years later came a tribal separation following a quarrel between the two chiefs, Good Fur Robe, Itafh-iiakkhA, and Tattooed Face, Ita-widafla'h, over the division of a buffalo. The {view image of facing page 130} Site of abandoned Hidatsa village [photogravure plate] {view image of page 131} THE HIDATSA I3I second band that went west and became the Apsaroke was under the leadership of the great Tobacco priest' called in Hidatsa tradition Tattooed Face, and by the Apsaroke, No Vitals. Weakened by the loss of so large a part of their tribe, the Midhokafi moved up the Missouri and established themselves in four villages on Knife river, the largest of which was Midahafti-attufh, Willow Village, on the northern side not far from the mouth. The Amahiami band settled some distance below the mouth of the river, and the Amatilha, Earth Village On Top, near and below the Amahafmi. The fourth division, the Hfda, crossed the Missouri and built a village on the eastern side, opposite the others. According to tradition the lastmentioned band mysteriously disappeared, and a woman and a child who remained behind formed the Midipati clan. From the Amahami and the Amatiha a small group seceded and followed Tattooed Face to the west. Later the occupants of the three villages moved northward and built one large town on the west side of the Missouri, naming it Turtle Woods, Yata'ii-tawidzuAh, and there the consolidated people began to call themselves Hidat[a, a corruption of the name of the large Knife River village Midahafii-atiugh. From Turtle Woods they again moved northward a short distance and built Rock Village, Miihapatzfh, so named from the great quantities of rocks in the neighborhood. This was a period of extended hunting expeditions, some of them lasting for years. Sometimes bands of the Apsaroke visited them, and parties made up of members of both tribes would move in a body westward as far as the Rocky mountains, hunting game and fighting their common enemies. The large Rock Village was the most northerly of the permanent towns of the Hidatsa, although smaller temporary settlements were made much farther west along the river, the remains of one such being found four miles west of the present agency at Elbowoods.2 After many years at Turtle Woods and Rock Village the Hidatsa moved back to their old location on Knife river, building three new towns on the sites of the old ones. Here they remained for a long time, and here they were found in 1804 by Lewis and Clark, who established winter quarters several miles below them on the east bank of the Missouri. Following this second occupancy on Knife river, the Mandan came up the Missouri in 1783 and established two villages on the western side of the larger river, south of the Hidatsa. There the 1 The medicine song of Tattooed Face as sung by the present-day Hidatsa is given on page 189. 2*The village site here mentioned is the one shown in the illustration. {view image of page 132} I32 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN five villages were visited by the smallpox epidemic of I837, when the Amahafmi and Amatiha became extinct as separate bands. In 1845 the Hidatsa moved northward from Knife river and established, at Fort Berthold, Hidatsa Village, Hida'f-ati, where in I856 they again suffered from smallpox. In i885 this last village began to be abandoned and the remnant of a once vigorous tribe became scattered about the reservation. In 1874, Crow Breast being then chief, the tribe became divided into several factions, one of the principal sources of dissension being the arrogance and overbearing methods of Crow Breast and his four head-men. One of the factions was composed of the adherents of Bobtail Bull. On a night when some act of the chief had particularly incensed his opponents, two young men of Bobtail Bull's band seized their guns, declaring their intention to kill Crow Breast. Bobtail Bull interfered, and the rest of the night patrolled in front of the lodge. The two at length proposed a compromise, namely, that their band should withdraw from the tribe under the leadership of Bobtail Bull. To this he agreed, and about three hundred and twenty-five of the Hidatsa moved in a body to the vicinity of Fort Buford. Crow Flies High, a gifted speaker, gradually eclipsed the chief, whose title to preeminence rested on his ability as a war-leader, and came to be regarded as leader of the band. About I884, these Fort Buford Hidatsa returned southeastward and camped in the valley of Little Knife river, but after a single season there they moved back to Fort Buford. In I894 the entire band, numbering one hundred and thirty-five, was escorted by troops to the Fort Berthold reservation. The first treaty made by the Hidatsa with the Government was concluded July 30, 1825, when the chiefs of the tribe met BrigadierGeneral Henry Atkinson and Indian Agent Benjamin O'Fallon in council at Lower Mandan Village (Mitutahank) and entered into a "firm and lasting peace" with the United States. In this treaty the Hidatsa are designated "Belantse-etea,' or Minnetarees." A similar treaty with the Mandan was negotiated the same day, and on August 4 the same commissioners met the Apsaroke at the Mandan village and concluded a treaty "for the purpose of perpetuating the friendship which has heretofore existed." To the credit of these three tribes it may be said that they have kept their agreement in a praiseworthy way. Probably an attempt to write the native name of Willow Village, Midaha'fi-atiuAh. {view image of facing page 132} Sitting Owl - Hidatsa [photogravure plate] {view image of page 133} THE HIDATSA I33 The culture of the wandering tribes of the plains is found to be based almost wholly on the buffalo and its habits, whereas the village tribes of the upper Missouri, although their mode of life and thought has a similar basis, are ever mindful of the fact that they depend largely upon the products of the soil, particularly corn, for their subsistence. In all their ceremonies corn is directly or indirectly made a part of the rites, and the spirit of maize is fittingly represented among their myth characters as Old Woman Who Never Dies. Strangely enough for a people depending so largely upon agriculture, pollen does not enter into their ceremonial or religious observances, and; unlike the Navaho and Apache, for example, they do not possess any knowledge of its function. In treating the Hidatsa or any one of the three tribes composing the Missouri River villagers, it is impossible to avoid considering the other two and often referring to them. As has been seen, the Mandan were the first to reach this locality, and perhaps several centuries before the first visit of a white man they were joined by the Midhokaft, since which time the two tribes have been almost constant neighbors, occasionally at strife, but usually friends and allies. Intermarriage naturally became common, and the blood much mixed. Being related by language and possessing no antagonistic beliefs and customs, the two tribes developed along parallel lines. About the beginning of the last century the Sioux commenced to press upon them, striking severe blows whenever opportunity offered. Then came the devastating smallpox in 1837, which almost swept them from the land, reducing the combined Hidatsa and Mandan population of nearly four thousand to scarcely four hundred. While in this weakened condition, they were first plundered and then joined by a third tribe, the alien Arikara, their former enemies. These groups, each small in itself, were mutually dependent; again intermarriage followed, and with the further blending of blood there resulted a confusion of customs and ceremonies. Another factor that has entered largely into the amalgamation is a century of contact with the frontier element - trappers, traders, explorers, and an ever-increasing volume of river traffic; for the villages were situated almost directly on the banks of the stream, the tribes were notoriously lax in the moral code and had no objection to the rearing of mixedblood offspring, and their women were a highly valued commodity. * The subject of this portrait shows the effect of the mingling of Arikara and Hidatsa blood. {view image of page 134} I34 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The white blood of the earlier intrusion has become so diffused as to be observable only in a general way; the Hidatsa give one the impression of being as a people somewhat lighter in color than those of other tribes. This may not be in any considerable degree owing to alien contact, for the earlier explorers invariably mention the Mandan particularly as being noticeably light, a characteristic indeed that afforded Catlin part of the testimony on which he based his untenable theory of their descent from lost Welsh colonists. It is an open question whether the Hidatsa were an agricultural people before reaching the Missouri river. They affirm that they tilled the soil at that time, and that mythic personages imparted to them the Corn Ceremony. They cultivated a variety of corn like that of the Navaho and some of the Pueblo tribes: it is low and stunted in growth, and, like the corn still raised by the Pueblo tribes of Arizona and New Mexico, consists of ears of many huesblue, red, purple, pink, green, yellow, white, and a mixture of all colors. The women planted small cleared plots in the warmth of the valleys, working the ground with a hoe made from the shoulder-blade of a buffalo. During the growing season the owner of the field took a buffalo-robe as a gift to one of the Corn priests, asking him to pray to Old Woman Who Never Dies and to the spirits that controlled the weather, that the corn might thrive to ripeness. The priest returned with the husbandman to his lodge, and there burned incense and held a stalk of corn in the sacred smoke, praying that the crop might prosper and be plentiful. He then passed the stalk to the owner of the field, saying, " Keep this," and it was hung in the sacred place of the lodge as the token of a bountiful harvest. A season of abundance was the time of great happiness and merrymaking. As a man's corn ripened he provided many strips of meat and fat cut lengthwise from the buffalo, then asked the herald to announce to the people that on the following day he would harvest his corn, that all young men and women were invited to assist him. The next morning came maids and youths in their gayest garments, for would not the one for whom the love-charm was worn be there? In the lodge old men in anticipation of the coming feast chanted songs of thanksgiving, and with laughter and mirth the assembled villagers trooped away to the corn-field to gather the harvest. As the ears were broken from the stalks they were thrown on large pieces of old lodge-covering, which when filled were borne by the men to the scene of the feast. The strips of meat lay spread on a carpet of willow boughs, and over them was poured the corn until they were {view image of facing page 134} Lean Wolf - Hidatsa [photogravure plate] {view image of page 135} THE HIDATSA 135 buried deep beneath the ripened ears. When the field had been stripped, men and women gathered about the pile and began the husking, young men tearing off the outer husks and passing the ears to the maidens at their sides, who turned back the inner husks and interwove them into braids of such length that when they were held at the middle by the foot both ends reached the knee. As the men took the ears they kept alert watch for the strips of meat, and as each piece was uncovered by some fortunate youth, shouts of merriment filled the air. When the husking was finished, a woman who had had a vision of Old Woman Who Never Dies offered a piece of the fat to the corn, saying, "Take and eat, that we may have large crops next year." For the buffalo-hunt the chief of the village made the plans and selected some worthy man that possessed the buffalo-medicine to serve as leader. A medicine-man appointed as a special herald went about the village, crying out the name of the chosen chief of the hunt, and enjoining obedience to him on the part of all. The leader despatched scouts to search for the herd, and if buffalo were known to be scarce, he announced from the top of his lodge that he would perform the ceremony of Calling For The Buffalo. When the scouts signalled their approach, all through the village rose the shout, "They are returning!" Their report was made only to the chiefs, who with the leader perfected the plans for the hunt and offered many prayers for its success. As each individual started out he asked his medicine to help him in the chase. When the herd was reached, the hunters divided into two long lines and attempted to encircle it, and if they succeeded, the animals, thrown into confusion, milled in a close circle, enabling the hunters to kill nearly all. A man on a good horse could fell as many as a dozen. The more successful hunters shared their game with the less fortunate, and meat and hides were loaded on horses and taken back to the village. Coming out to meet the approaching hunters, the people formed in two long lines, dependent old women well in front, and as the young men rode down between the crowded lines they threw out meat to the clanswomen of their fathers. To exhibit stinginess on returning from the hunt was to receive the scorn and reproach of all the village. One can imagine the chuckle of the old crones as they exclaimed, "You are good, my son!" The tongues of the buffalo belonged to the leader, and were collected for him. Before the introduction of horses, swift runners were sent out to {view image of page 136} I36 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN drive buffalo through an opening in the hills, where waiting men killed them as they attempted to rush past. It was a common custom to drive a herd over a river bluff, often a sheer precipice, in which case impounding was unnecessary. All that was needful was for the hunters to build out their V-shaped line of brush through which to start the herd in a mad rush to the edge of a cliff, over which they fell to their death. In the spring opening of the river many buffalo floated down with the ice; Lean Wolf says that at times ten or twenty might be seen going by in a day. A young man with a rawhide rope and a staff would leap from floe to floe, fasten the rope to one of the carcasses, and draw it ashore. It is said that taken in this way the flesh had a disagreeable odor, but that the people would eat it if other meat was scarce. The white buffalo was an object of great veneration, but its killing and the preparation of the skin were not attended with such ceremony and formality as among the Lakota. To the Hidatsa the skin of a white buffalo was the most valued possession a warrior could obtain; if so fortunate as to kill one of these animals he would prepare the hide carefully and await a purchaser, who was always a priest or a chief. The prospective purchaser, aided by relatives and clansmen, would gather robes, clothing, war-bonnets, horses, and other valuables, and when he felt that he had accumulated sufficient wealth he visited the owner for the purpose of negotiating the exchange. The sacred skin was first held in incense and then carefully spread out. The buyer threw down a robe, saying, "With this I buy the eyes," and with deliberation he gave article after article for each prominent part of the animal until he felt that sufficient had been offered. If in the mind of the owner any parts had been missed, he placed a stick under the tail and shook it, saying, "You have not yet bought the white buffalo." When the bargain was finally sealed, the former owner carefully placed the skin on the back of the purchaser, who took it to his lodge. If he had a son he would cut a strip from the hide for a head-band to be worn by the boy. He then painted a broad black band across the hide and took it away to some solitary tree, where he offered it to the spirits, or perhaps more directly to his own tutelary spirit as a supplication for the welfare of his people and for his own spiritual strength. By neighboring tribes the Hidatsa were considered as very skilful in capturing eagles. Their method was the not unusual one of going to some high hill or mountain-top and digging a hole in the ground {view image of facing page 136} The eagle-catcher [photogravure plate] {view image of page 137} THE HIDATSA I37 sufficiently large for a man to conceal himself therein with comfort. This was covered loosely with brush on which a bait of meat was laid. As an eagle alighted a bronzed arm slipped swiftly through the brush and seized the bird by the legs. The first captive was tethered as a decoy, and then as eagle after eagle lit they were caught in turn and choked to death with a rawhide rope. If a bird fought for freedom and fastened its talons in the hunter's wrist, he knew where to press the tendons of its legs to compel it to release its hold. Being the largest as well as the most majestic of birds, the eagle was greatly venerated, and trapping him was attended with much supplication, that the eagle spirits might not be offended by the taking of their bodies. The large earthen lodge was the typical dwelling of the three river tribes, and the houses of the Hidatsa were exactly like those of their neighbors. At first sight of one of these noteworthy habitations it seems large enough to house a whole clan, and the central roof-timbers have a height that accentuates the appearance of roominess. Before undertaking the construction of a lodge the family prepared food for a great feast, to which all were welcome. Men and women were joint workers on this occasion of labor and sociability. They first planted in the ground four upright posts eighteen to twentyfour inches in diameter, fifteen to twenty feet high, and, if the structure was to be of ordinary size, the distance apart of two and a half times the length of a man's outstretched arms. In a circle around, and four or five yards from, these pillars, ten or twelve smaller posts six to ten feet high were set. From top to top of these outer posts were laid strong supporting timbers, and in the forks at the top of the four central uprights were placed heavy beams. Long, strong rafters, peeled and closely fitted, extended from outer to central supporting beams, while shorter peeled timbers were leaned at an angle of about sixty degrees from the ground to the eaves. Over this substantial framework osiers were closely laid, then a covering of grass, and finally a heavy coating of sods, which were carefully cut, laid one on top of the other, and pounded firmly into place, making the roof water-tight. In the centre was left a large smoke-hole, over which, during stormy weather, a bull-boat was turned bottom-side up, giving protection against rain yet permitting the escape of smoke. The door was sheltered by a covered entryway, about five feet in width, built of upright puncheons. In a shallow central pit burned a fire, at which the related families occupying the lodge prepared their meals. The floor soon {view image of page 138} I38 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN hardened under the constant tread of moccasined feet, and was swept clean with a brush made of the beard of a buffalo bull. Buffaloskins were used to separate the sleeping-quarters, in which were liberal piles of robes for bedding. The rear of the lodge was the sacred place, the position of honor. Three to five families occupied a lodge, and besides the human dwellers many of their better horses were stabled close to the outer wall at the right and left of the door. The houses were irregularly placed in a circle. For protection against attack by marauding tribes a strong stockade of upright logs was built around the whole village, and as a further shelter for the warriors a trench was dug within the enclosure.1 In 1845 a feeling came over the Hidatsa that they should have a new home. Game and fuel had grown scarce and the powerful Sioux had seemingly become familiar with every vulnerable point of the old village. What was regarded as a favorable site was selected, and on the appointed day the people took up their march. At their head was the keeper of the sacred skulls, closely followed by a medicine-man bearing the sacred tribal pipe; then came the people, and on their lips and in their hearts was the prayer chanted to the spirits, beseeching their guidance. On reaching the designated spot they marched around it four times, singing, and as the voice of the people rose in the still air a great peal of thunder seemed to shake the earth, and the people cried out, "The Thunderbird looks down upon us! It is good!" They then seated themselves in a semicircle, facing the east. Crying Dog, a priest of the Sun Dance, said, "My lodge shall be at the end of the village, facing the rising Sun, so that I may see my Father's face. He will bring happiness and prosperity to the village." Bobtail Wolf said: "In my visions Thunderbird showed me his body. I shall take the west end of the village, so that my Father shall look upon us and bring rain, that our crops may grow." Fat Fox spoke: "As the daylight of the morning comes, the Morning Star appears in the sky. I shall build my lodge to the northeast, so that I can pray to him to bring prosperity to my people." "My lodge," said Bear Hunts Around, "shall represent the lodge of Old Woman Who Never Dies. It shall stand to the south whence the warm winds come, that they may cause the plants to grow. As her garden prospered, so shall it be with my people." Bad Horn declared: "My medicine is the Bear. As the entrance 1 Verendrye, describing one of the similarly built Mandan villages, says (1738) that it was surrounded by a ditch (presumably outside the stockade) fifteen feet deep and fifteen to eighteen feet wide. {view image of facing page 138} Hidatsa man [photogravure plate] {view image of page 139} THE HIDATSA 139 to his den faces north, so shall be the door of my lodge, that our offspring may grow strong as the Bear." "I shall locate my lodge near the centre," announced Human Hand. Thrusting his lance into the ground, he cried, "This shall represent the spirit of He First Made All Things, and he will pity and help us." On the end of the lance was a coyote-tail, the medicine he had received in a vision. Awati located his lodge near that of Crying Dog. Flying Eagle said: "My lodge shall stand near that of Bobtail Wolf, for my medicine also is Thunderbird." According to rank the others selected their sites, and prayed that no disease or other misfortune might come upon the village, that their children might be many, and the corn plentiful. Only the men who had performed brave deeds in battle and had otherwise proved their worth were allowed to pray to the spirits, for it might bring disaster upon the village should any one falsify to them. Lone Buffalo was not allowed to pray, since in the former village one of his clan had murdered a man, and this might happen again. Thus was planned the last village of the Hidatsa.1 The tribe was ruled by a council of chiefs, variable in number. Chieftainship was not hereditary; the position was obtained and held by reason of honors won in battle. Any chief desiring to call a council could do so by giving a feast to which the common people might come, eat of the food, and offer suggestions; but they had no direct voice in governing. The Soldier Band, under instructions of the council, controlled the village. The herald passed through the winding ways, announcing the orders of the chiefs, and it was the first duty of the Soldiers to see that such commands were obeyed promptly and faithfully. For ordinary infraction of tribal laws a person suffered the scorn of the entire tribe. Murder was avenged by the victim's family or clansmen, usually by taking the life of the guilty one,2 sometimes by exacting the payment of a heavy fine by him and his clansmen. The clan was an important organization, as it was held responsible for the acts of its members. Descent was through the female line, and a newly married couple took up their residence with the wife's family rather than with that of the husband. In camping the clan pitched its skin lodges in a group, among the families of which the returning hunter divided his meat. Hidafi-ati- old Fort Berthold. 2 Lex talionis prevailed among practically all Indian tribes. {view image of page 140} I40 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The Hidatsa women made a crude sort of undecorated pottery, using blue clay mixed with finely powdered granite or other hard stone. Thoroughly kneaded, the plastic material was rolled into a sheet, which was then turned up at the edges and modelled into final shape by holding a smooth convex stone on the inner side and beating with a wooden spatula on the outside. After drying for some days the vessel was burned in the usual Indian fashion of firing in the open air with wood placed all around it. Should the pottery break in the firing, the mishap was regarded as evidence that the maker in some way had offended the spirits. Cooking-pots and water-jars were made in this manner, a flange being formed at the rim to hold a rawhide carrying-rope when necessary. They also made a roughly-woven burden-basket, using as material the inner bark of the box-elder, with strong inwoven willow rods at the corners. It was carried on the back, supported with a strap across the chest. Large and small utensils were made from boxelder wood, hollowed out from solid blocks by charring and by cutting with stone knives; and spoons, ladles, and cups of the horns of buffalo and mountain-sheep. The usual parfleches of the plains Indians were made for containing and carrying the domestic belongings. The handicraft which gave the greatest pleasure to the women, and afforded them the best opportunity for displaying their artistic skill, was the preparation of the skin clothing - neatly made dresses of the skins of mountain-sheep and deer, embroidered and fringed, and shirts and robes for the men; porcupine-quills dyed in many colors were used in their decoration. Axes were made of flat pieces of stone, a broad groove being pecked around the middle to hold the handle, which was of ash worked down thin at one end, bent around the blade, and tied firmly in place with dampened sinews. Spear-heads, knives, and arrowpoints were made of flint or other suitable stone, chipped to shape with pieces of antler or bone. LeanWolf's uncle, Roadmaker, born about 1765, told him how the stone was worked, but a belief exists that the knives and projectile points found scattered about when the Hidatsa reached the Missouri were made by some spirit living under the earth. The bull-boat common to the river tribes of the region was in extensive use by the Hidatsa, and is still sometimes to be seen. It was made by first forming a hemispherical framework of willow or other pliable shoots, and stretching over it a cover of one or two large buffalo-hides with the hairy side outward. Bull-boats were in con {view image of facing page 140} Hidatsa bull-boat [photogravure plate] {view image of page 141} THE HIDATSA I4I stant use in the crossing of the river, and sometimes even for long trips down-stream; and indeed numerous instances are mentioned of large parties embarking on war expeditions in these rude craft. When engaged in war with the Yanktonai and Assiniboin to the north, the Hidatsa often brought their wounded down-stream in these boats. Lean Wolf relates graphically the story of an Arikara war-party, led by Sharp Nose, of which he was a member. This was in I840, and there were a hundred boats in the party. A start was made for the country of the Sioux, where, if fortune favored them, they would capture plenty of horses and ride back to their own country; but after being out a few " sleeps " they had to drag all their clumsy craft ashore, owing to a head-wind. Meanwhile Sharp Nose made medicine, supplicating the spirits for visions as to the outcome of the foray. Apparently he received no encouragement from the unseen, and, deeming the head-wind an ill omen, he abandoned the raid, destroyed the boats, and returned to the village. On ordinary occasions the men wore a robe of hide taken from a three-year-old buffalo cow. The neck of the skin was split down for a distance, and the resulting flaps hung over the shoulders at the front. The lower corners of the robe were cut into five fringed strips, and its bottom reached half-way from hip to knee. A warrior with honors would indicate these by pictographs on the broad back of the robe, and frequently fox-skins with raven tail-feathers attached were suspended from the shoulders. Leggings were made of the skin of buffalo, deer, or elk, and decorated with bands of porcupine-quills. About the year I830 the loin-cloth was in general use among the males, but only a generation or two before that date their only garments were moccasins and a carelessly-worn robe. In the earliest times, says tradition, moccasins were made from the skin of a deer's head wrapped about the feet and tied at the ankle. Young men in their proud days of courtship wore elaborately decorated deerskin shirts. There is a tradition that long ago few men wore the hair long: it was cut close and singed; but later the old men permitted their hair to grow and twisted it into a strand, which was gathered in a coil on the top of the head. This was followed by the general custom of wearing the hair long, with a bang in front curled into a roll on a heated stick. At the temples hung a small braid decorated with porcupine-quills. Tattooing was sometimes practised, an animal or a bird being depicted; this, they believed, added to one's spiritual strength. The dress of the women was made usually of two mountain-sheep {view image of page 142} 142 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN skins, one in front and one behind, the tails left hanging at the top, and the skins of the heads being also retained. The dress reached to the ankles, and the fringe and deer-hoof rattles at the bottom swept the moccasins. At the shoulders the sleeves were decorated with porcupine-quills, and as with many tribes they were left open under the arms for the convenient nursing of children. Their leggings, of tight-fitting deerskin, extended from the moccasins to above the knees; they were fastened along the outer sides and decorated with diagonal stripes of black or red paint as an indication of the husband's coups. A woman who had good gardens and a well-kept lodge was permitted to wear a belt, about six inches wide, made of deerskin on which feathers were thickly sewn. When a child was born the parents made a feast, and some prominent person, an old man or an old woman, was called in to give it a name. There was no ceremony connected with piercing the ears, a duty which the grandmother performed. When a young man reached maturity and had accomplished some brave deed, he was privileged to take the name of his father, grandfather, or other near paternal relation. The person whose name he assumed received presents from the young man and was compelled to choose another name for himself; no longer could he use his former one. When the youth was old enough to understand a man's duties, his father would instruct him in honorable precepts. He would say: "Poor as I am, it is my duty to rear you well. When you are alone, pray to the spirits. Look at people who have many horses, and follow their example. Watch for the things that are disgraceful, and avoid them. Have respect for the aged. If you meet an old person in a narrow place between the lodges, step aside for him. Do not rush past, for if you do and brush against him roughly he will turn and say, 'There is a foolish boy!' and that is not good. When you are able to kill buffalo, it is time for you to marry." The boy's grandmother would say to him: "I hear a good many bad reports about you. I hear you are growing foolish. You are not respecting the old people. You do not stay home at night, but go about from village to village saying bad things; and instead of caring for your father's horses, you neglect them and let them go without water. You must stop these things and cry to the spirits to make you a good man." The brother of the youth's mother was privileged to admonish him severely and without pity, pointing out his shortcomings with sharp sarcasm and ridicule. {view image of facing page 142} Hidatsa mother [photogravure plate] {view image of page 143} THE HIDATSA I43 Religious Beliefs and Ceremonies ItfihkawahidiAh, He First Made All Things, is the most important of the Hidatsa deities. He made the earth, and with the help of Adhapufhifh, Spotted Hair, created the streams, hills, and trees. He is remembered in all prayers and invocations. He is known also as Itakatetash, Old Man Who Never Dies, and all other spirits are subordinate to him, including Kadhutetash, Old Woman Who Never Dies; Adhapihish; Ma'hupa-wia, Mystery Woman; MahaAh, Spring Boy; Atuttifh, Thrown To The Rear Of The Lodge; and KadhitawapishzA, Grandmother's Child. Judging by the prayers occurring in the principal ceremonies as well as in minor religious rites, KadhutetaSh, the spirit of perpetual life and goddess of all growing things, is more often supplicated than any other character in the Hidatsa pantheon. Maihupa-wia symbolizes the female principle, fecundity in all living organisms, plant and animal. Wives invoke her aid, and mothers make her offerings and pray that their daughters may be fortunate in childbearing. She is also supposed to be the wife of He First Made All Things, and is omnipresent. Yet Mahupa-wia appears never to have been completely developed into a myth character, for she is never invoked in ceremonies, has no myths woven about her, and is in no way symbolized. Not only are the personages in the Hidatsa mythology supplicated; all animals and birds are the living representatives of corresponding spirits of the infinite. The latter, however, are differentiated from the myth characters proper, for to tffihkawahidi~h and like deities all men apply for aid in a general and rather indefinite way, while on the other hand they expect specific acts of protection or beneficence only from those spirits of birds and animals which they have in some way obtained as their medicine, or tutelary spirit. The living man is of four parts, the flesh-and-blood body and three spirits, in their language idhathi, "shadows." These are, first, the shadow that follows the body in the day; secondly, the spirit that is active in dreams and visions, leaving and acting independently of the body; thirdly, the mentality, always present with the body. After death the three unite to become d6k-idhaihi, "human shadow," the spirit-man. The flesh does not enter the after-world, but dok-idhalii bears the semblance of man and is possessed of everlasting life. It hovers about the place of its separation from the body during four {view image of page 144} 144 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN days, then by tortuous under-world trails reaches the land of the spirits, where they dwell in a large village. The Hidatsa have no conception of future punishment other than they know in this world, that of adverse tribal sentiment. The earthly record of an individual, be it good or bad, must be borne to the perpetual hereafter. This belief, even if but vaguely existent, encouraged men in the days of intertribal warfare to gain the greatest possible number of honors. At a distance from the great village of spirits is a smaller one where dwell those who are by their own acts outcasts, - murderers and suicides. Children were taught that such people are exiled in the future world and can have no part in its happiness. The spirits of the dead sometimes return to earth in the form of whirlwinds; when such a wind met a person in the open or blew down through the smoke-hole of a lodge, people would cover their faces with their blankets, exclaiming, "Pass on by! I do not wish to go with you! " The spirits that control the winds and weather are East Wind, Hufi-uthatakoa; North Wind, HzufiawaAhitakoa; South Wind, Huiti-uwatakoa; West Wind, Hutfi-patiitakoa. Prayers were made to South Wind to bring the chinook, and to East Wind for warm days. Usually these prayers were directed to He First Made All Things, who was believed to communicate them to the other spirits. There were two classes of medicine-men among the Hidatsa, the healers and the war-leaders.' Both received their powers through visions produced by fasting, when some spirit or animal would be revealed to them, to which they would pray for guidance and success. In these fastings they learned the songs, the mode of dressing and painting, and the manner of worship which their respective tutelary spirits demanded. It was the belief that spirits in the likeness of every animal species dwelt in the sky. From them the animals below received their mysterious powers and attributes, which they in turn transferred to the medicine-men. The animal spirits were believed to select men who bore resemblance to themselves, to whom they would impart their spirit-strength. When a spirit had found a man worthy of its protection and power, it "put something in his heart" to cause him to go into the hills to fast, that he might have a vision and receive the medicine that the spirit wished to give. The war-leaders avowed their ability to forecast by making 1 Akuwapu'Ah, He That Heals; Akudidi, He That Guides. {view image of facing page 144} White Duck - Hidatsa [photogravure plate] {view image of page 145} THE HIDATSA I45 medicine for the success or failure of the war-parties they led, and according to tradition they rarely made mistakes. Hence, a successful war-leader became a power among the people, but ascribed no honor to his own skill or generalship, attributing his success to his supernatural power. The healers learned from their spirit protectors the songs and the vegetable products to use in curing the sick. The recovery of their patients was no doubt due largely to mental suggestion, as the treatment employed was rarely such as could afford any material aid. Massage was frequently employed among the Hidatsa, and its value was recognized. In the treatment of pneumonia a peculiar black earth was heated and applied every few minutes to the chest of the patient until relief was obtained. Although in this they practised a method that any physician might approve, there is little doubt that in their view some inherent power of the black earth was at least as important an element as the heat. Though the healers had great opportunity for accumulating property, they did not take unfair advantage of it, for their guardian spirits would not approve of this. Any one by making presents could procure the right to use the songs and to exercise the power of a medicine-man, but the latter did not relinquish his rights. In times of drought a medicine-man took his pipe, marched through the village, then climbing to the top of his lodge stood and invoked the spirits to send rain. The two following instances, which happened within his memory, are related by Lean Wolf to illustrate the operation of medicine: Red Shield, a great chief, once led a war-party. In the fight two of his bravest warriors, Black Horn and Brant, were wounded, and the arrows were still imbedded in their bodies after their return to the village. Red Shield in great grief said: "What shall I do if you two die? You are my bravest men." Brant said, "Black Horn may die, but I shall live." To this Black Horn retorted, "You are foolish. The buffalo, the horse, and the bear have adopted me as their child. I have seen their medicine used on men more severely wounded than I." "Did you see them in your visions?" asked Brant. "I did," replied the other. "You have often seen things in your visions! " bantered his friend. Black Horn replied: "When I was a young man, as I took my father's horse to water he stepped on a lizard and cut it in two. The body grew together before my eyes. The lizard said, 'You saw VOL. IV - IO {view image of page 146} I46 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN me make my medicine, so you shall have it.' If he could recover, I shall certainly not die of these few wounds." Brant, after praying to his medicine, the head of a brant, asked them to make a clear path to the water. He then burned incense and held his head in it, and stood up, the blood flowing from his mouth and the arrow wound. Walking like a brant and uttering sounds simulating the cry of his bird he waded into the water up to his waist. He dived, and when he came up the water was red with blood. Again he dived, and when he rose the second time the arrow-point was in his hand! He walked into the village where Black Horn was lying, and said: "You see, what I told you is true." Black Horn answered, "What you say seems to be true. Father, bring me my medicine." His father returned with a rattle, and Black Horn told him to sing, and beat him from head to foot with it. He then walked out of the lodge, throwing his body like a lizard. When he was outside, he pulled out the arrow that had been so firmly fixed in his body, and returned. Says Lean Wolf, "My father, Red Owl, told me this story: "On a certain raid against the Assiniboin and Cree, the chief of the Hidatsa was unhorsed. The brother of Bear Medicine, a brave man, said he would die with the chief, and made a stand against the enemy while the others retreated. "On their way back, Bear Medicine adopted a young man as his brother in the place of the one who had been killed, and these two, becoming separated from the others, journeyed on alone. Passing through thick woods, they saw a raven's nest in a tall tree, and concluded to stop there for the night and capture the young ravens for supper. Bear Medicine climbed the tree and threw down the young birds, but as he started to descend he slipped and fell, striking the ground with enough force to stun him for a short time. The young man, thinking Bear Medicine was dead, cried over him. Soon Bear Medicine regained his senses, looked up, and said, 'Do not cry, my brother. It is well. We shall be poor no longer.' He got up, and after rubbing the bruised spots took a flint and made fire; then they roasted the young birds and ate them. While they were smoking, Bear Medicine said, 'When I fell from the tree I had a vision that I was falling from the top of a skin lodge. It was painted a reddish color. I fell right in front of the door, and a man inside said, "Enter, my child! " He showed me many curious things and told me how to {view image of page 147} THE HIDATSA I47 cure the sick. He said the first one I am to cure will be a person who has been scalped.' "They started on, but a blizzard overtook them and they sought shelter in a wolf's den. Bear Medicine placed his brother close to the young whelps where it was warm, and himself sat at the entrance. In the morning the young man said, 'Brother, these wolves have called me their brother, and have given me the name Wolf Moccasin.' Then they left the wolf den and took with them a buffalo calf which the mother wolf had left there, and roasted it for breakfast. "When they reached home they learned that a young woman was lying wounded and scalped, but still alive, and that eight horses had been offered to any one who could cure her. "Bear Medicine sent word that if they would add a black bobtail horse he would make her well. The parents said the black horse was of no value, and that they would add another in its place, but Bear Medicine had seen a black horse in his vision and insisted on having it; so the black horse was included, and another besides, making ten in all. "When the price had been agreed upon, Bear Medicine called Wolf Moccasin and his friend, Red Owl, to his lodge. He cut his forelock rather short and placed several raven feathers in his hair. He sang and put his hand to his mouth, and coughing like a bear produced some yellow paint, which he smeared on his face. Then he slapped his sides, and again putting his hand to his mouth brought forth red paint, with which he painted his face around the eyes to resemble a bear. He dressed in his finest clothes. "Red Owl and Wolf Moccasin also put on their best shirts and leggings of deerskin, and painted their faces red, with streaks of white on the hair. Throwing buffalo-robes over their shoulders, they started out, Bear Medicine singing, 'My father says, "When the wind blows I will go with it!"' He was in the lead, carrying a cluster of chokecherry stems covered with blossoms and leaves. They entered the lodge of the sick woman, and robes were spread for them to sit upon. My father thought, 'How can we save this woman, when she is so near dead?' For she was very thin, and was breathing fast. Her nostrils were closing together, a sign that she was near death, and though Red Owl had a great deal of confidence in his friend's powers, he thought he was attempting something impossible. "Bear Medicine called for a lodge-stake, and when it was given to him he drove it into the ground in front of him, then pulled it out, and in the hole placed the choke-cherry branches. He burned incense, and stretching out his hand toward the sick woman, began to sing, 'When {view image of page 148} I48 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN the wind blows I will go with it!' The woman's eyes had been rolling wildly, as though they had no strings to them, but before the song was ended she was gazing straight at Bear Medicine. When he had finished the song, he said, 'In five days you will be walking!' My father was astonished at his friend, and the people all murmured their surprise at this bold statement. "After this declaration the healer burned buffalo-chips, and with extended hand sang, 'Young woman, sleep; I sing.' When he had finished, the young woman fell asleep, and every one was glad, for she had not rested for a long time. While she slept they brought food to the healers, and the people spoke only in whispers. After a time the young woman awoke and asked for something to eat, and they brought food, but before they could give it to her, Bear Medicine said, 'Give it to me first.' He buried his face in the blossoms and leaves, snuffling and snorting like a bear. When he lifted his face he put his hand to his mouth and took out a handful of choke-cherries. These he gave to the woman, and she ate of them, and said, 'Good.' Then Bear Medicine fed her a little of the meat. "The people's hearts were glad, and they brought in presentsrobes, parfleches, and leggings - and piled them about the young men. Time after time some spectator would say: 'I will bring you presents if you cure her. Try harder! Hold nothing back!' Bear Medicine asked his brother to help him, so Wolf Moccasin sang his songs and took choke-cherries from his mouth, which he gave to the woman to eat. Red Owl did the same, singing the song his father had taught him, 'The bear comes out of the woods.' "The parents of the young woman begged the medicine-men to stay until she had recovered, and beds were made for them in the lodge. They sang over her daily, and washed the wound in her head, while her mother bathed her body. On the fifth day she walked, and on the tenth day she was well." Corn Ceremony The Corn Ceremony, K6hat-atiake,1 was performed in the spring or early summer as a supplication to the spirits to grant bountiful harvests and strength to the tribe. A man who in the preceding autumn had witnessed the ceremony in a dream, climbed to the top of his lodge, made a vow to the Corn 1 From k6oiati, corn; atiak&, lodge-like. {view image of facing page 148} Hidatsa woman [photogravure plate] {view image of page 149} THE HIDATSA I49 Spirit, KadhutetaAh, Old Woman Who Never Dies, declaring in a loud voice, "Hear me, O Kadhutetah! I shall give a great feast in your honor, that I may live to see another season, that my people may become strong and prosperous, that our harvests may be bountiful, and our children grow abundant as the flowers of spring! " The people all would hear him and through the village would echo a murmur of approbation. The announcement might be made by a man on a war excursion. Having uttered the vow he could not retract, for it was dangerous to deceive the spirits, and such a course would bring everlasting disgrace upon him. He then began to collect robes, clothing, horses, and other things of value, to be given away as presents or exchanged for medicine bundles. When everything was in readiness he took a present and a pipe to a man whom he believed to have greater supernatural strength than himself, and requested him to act as priest in the ceremony. If the man accepted and smoked the pipe, he became the Medicine Maker,1 and he soon went to the lodge of the Singer,2 who knew all the songs and secrets of the ceremony, and, offering him a robe and the pipe, invited him to participate. The Singer signified his willingness by smoking. When the Medicine Maker had left, the Singer dressed and painted. Taking a piece of charcoal, he made three motions as of painting his face; the fourth time he drew a mark across it, singing: Madhidit2, madhiidif. I am walking, I am walking. The word signified that he was still following the instructions given by Old Woman Who Never Dies to the first priests of the Corn Ceremony. He then placed a necklace of corn-ears about his neck, singing: Tsihi. Yellow (corn). Taking an ear of corn in his hand, he chanted: Miduthif, madhidit. I am standing, I am walking. Putting on a cap of the head-skin of his medicine animal, of the kitfox for example, he sang: ihoka-dhidif. Kit-fox is walking. Akumahupah?, He That Does Supernatural Things. 2 AkumipahO, He That Sings. {view image of page 150} I5o THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN When he was ready to depart, he addressed Old Woman Who Never Dies, singing: BiakaAha, nltawidaD2i awakadf; mahtush, hitdh6wadhef2. Young Woman, your fire-smoke I see; I am coming, it is here. He then went to the lodge of the Medicine Maker, where those who were to participate in the ceremony were seated. They had been invited because their medicines were various birds supposed to be the children of Old Woman Who Never Dies, and were therefore particularly appropriate for this ceremony. Their medicine bundles were laid in the centre of the lodge. The Medicine Maker burned incense, and all started for the lodge of the man that had made the vow, the Medicine Maker in the lead bearing the head of a deer, the others following abreast with the Singer in the middle. At their approach the devotee came forward with a pipe, and as the line stopped he offered it to the Medicine Maker, who took several whiffs and returned it. The man who had made the vow retreated, the line started its march, and when they reached him he again offered the pipe to the Medicine Maker. This occurred four times. In the honor place of the devotee's lodge a very fine buffalo-skin had been spread as an altar. Upon it the Medicine Maker placed the deer-head. The Singer sat behind it, and at his right were the Medicine Maker, the votary and his wife, and the other participants. Buffalo-robes had been spread in front of the positions taken by the assisting medicine-men, each of whom deposited his medicine bundle upon his particular robe. The wife of the votary, bare above the waist, concealed her upper body with a buffalo-robe, which she threw aside as the Medicine Maker raised the deer-head and touched it to her body. Each of the medicine-men then touched her body with his bundle and laid it in front of the altar on robes spread for that purpose. This rite was to impart to the woman the strength and power contained in the medicine bundles. The devotee and his wife then seated themselves at the side of the lodge on the left of the Singer, who bade the devotee bring a live coal from the fire in the centre and lay it on an earthen dish. From a wicker bowl-case, symbol of Old Woman Who Never Dies, the Singer took a handful of sage, and with a slow motion to each of the Four Winds lowered it to the coal, making four circles over it, and let it fall. The Medicine Maker waved a large bundle of sage over the smoke. All were silent. The Singer took up the dish in which {view image of facing page 150} Incense over a medicine bundle - Hidatsa [photogravure plate] {view image of page 151} THE HIDATSA i5i burned the incense, and passed it back and forth over the medicine bundles, singing: Iye'iokataki takf. Sage is good. When he set the dish down, the people all stretched their hands toward it and rubbed themselves as though receiving its power. The devotee filled a pipe and handed it to the medicine-man at the end of the row, who after inhaling a puff or two passed it to the one seated at his left. When all had smoked, the Singer raised one of the medicine bundles, perhaps the Raven, and sang, as its owner came forward: Pedhf'tka dzdahuPt. Raven is walking. The Raven man took the bundle from his hands and danced backward and forward between the altar and the fireplace, holding it in both hands and swinging it from side to side, both he and the Singer chanting: PedhYkda AI'kadia. Raven is dancing back and forth. The Medicine Maker brought offerings of choice bits of meat and pretended to feed the Raven bundle, which the owner then gave back to him, returning to his seat while his wife gathered up the presents offered to his medicine by the votary. The Singer thus called in order each of the medicine-men, and learned the songs as he had learned the Raven songs. When all these songs had been repeated, the votary and his wife brought food and placed it before the altar, and the Singer chanted the prayer to He First Made All Things: Madhidit?, fiilikawahidiAh. I am walking (in your path), tffihkawahidigh. The votary brought a dish containing several choice parts of meat and laid it before the Singer, who sang: Biafh, madhiditf. Old Woman (Who Never Dies), I am walking (in your path). Lifting the dish, he extended it to the Four Winds and then threw the meat among the medicine-men, accompanying these acts with the songs: Maduthti; dehkiwat?; kowtfi. I take; I offer; it is done. This was allegorical of the feeding of her birds by Old Woman Who Never Dies. The people scrambled for the food, chirping like black {view image of page 152} I52 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN birds, ravens, and chickadees. The votary and his wife distributed the remainder of the food among the spectators and participants, and when the feast was finished, the owners of the medicine bundles advanced to receive them, the singer chanting successively: Madhidit?; ko6wwat2. Awato'hawakit. Awa idawakit2. Awaftotawakif. I am walking; I have finished. The land is green. The land is yellow. The land is gray. The Medicine Maker took a bundle of sage and waved it to the Four Winds and toward the door, as though ridding the lodge of evil spirits, and the Singer brushed himself with sage, removed his cap and his necklace of corn-ears, and then washed his face with water brought by the votary. His last song was, Kadhakowitf; huft - It is done; come signifying that the vow had been fulfilled, and supplicating the Corn Spirit to answer the prayers for a bounteous harvest. Sun Dance The Sun Dance, Dahlpike,' of the Hidatsa was in its main features similar to that of other tribes. It was primarily a supplication for success in war, a prayer that the enemy might he delivered to the suppliant, who believed that the sacrifice made would prove him worthy of supernatural aid. The man giving the rite, however, did not cease with asking for personal strength in war, but sought beneficence toward all his people. A man might have had a vision in which he had seen the Sun Dance being performed in his behalf. He would then go out alone, as if fasting, and declare to the sun: "In the coming summer I shall build your lodge. I shall stand in the holy place. I shall kill buffalo and take the hides from them for you. I shall dance for you, that I may have visions to help me in war, that my people may grow strong, that no disease may come, that the buffalo may be many, and that there may be abundance of rain." 1 Compounded of dalipi, robe, and an obsolete word meaning to gather, referring to the covering of the lodge with buffalo-robes. {view image of facing page 152} Long-time Dog - Hidatsa [photogravure plate] {view image of page 153} THE HIDATSA I53 He bade his wife: "Tell your relations that I shall perform the Sun Dance." She would spread the news, and the men would devote their efforts to procuring buffalo-hides, which they would bring to the women to cure, the Dancer providing feasts for them. When everything was in readiness he took a robe to one of his father's clansmen, a man experienced in performing the ceremony, who represented the sun.' Before him the Dancer placed the robe and offered him a pipe, saying, "Father, I have come to you for guidance. I wish to obtain the medicine of the Sun." The older man, accepting the gift, replied, "I am glad, my son, that you have come to me; I will aid you in this thing." In making the public announcement that the dance was to be given, the clansmen of the Dancer's father asked for the scalp and the left hand of an enemy. These must be procured especially for this purpose; sometimes they were offered freely, again they were withheld until a high price was given. In selecting the sun-pole the declaration of the virgins seen in the Sioux rite was not observed, nor did the striking feature of the Sacred Woman appear as in the Blackfoot ceremony to the sun. Before the raising of the pole a fresh buffalo-head with a broad strip of the backhide having the tail attached was fastened to the crotch with thongs; when the pole was in place the buffalo-head faced the setting sun. After the building of the sacred lodge, men who owned medicine bundles brought them into the lodge of the Priest, and the Dancer furnished each one a robe on which to lay his bundle. He selected a bundle, perhaps the skin of a red fox, for which he gave a horse. The Singer took the skin, held it to the incense, touched in turn the bodies of the Dancer's wife and the Dancer, and replaced it in front of the former owner. Thus were bought a number of medicine bundles, for which was paid whatever the owners asked, in addition to the robe on which the medicine lay. The Singer had already learned the songs and the manner of painting which accompanied the medicines, and thus was able to teach the Dancer the secrets of each medicine procured. Some medicines were credited with the virtue of affording protection against the enemy, or luck in horseracing, or success in scouting and hunting. When the Dancer had bought what he desired, the men went out, each one carrying away the robe on which lay his medicine. The thrilling part of the ceremony began after the construction of 1 He is known as Akumahupach, He That Does Supernatural Things- the Priest. {view image of page 154} I54 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN the sun-lodge, when the Priest took the scalp and the hand and raised them to the Four Winds, saying, "I have often taken scalps like this from my enemies. May you have the same good fortune, my son." He then gave them to the Dancer. The young men who were to fast and to have their flesh pierced began to come into the sun-lodge, each carrying his medicine bundle and an armful of sage. They passed to the south side of the lodge, laid the sage on the ground, and hung the medicine bundles on short sticks thrust into the ground in front of them. The Dancer took the bundles he had bought and piled them on a buffalo-skull, and as the singers were beginning their songs of mystery in slow measure, incense was made. The Dancer trembled with excitement as the Priest took white paint and after holding it in the incense smeared it over the body of the devotee and drew a white circle around his face. He then hung a medicine hoop on the young man's back by a cord around the neck, and on his head placed a band of jackrabbit-skin, the head of which drooped over his left ear. Next an eagle down-feather was tied to the scalp-lock, pointing backward, and a whistle of eagle-bone was hung around his neck. From the left wrist hung the dried hand of an enemy, and from the right wrist the scalp. While the Dancer was being dressed, the fasters opened their medicine bundles, burned incense, and began to paint and adorn themselves in the manner taught by their guardian spirits. Others, having no medicine, smeared themselves completely with white. Each had a whistle of eagle-bone hung from his neck and carried a shield and a lance. The singers also were painting themselves and placing raven-feathers in their hair. They arranged themselves in front of the suspended buffalo-skin, extended their hands toward it, and rubbed their bodies and limbs as if receiving some power from the buffalo. South of the entrance the medicine-men ranged themselves, and the old women who prepared the spot for the Sun Dance, together with the medicine-women, sat at the north. They came not merely as spectators, but to pray and fast. The relatives of the fasters entered, bearing food, and each faster took a bowl to a clansman of his father and offered it to him. Then came the piercing. Those who chose approached the Priest and the Singer. Should any young man have gone to a clansman of his father, a murmur of disapproval would have filled the lodge. Two slits were made in the skin of each breast or shoulder, and through {view image of page 155} THE HIDATSA 155 these incisions was passed the end of a rawhide rope, which was prevented from drawing out by a wooden pin in a loop at the extreme end. The ropes hung from the nostrils of the buffalo-skin at the top of the pole. Then the Singer and the Priest swung the half-suspended man four times, his feet barely touching the ground, and at the fourth swing released their hold, when he started to encircle the pole, his eyes fastened on the buffalo-head. He pulled back, trying to break loose, but dared not touch the rope with his hands; any attempt to relieve the tension in this manner would have called forth a yell of derision from the spectators at his lack of endurance. When he finally broke loose he fell to the ground, and the Priest placed him on his bed of sage, where he remained fasting, two, three, or four days. The Dancer was not pierced, but danced toward the pole and back, springing from the ground with rigid legs, his feet close together, his eyes fixed on the buffalo-head, blowing his whistle in rhythm with the beating of the drum; his mind was intent on the desire to become a great warrior, and he prayed silently for visions. Thus he continued until he fell from exhaustion, and there he lay until the vision appeared, remaining until the end of the fourth day if necessary. The fasters, as they reclined on their beds of sage, had dreams and visions which they related to the Priest, and if these visions seemed sufficient the faster was told to leave the lodge, since his supplications had been answered. Near the doorway the medicine-men were still fasting, seeking for visions. If any felt that his prayers were not being answered, he cut off the first joint of the little finger of his left hand as an offering to gain the favor of the spirits. Some of the young men who were not dancing with those inside might ask that their shoulders be pierced; after this was done, with rawhide ropes attached to the slits they dragged buffalo-heads through the village. If it was seen that a participant was becoming too weak to break away, or had fallen several times, finally without strength to rise, he was cut loose. At the end of the fourth day only a few were left -those most sincere in their purpose and belief. The Dancer, exhausted, was now taken to his own lodge. If he or any of the other fasters wished to continue the torture longer than the fourth day, the lodge was permitted to stand for them, otherwise it was torn down, only the sun-pole and the buffalo-skull being left to mark the spot. {view image of page 156} I56 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Ceremony of the Bowl In addition to the Sun Dance, the Hidatsa had two four-days ceremonies of supplication by ordeal in which the principal features were piercing and fasting. The more important of these was Midhaliakidutzku, Taking Up The Bowl, based on the legend of the sacred bowl, which symbolizes Old Woman Who Never Dies and figures so prominently in Hidatsa mythology. According to the legend as passed down by the chief Roadmaker, uncle of Lean Wolf, in the days when the Midhokaft were encamped near a beautiful lake to the northeast, one of their young men was fasting on the shore far from the village, and crying to the spirits to pity him. Just before the sun went behind the world, he saw something on the shore where the waves lapped the sand, and when he came closer he perceived that it was an earthen vessel marked with the track of a brant around its rim. He took it to his lodge, for he thought it must be a vessel of mystery. That night he had a vision, and the bowl spoke to him in the words of a woman, saying, "My child, I am Old Woman Who Never Dies. Hold me sacred, and I will bring you good fortune, for I have many friends among the spirits. The corn and the buffalo-paunch are my food. I shall teach you the songs and rites of a ceremony that will cause your people to prosper and bring rain upon your crops. Make offerings to me of buffalo-paunches, and hang them before me on cottonwood stakes. Prepare a pipe and tobacco for IftihkawahidiSh and Adhapfiuhih, who aid me in making medicine, for they are men and like the smoke. All the birds and animals living on this lake are of my medicine. Let no man who has blood on his hands enter the lodge where this ceremony takes place, nor permit any women to be present." Then she revealed to him the rites of Taking Up The Bowl. A man who desired this ceremony performed climbed to the top of his earthen lodge and appealed to Old Woman Who Never Dies: " Bowl, I cause you to be taken up, that my children may grow strong. Let the rain come upon us." Or he might go to the hills and utter this prayer, crying like a child. Already he had provided offerings, and food, robes, and clothing. When all was ready he sought the Keeper of the Bowl, and offered him the pipe, apprising him of the object of his visit. The Keeper told him that he was doing right to take up the bowl, and {view image of facing page 156} He perceived an earthen vessel [photogravure plate] {view image of page 157} THE HIDATSA I57 accepted the pipe, lighted it, and prayed to the sacred vessel, which was kept in the honor place of his lodge: "Bowl, we are about to take you up again with prayers and fasting. Open your ears that you may hear our songs. Give us your aid." He silently repeated songs and prayers until the morning of the ceremony, when he went to the suppliant's lodge, where, after purifying the interior with incense, he prepared a canopy of buffalo-robes in the honor place. Beneath it he laid a robe upon which was placed a bowl-case - a basket of osiers and box-elder bark - the symbol of Old Woman Who Never Dies. A woman's dress of mountain-sheep skin was placed over the case, and was partially covered with a newly tanned elk-hide, soft and white. On top of this was a war-bonnet of eagle-feathers dyed red, and at each side were placed presents of robes and clothing. In front hung several buffalo-paunches on cottonwood stakes. To the right of this altar a bed of sage was laid for the sacred vessel, which was completely enclosed in the inner skin of a buffalopaunch stretched tight over the top, so as to form a drum. Small bunches of sage were inserted under the sinews that bound the skin. The drumsticks were about two feet long, with one end bent into a circle. The vessel thus prepared was symbolic of Iftihkawahidigh and Adhapufhigh. Toward evening the people assembled, and, with the keeper of a sacred pipe in advance bearing this talisman, marched four times around the village, singing, "The rain is coming, it is here." They entered the lodge of the suppliant, and while the Keeper of the Bowl burned incense of sage, sweet-grass, and fir needles, the pipe-bearer laid the sacred pipe before the altar. The singers, eight or nine in number, gathered about the bowl, the medicine-men sitting at their right, and those who had come to fast ranging themselves to the left of the altar, each laying down an armful of sage, which was to serve as his bed during the four days and four nights of fasting. The ceremonial dress was a buffalo-robe worn hairy side outward, and the participants painted themselves blue with clay from which pottery is made. When all had entered, the singers chanted a wordless song, the burden of which was that the mystery-power had come. They stood up imitating the various birds that belong to the bowl,-ducks, geese, brant, and smaller birds,-while the fasters, rising, wailed to Ifiihkawahidigh and Adhapfiuhih, as though they were lost children crying for their parents. Several other prayer-songs, without words, {view image of page 158} i58 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN were sung, after which the Keeper of the Bowl sang "Hi-hi-wa-hi," signifying that the spirits had come. The singers swayed from side to side, and at the end of the song settled down, mimicking the actions of water-fowl and giving their cries. The Keeper of the Bowl burned incense, and, taking some of the food previously brought in by relatives of the fasters, held it to the Four Winds and then offered it to Old Woman Who Never Dies with the prayer: "Old Woman Who Never Dies, your mystery-powers are good. Now eat. Our young men have provided this food, that you may make them strong." The fasters now divided the food, and each of them took a bowl of it to one of the medicine-men, a clansman of his father. When the latter had finished eating, the faster placed his hands on the medicine-man's shoulders and stroked his arm to the wrists, as though receiving some power or virtue from him. His relative then sang to the spirits, imploring them to aid the faster. The fasters next carried food to the spectators and the medicine-men, while the suppliant provided for the singers and the Keeper of the Bowl. Before eating, each one offered the food to the Four Winds and the altar. After the others had eaten and smoked, the suppliant and such of the fasters as chose came to the Keeper of the Bowl and the singers and were pierced as in the Dahpike. Slits were cut in the flesh of each breast and the inserted rawhide ropes were fastened to the cross-timbers of the supporting posts of the lodge. The devotees in a frenzied dance made violent efforts to free themselves. Buffalo-skulls were sometimes hung by thongs passed through slits in the thighs or shoulders, and other fasters were pierced through the flesh of the shoulders and suspended, their feet clear of the ground. The singers encouraged the dancers and kept their spirits at the highest pitch by wild singing and drumming. The fasters endured the torture as long as they were able; if they failed to tear themselves loose, or fainted with the intense pain, the Keeper of the Bowl and the singers cut the thongs and laid the exhausted dancers on their beds of sage, where they remained until the end of the ceremony, fasting and praying for visions. While women were not permitted inside the lodge during the ceremony, some of them came and slept in the outer entrance, hoping to have dreams that might be favorably interpreted. They departed at the first sign of dawn, that their presence might not be discovered. {view image of facing page 158} Rabbit-Head - Hidatsa [photogravure plate] {view image of page 159} THE HIDATSA I59 Minor Ceremonies Among the minor ceremonies of the Hidatsa was Amadha/fhatiake, the Earth-naming Rite. According to the legend the spirits of the animals performed all these ceremonies before they were given to the Hidatsa, and the Earth-naming Rite was received from them by a man called Raven Necklace, who went into the woods in the early spring and found an owl's nest in a hollow tree. He began to shake the tree in the expectation of throwing out the owlets. The old owl said: "Raven Necklace, my children are cold; do not disturb them," and for his kindness in heeding her prayer she taught him the Earth-naming Ceremony, the purpose of which was the usual one of supplication to the spirits to bring rain, to keep sickness from the tribe, to insure success in war, and to make the people strong and vigorous. All the animals and birds and the spirits were represented in this ceremony, and every man who possessed the medicine of one of these was invited to participate. As the man who caused the ceremony to be performed had to make a gift to each of these men, a long time was needed to acquire sufficient property. Another was the Thunderbird Ceremony, Tsakak-atiake, based on the legend of Packs Antelope, a hunter who had gone astray from his people for a time and dwelt with the Thunderbirds, but later was rescued from them by a water-monster and sent back to his people with the medicine-power of both the Thunderbirds and the watermonster. The purpose of the ceremony was to bring back those who had gone astray as Packs Antelope had done, and to make the devotee a great warrior and medicine-man.1 The Buffalo Ceremony, Mite-keiku, designed to call back the herd in time of scarcity, was founded on the interesting legend of the Buffalo Woman. A herd of buffalo were travelling north, when one of the cows trod on a thorn. She limped along until the leg became so swollen that she could not proceed, and coming to a little coulee where there was water and grass, she stopped. Soon a bull calf was born to her, and the two kept close to the coulee, for nearby was a large camp. But the calf grew venturesome, and the mother feared that the people would see him and find their hiding-place; so, possessing a mysterious power, she changed herself into a woman, and the calf into a boy. 1 For two songs of the Thunderbird Ceremony, see page I88. {view image of page 160} i6o THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The Buffalo Woman built a lodge in the coulee, and as she was still lame and unable to walk far she sent the boy out to gather bark and grass, which she transformed by her magic into meat, and from it made pemmican. One day she gave the boy a cake of pemmican and two split tongues, and said, "Go up to the village, and when you come to where the children are playing, join them. You will recognize the chief's daughter by the calf-skin robe she wears. She is about your age, and the prettiest child there. Call her to one side and give her this tongue and pemmican. If the children ask who you are, say that you live up the river in a coulee with your mother. Bid them not to tell the people in the village anything about you." The boy came to the village and played with the children, and just before he left he called the girl aside and gave her the tongue and pemmican. She took them home, and her mother, seeing the meat, said: "Where did you get this, my child? There is nothing like it in the country." The girl replied that a little boy had given it to her, and the mother at once told her husband. " It is good," he replied. " Perhaps our daughter will be the means of bringing to us a mystery-man of great power." It was a time of starvation in the village. Three times more the boy came bringing pemmican and tongue, and on the fourth occasion he asked the girl to accompany him to his home. She was bashful and somewhat frightened, but her mother reassured her: "My child, no harm will come to you. Four times this meat has been brought. The spirits above will protect you." So she went with the boy, and when they came to the lodge in the coulee, the Buffalo Woman said, "I am glad I am to have such a beautiful daughter-in-law." Then she fed her with choice meat and sent her back to the village with a skin bag filled with meat, cautioning her not to disclose the secret of its source. Calling the wise men of the tribe together, the chief told them of the strange occurrence, and asked their advice. They said: "Let things go on as they are until we see what happens." The fourth time the girl went to the coulee, her mother accompanied her. Seeing the wrappings on the foot of the Buffalo Woman, she asked: "What is the matter with your foot?" "I stepped on a thorn," was the reply, "and have been lame ever since." {view image of facing page 160} Holds The Eagle - Hidatsa [photogravure plate] {view image of page 161} THE HIDATSA I6I The chief's wife bent down and pulled out the thorn, then she washed and dressed the foot. Three times she visited the Buffalo Woman, and the wound healed. In her gratitude the Buffalo Woman expressed a desire to live in their village and to have her son marry the girl, and the chief's wife gladly consenting, they packed their belongings on their backs and started for the camp. Their little lodge was erected on the outskirts of the village, where they would be undisturbed. In the evening the Buffalo Woman said: "My son, I wish you would go to the North and find your father. See if you cannot bring back the buffalo to these starving people. Let us go out, and I will change you into a buffalo." When night fell she went out on the prairie with her son and her daughter-in-law, and said to the youth, "Fold your blanket around you tightly, and roll on the ground like a calf." He did so, and instantly he was changed into a buffalo calf. She commanded, "Roll again, and you will be a strong young buffalo." Again he rolled, and it was as she had said. "Your horns are soft," she told him, "so you must roll again." He did so, and when he stood up he was so large and powerful that the girl shrank close to the Buffalo Woman in awe. The mother said, "Once more roll, and you will be strong enough to withstand all hardship." This time when he stood up his beard almost swept the ground. Then he left his mother and his wife and travelled northward for many days, at last reaching the country where the buffalo lived in great villages like people. Here he found his father, and said to him: "Father, my mother sent me from the far South where we live among the Hidatsa. I have come for you. We have many eaglefeathers and pretty things which we wish to give to you and your people." "It is good," replied the father; "we will come." Then the father called all the buffalo together and told them to prepare for a journey. To his son he said, "Go back. In four days we will come." When the young buffalo reached home, his mother re-formed him into a man, and told the chief to bid the people bring all the eaglefeathers they had, and tie them to straight sticks, which they were to place at the northern end of the village. On the fourth day they were not to stir from their lodges. These commands were faithfully obeyed, and on the fourth day in a raging snowstorm a large herd of buffalo rushed through the village.' The buffalo had come back. 1 For a similar incident in Arikara lore, see Volume V, page 93. VOL. IV - II {view image of page 162} i62 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Myth and Legend Origin Myth Long ago the people came from under the earth by a great body of water far to the south.1 A young man in a vision was directed to the root of a tree that hung down from above. Having the gopher for his medicine, he took the form of that animal and climbed up the root, burrowing until he reached a beautiful upper world. He returned and told the people of the wonderful things he had seen, and they began to climb up, but when half of them had reached the surface a very large woman attempted to ascend and broke the root. There was great sorrow on both sides at this calamity, for the people that had struggled up saw no more of those that remained below. Those now in the upper world had brought with them corn and beans and seeds of the squash and tobacco. On looking about they saw in the distance a herd of Buffalo and some Elk grazing. The men killed a few of the animals, but the Buffalo and Elk ate some of the people, especially the boys. When the hunters returned with the meat, a white Raven croaked to them, "It is bitter." This was because the animals ate human flesh, just as the Raven did. He First Made All Things was on the earth improving it and teaching the animal people new ways of life. He told the white Raven, the Buffalo, and the Elk that they were doing wrong to eat people, and he blackened the Raven with charcoal as his punishment, telling him that if he persisted in evil he would be destroyed. The Elk had fine white tusks along the upper jaw. He First Made All Things pulled them out, leaving only one at each side, and he removed all the front teeth from the upper jaw of the Buffalo. He First Made All Things hewed a boat out of a log and painted it blue with clay that he found along the shore, and told the people to go into it, instructing them to cross the water and bring back certain beautiful shells that were shaped like a shallow vessel with a long lip. Then he gave the command, "Power that moves the boat, go!" When the people reached the other shore they found men, from whom 1 Old men, questioned as to the situation of this body of water, insist that the place of emergence is not at any lake northeastward of their present home. It has been often stated that the mythic origin of the Hidatsa was at Devil's lake, North Dakota; the confusion arises from the fact that in their early wanderings they lived for a time on the shores of a northern lake. {view image of page 163} THE HIDATSA I63 they obtained many shells, paying for them with food, and giving them also a woman. They returned to their own people and left the boat on the shore. Children who had been playing nearby when the command was given said to the boat, "Power that moves the boat, go!" whereupon it sailed away and was never seen again. For many years they moved northward, coming at length to a place where the earth was burning. Little Fox made holes in the ground, in which the people hid, and the fire passed over them harmlessly. Then they came to a forest, and at the time when the grass began to grow a great snowstorm swept down upon them. After the storm had ceased they moved still farther north and met a people who spoke their language. With them they lived; then both tribes turned to the southwest and travelled until they were checked by a broad river, which they called Awati. The Sacred Skulls Three eagles flying from the west down the north side of the river saw the camps of people, and determined to be born as men among them. As they passed over the country of the Assiniboin, one, pleased with its aspect, alighted, while the other two soared on. Another descended near the villages of the Hidatsa and became a man among that tribe.1 Being spirit-men, Shiwahfiwa the Assiniboin and Big Bird the Hidatsa knew of each other, and there came to the former a longing to see and talk with his friend. So travelling down along the river he arrived at length opposite the Hidatsa villages and called across to the people assembled on the bank, but his words were strange to them. Then he sang, and by that song Big Bird knew his oldtime companion, and entering a boat with his wife he crossed the stream. The friends had no difficulty in recognizing each other. Once in the lodge of Big Bird his guest began straightway urging him to make his home among the Assiniboin. "I have come for you," he said. "Here you are dwelling under the earth, and you never travel about. I can move my lodge every day, and always have a new, clean home. Even in winter my lodge is filled with pure air, for it is made of skins, and fresh air enters freely. You, living under ground, must breathe the same air over and over. My 1 The third eagle unaccountably disappears from the tale. Some versions mention only two birds. {view image of page 164} I64 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN food is fat buffalo, choke-cherries, turnips, and berries. I have all my heart desires. Come with me." Big Bird listened intently, and answered: "My brother, all the food you have described, I have, and more. In the summer I open the door and the air is cool and fresh. In the winter my lodge is warm. If your lodge is made of skin it must be hot in summer, and strong winds may overturn it. I have children among these people, and I am satisfied. Since you say that my way of living is not good, I wish you to taste one of my favorite foods." As he finished, Big Bird gave his guest a ball of yellow-corn pemmican, and Shiwahuwa found it excellent. Then the Hidatsa placed before him dishes of parboiled corn, sunflower seeds, a mixture of corn, beans, squash, and sunflower seeds with buffalo-fat, and tea of pennyroyal. Then filling a pipe he presented it to his visitor. "You were ignorant of all these things," chided the Hidatsa, "yet you wished me to go with you! Now I ask you to remain with me. What have you to say?" Removing the pipe from his lips, Shiwahuwa replied: "Your food is better than ours, and your tobacco superior to our dried bark. On this very day next year I shall be here with my people. Have these things prepared for me, and especially the corn pemmican, the drink, and the tobacco, which I like more than anything else." On the appointed day appeared Shiwahuwa and his people. A conflict1 arose between them and the Hidatsa warriors, and every one of the strangers was killed, except their leader, who was laid prostrate, seriously wounded. Over the field of battle came Big Bird and his wife, hurrying with the three things Shiwahiuwa had liked so well. He drank the fragrant tea, ate the corn balls, and smoked. Suddenly he fell back dead. Big Bird cut off his head and placed it in an ant-hill, whither he afterward went daily and addressed the skull: "I have lived among these people and aided them in their life. You and I are brothers, and I hope you do not hold against me what my people have done to yours." One day a voice answered: "I will aid you." Then Big Bird carried the skull to his lodge and laid it in the 1 No satisfactory cause is assigned for the battle. One narrator says that Shiwahuwa came with the intention of taking the life of Big Bird; another that he forewarned the Hidatsa that there would be fighting when he returned. {view image of page 165} THE HIDATSA I65 honor place, and commanded that when he died his skull should be kept with the other, and always handed down in the Midipati clan.' Legend of Home Boy In the days of Tattooed Face and Good Fur Robe, there lived in one of the villages near Heart river the son of Black Coyote. He was a handsome, well-formed young man, with long brown hair, and his beauty and elegant dress won the admiration of all the women; for his soft thick buffalo-robe was decorated with eagle-feathers, and at the shoulders dangled pure white weasel-skins. From his lance, too, fluttered many eagle-feathers. While he was in appearance the ideal warrior youth, he had never been on the war-path. He would stroll through the village singing, or perhaps climb to the top of his father's lodge to gaze upon the young women as they passed. His actions were so peculiar as to bring upon him the ridicule of the men, for it seemed to them that he should desire to win honors in strife, and on account of his reluctance to join the warriors he was derisively called Home Boy. On the south side of Heart river, where it emerges from the hills and flows across the valley, rises a high butte. Men would often go there to fast, but never stayed more than a day or two, for something in that place seemed to frighten them. One day Black Coyote called his son to him and said: "You have no deeds; you are nothing. It is time you distinguished yourself in some manner, for you are a strong young man. Go up on that hill and fast for a time; perhaps the spirits will help you." So Home Boy went to the hill and stood upon its summit, crying to the spirits. During the night he heard sounds as though the enemy were coming. He could almost feel the ground tremble under their horses' hoofs, and terrified he fled back to the village. In the morning the people went to the hill to verify his story, but they saw no broken ground or trampled grass. His father said: " You are a coward! What do you suppose people will think of you if you always remain in the village, doing nothing? 1 These two skulls constituted one of the most sacred tribal possessions. Until the disintegration of the old native customs, the custodian of the skulls was always a member of the Midipati clan, and the lodge in which they reposed was not entered on trivial errands. Fire was never borrowed from that lodge, and those who entered were required to sit down quickly. In I907 the shrine containing the skulls was disposed of by Wolf Chief, its custodian, and it is now in a private collection in New York City. {view image of page 166} i66 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN To-night you must go to the hill again, and stay there no matter what happens." So Home Boy went again to the hill and cried. Again he heard the enemy coming, and, turning, seemed to see a party of mounted warriors charging upon him. The one in advance discharged an arrow, which pierced him, and as he fell the others swept by and struck him with their coup-sticks. Then the spirits promised Home Boy that he should kill many enemies and count many coups. He returned to the village in the morning. Shortly afterward the village was attacked by the Sioux, but Home Boy took no part in the battle; at night, however, after the enemy had withdrawn, he went out and dragged the bodies of their slain into a row. Taking the eagle-feathers from his lance he laid one on the dead body of each warrior, and said, "Here is something for you to take on your long journey." Then he lay down in the middle of the row. In a vision as he slept there the spirits of the dead came and told him to arise and to be not afraid, for they were to make great medicine for him. One of the warriors then took his bow and shot his arrows through Home Boy. This made him invulnerable. But when war-parties formed, Home Boy still remained behind, and the finger of scorn was ever pointed at him. One day he and his friend were sitting on the housetop watching the people assemble for the Datipike. Suddenly Home Boy leaped up and said with determination, "To-day I will dance in the lodge of the Sun!" His friend looked at him in wonder, for only warriors of note participated in that ceremony. But he went with Home Boy to the sun-lodge, and watched his sober face as he marched in carrying his lance. The people were at first astonished at his temerity, then they began to laugh and to nudge each other, saying, "Look, Home Boy is going to dance; he must be growing foolish!" He boldly stepped up to the bowl of white clay with which the warriors painted themselves, and with which they smeared stripes across their arms to represent the coups they had struck. Home Boy painted himself, and placed a wisp of grass in his hair, a symbol worn only by scout leaders, to represent the hills from which they had viewed the enemy's country. His mother and sisters drew their blankets over their faces and went out. His father said, "I have tried to rear my son from childhood according to our traditions and customs, and to make him a brave warrior, but now before all my people he has disgraced me." And drawing his blanket over his head, he too went out. The warriors sat in four rows according to the rank their deeds {view image of facing page 166} Crying to the spirits [photogravure plate] {view image of page 167} THE HIDATSA I67 gave them. Home Boy with a wolf-skin thrown over his shoulders and lance in hand stepped into the front line, as though he had a perfect right to be there. As the warriors danced out of the lodge, making a circle and reentering, Home Boy danced with them. He stepped on the black stone at the foot of the sun-pole, thus swearing that he spoke only the truth; and though he had performed no deeds in war, he told of his visions, while the people all laughed at him. A short time after the dance a war-party was about to start, and as they marched around the village singing, Home Boy joined them and sang with them. The chief said, "Young man, you always sing with these war-parties, but you never go out to fight. You are making us ashamed." His friend, who was one of the party, drew him aside and said, "You must go with us, or you can never hold up your head in this village again." Home Boy replied, "My friend, I am going. I shall not join you now, but I shall be with this party when it reaches the enemy. Four days from now you will hear from me. Procure some buffalo-meat for me, the muscles of the foreleg, the shoulder-blade, the tongue, and an intestine stuffed with chopped meat. When you camp the fourth night, watch which way the wind blows and listen carefully and you will hear me howl like a Wolf. Then bring out the four pieces of meat, and throw them to the big white Wolf you will see outside, but do not come too near it. Say, 'Here is some food for you, Wolf.' Early in the morning join the scouting party and you will meet a lone Wolf coming toward you. Say to those with you, 'There is Home Boy. He has seen the enemy, and I have seen them second.' They will laugh at you, but do not heed them. Remember what I say, and do these things." The second day after the war-party had left, Home Boy told his mother to make him some moccasins, for he wished to go on the warpath. His mother begged him not to go. "You have never been away from the village since you were born," she said, "and you will surely be lost." But his determination was firm, and he went out of the lodge, leaving his mother to begin work on the moccasins. When Black Coyote came in his wife told him of their son's intention, and the father replied: "Let him go. I have done everything I could to rear him well, but he has brought shame on our household. Perhaps he will die somewhere. It is well." The morning of the fourth day the son went to his mother and said, "Are my moccasins ready?" She gave them to him, and {view image of page 168} I68 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Home Boy said, "Mother, come with me until I ford the river; then you may return home." She went with him, and when they reached the stream, he leaped into the water and disappeared, and a moment later a white Wolf emerged, dripping, at the other side. She waited long for a glimpse of Home Boy, but in vain; and she was puzzled, but remembering all the queer actions of her son, she came to the conclusion that he had done something wonderful. The Wolf looked back once, and then trotted away. Home Boy's friend sat that night in the brush shelter feasting with the others on the buffalo they had killed, and he laid aside certain portions of the meat, saying, "This is for Home Boy." The others laughed, and said ironically, "Yes, that is for Home Boy!" Soon they heard the wolf-howl outside, and the friend jumped up, saying, "Home Boy has come!" and picking up the meat, ran out. The chief, who had brought his beautiful young wife with him, in the belief that she and Home Boy were lovers, now turned to her and said sneeringly, "There is your sweetheart howling outside." And they all laughed. When the young man came back into the lodge, the people asked, "Did you see your friend?" "Yes," he replied, "Home Boy was out there;" but they laughed at him derisively. The next morning when the scouting party went out, Home Boy's friend accompanied them. The sun was half-way to the zenith when they saw a Wolf running toward them along a ridge, now and again looking backward across his shoulder. The young man with the scouts said, "There is Home Boy. Whatever he sees, I claim second honor." The others smiled, and cheerfully assented. They saw the Wolf run into a little coulee, and suddenly on the rim appeared Home Boy, dressed in a beautiful war-shirt and fringed leggings. His face was painted and his hair tied with strips of wolf-skin. The scouts were filled with astonishment and wonder. In answer to their questions, he said, "Nearby is a large war-party camped in a circle. They are so close you had better return to the main body." When the scouts were some distance from the camp, they began to run zigzag as a signal that they had seen the enemy. The warriors came out and piled up buffalo-chips, and, forming in a half-circle behind the heap, stood singing and awaiting the return of the scouts. Home Boy ran at their head, his long brown hair flowing in the wind, and the tail of his wolf-skin streaming behind him. When he reached the {view image of page 169} THE HIDATSA I69 buffalo-chips he kicked the pile over, signifying that he would count coup on the enemy in the battle. The warriors were amazed, and murmured in awe-stricken tones, "Home Boy is here! " He told them that a great number of the enemy were encamped but a short distance away, and that they had better prepare at once for battle. His report caused great excitement, and the chief spread a buffalo-robe on the ground and invited Home Boy to speak with him privately. "There are timber and water here," the youth told him, "and it is a good place to fight. My plan is to take warriors who are swift runners and strong. I will leave a number of these men at three points between here and the enemy. With the fourth party we will make the attack and surprise our foe; then we will retreat to the third body, and they will cover our retreat to the second, and so on to this camp, where we will make a stand together." The chief called a number of the older men and told them of the plan; they approved it. To Home Boy was given the command, and he started out with the best warriors, leaving the inexperienced men and the old fighters in camp. At selected points he left reserve forces, and at the last stop he told the chief that from there to the enemy's camp the distance was great. "I shall take only my friend with me," said Home Boy, "for the way is long and some of you might tire and be unable to retreat." So the two set out alone and reached the enemy's camp after dark. "Whatever I do," said Home Boy, "follow right behind me and you shall have second honor." They lay in the brush all night. Early in the morning one of the women of the village came out to work on a hide while the air was cool. Home Boy stole upon her through the grass and rising beside her pierced her with his lance, and his friend counted second coup.' The death-cry of the woman aroused the village, and Home Boy said, "Start back as fast as you can, and after I have scalped the woman I shall follow you." Waving the bloody scalp and picking up the bone hide-scraper which the woman had dropped, he started after his friend, while the warriors of the village followed in hot pursuit. Soon his friend began to tire, and Home Boy said, "Swing your head from side to side, and blow like a Wolf." When he did so the young man It was a common custom among the northwestern tribes to strike a blow at the enemy in just this manner. While to our minds the killing of a defenceless old woman is hardly an act to be boasted of, even by a savage relating his war-record, we must take account of the Indian's point of view, which is, that it was a dangerous and a daring feat for one or two men to enter the lines of a hostile camp many days' journey from their own country. It was no easier to kill a woman from ambush than a man, and of course chivalry was never a salient feature of Indian character. {view image of page 170} I70 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN began to feel refreshed. But his feet grew heavy again, and Home Boy said, "Put your hands in front of you, and lope like a Wolf." That again brought renewed strength, and when for the third time he became exhausted, Home Boy said, "Pretend you have a tail, and put it between your legs as a Wolf does when he is pursued." This gave the young man strength enough to reach the third party of warriors, where a sharp fight took place. Home Boy fought bravely, and went forward to meet a single advancing warrior, whom he killed with his lance, and his friend close behind counted second coup. Then they retreated to the spot where the second party waited, and another engagement occurred; again Home Boy killed an enemy, and his friend counted second coup. And so it was until they reached the main camp on the river, where, in sight of all, Home Boy killed one of the bravest warriors of the enemy. Here the fighting was very severe, and the enemy were soon driven back. After the battle was over, Home Boy gave the scalp of the woman he had killed to the chief and the hide-scraper to his wife. The chief was ashamed when he remembered what he had said of Home Boy the evening before, and invited him to sit beside him, while his wife brought food to Home Boy and held a horn of water to his lips. When the war-party started homeward, the hero told his friend that he himself would go alone. He watched the others out of sight, then started off and reached the village on the night of the next day, coming in while all were asleep. He hung his lance and robe where he usually kept them over the head-rest of his bed, and lay down to sleep. When the father awoke in the morning and saw his son lying there, he said to himself, "I suppose he was lost in the hills, and came home after wandering about." But his mother, as always, was glad to see him, and prepared food for him, and when he had eaten he lay down to sleep again. Soon the returning war-party was heard across the river. The people gathered at the bank, and some paddled across in bull-boats to welcome them. They told of their triumphs, but above all praised the bravery and leadership of Home Boy. His parents heard, but thinking they were still ridiculing their son, covered their heads and went back into their lodge. As was the custom, the clansmen of the father came to the lodge and sang the praises of Home Boy, but instead of bringing out gifts as was usual when a young man had returned from his first war-party with deeds of valor to his credit, Black Coyote sat inside in deep humiliation. Soon an old woman entered and pulled a blanket from the bed of {view image of page 171} THE HIDATSA 171 Home Boy's mother; another took a robe from the pile on which Black Coyote sat. When he saw these signs, he called in Home Boy's friend and said: "Is it true, my child, what these people are saying?" "Yes," he answered, "it is all true." Black Coyote's eyes were filled with tears, and he pulled the blankets from his son and said, "My son, tell me truly, did you do these things?" "Father, look at my lance," said Home Boy. When Black Coyote beheld the lance covered with blood, he was convinced, and knew it was all true. A few days later, when quiet was restored, the chief told his wife to clean the lodge well and to make it smell sweet with incense. Then he sent her to invite the young man, as he wished to speak to him. When Home Boy entered, the chief said: "Young Wolf,1 you have brought great honor to me. You scalped the enemy in the village and brought the scalp to me. All your brave deeds are good. I said that you were foolish when you danced in the sun-lodge, but I did not know your medicine then. My wife is handsome and good. She looks with favor upon you; whenever you come near she is pleased. Take her for your own." Home Boy replied: "Old Man Wolf,2 your speech is good. I fought that day to prove to you that what you had said was wrong. I killed the enemy in the village that your name might be in the mouths of all. As for this young woman, I admire her only with my eyes. I will come and eat with you and talk with you, but she must throw away any affection she may have for me. I will be a warrior under your leadership and help you in many battles. You shall be known as a great chief among us." Home Boy fought and lived for many years. He continued to bear the name of Home Boy, and it became a good name, for he won his eagle-feathers many times over. Grandmother's Child and The Snakes Wandering over the prairie one day, Grandmother's Child saw a running deer suddenly fall dead. Curiosity led him to inquire into the cause, which he found to be a Snake, who killed his game from a 1 Young Wolf, Ts/hadaka, a name applied to any young warrior who goes out on the war-path. 2 Old Man Wolf, Tsf/hitaka, the name applied to a war-leader. {view image of page 172} I72 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN distance. The boy gave greeting, and, questioned as to his own method of killing, kicked the fallen deer; and as it sprang away, alive once more, brought it down with an arrow. The Snake, pretending friendship, took the boy to his lodge, and for food gave him the spleen of a deer, in which each of the Snakes had secretly buried his fangs. But Grandmother's Child laid it on the coals, and not only burned out the venom but caused acute pains in the teeth of his enemies. " Let us exchange stories," they proposed. " Good!" he answered. " Lay your heads across this log and I will begin. When the spring sun is warm, when the blood is tired, and we walk a long way and then stop on the sunny side of a hill, do we not feel like sleeping? When the spring rain comes, and the drops fall fast and strike the lodge, what a strange sound that is, and how it makes us wish to sleep! " Some of the Snakes were asleep and did not hear him continue: After a full meal, when the wind blows and the lodge-cover flaps, do you not feel sleepy, even in the daytime? When you stop beside the stream at night, and the moon rises in the east, and you hear the water lapping, lapping, lapping, do you not grow sleepy? " Others were dozing, but he went on: " When you camp in the woods, the boughs rub together, and the leaves rustle, rustle, rustle, and you are very sleepy." Only a few were awake to whisper, " Yes," and he concluded: " When the breeze soughs, and the long grass of the prairie sways, sways, sways, you sleep." There was no response - all slept. He drew his knife and cut off their heads, one after the other, but the last one awoke just in time and slipped down a hole, uttering the warning, " Do not sleep in the daytime! " Nevertheless, the boy lay down and slept, and soon the Snake crept forth and entered his body, crawling up through the intestines and throat into the head. There he remained until the bones of Grandmother's Child fell apart, fearing to show himself lest the wonder-worker come to life and destroy him. When the bones were dry and bleached he crawled out, but instantly Grandmother's Child stood there. He seized the Snake by the neck, and with a stone rubbed his sharp nose blunt so that nevermore should the snakes be able to bore their way into the bodies of men.' 1 A synopsis of Grandmother's Child's adventures is found on page I84. {view image of page 173} Appendix {view image of page 174} I {view image of page 175} APPENDIX Tribal Summary The Apsaroke LANGUAGE- Siouan. POPULATION- Crow reservation, Montana, I,787. DRESS - Men wore the usual fringed leggings and shirt of deerskin or antelope-skin, moccasins of the skin of elk, deer, antelope, or buffalo. The robe was the skin of a young buffalo cow, worn with the head over the left shoulder and with the hairy side inward. A band of quills or of beads extended throughout its length. The loin-cloth was not used previous to about the year 1830. Winter moccasins for both sexes were of buffalo-skin, with hair inside, and men wore caps of the same material. After the advent of traders it was common to wear a long overcoat made of white or yellow-striped woollen blankets, with hood attached - a garment fashioned by the women. The banged forelock and the hair at the sides, cut square but not short, were curled upward by means of a heated stick. At the back the hair, greatly lengthened by splicing to it the hair cut from the head of a person in mourning, hung in numerous thin twists, to which were stuck little beads of spruce gum colored with a reddish paint. At each side was tied near the head a small ring of varicolored porcupine-quills. Both sexes perfumed the hair with sweet-smelling herbs and with castor, and rubbed it glossy with cactus pith. About I830 the men began to dress the hair in imitation of the Nez Perces: two braids at the sides in front of the shoulders and a braid behind, each wrapped with strips of fur, and the forelock thrown back in a thick pompadour. Tattooing was not general, but some men had a symbol of their medicine pricked in their breast. In tattooing, four or five porcupine-quills, held with the points almost touching, were pricked into the skin, then powdered charcoal of red willow and pine was rubbed in. Necklaces were of bear-claws and of circular pieces cut from the bleached shoulder-blade of a buffalo, polished, and smeared with white clay. The women's dress extended to mid-calf and was made of two mountain-sheep skins sewn edge to edge, the stubby tails remaining on the skins, one at the breast, the other at the back of the garment. A good dress had elk-tusks sewn on the front, as many as eleven hundred having been known to adorn a single garment. The tight leggings were slipped on like stockings, and were tied at the ankle and above the knee. Women parted the hair in the middle, brought each half in front of the shoulder, and tied the ends. Occasionally a part was left hanging carelessly in the back. Later, admiring the neatly braided hair of the Nez Perce women, they followed their custom. The comb was a porcupine-tail, and much time was devoted to dressing the hair. The women sometimes tattooed a narrow perpendicular line on the lower lip and chin, and a small circle on the forehead, and many wore ear-pendants of circular pieces of buffalo-bone. DWELLINGS- The structure universal among plains tribes - a skin covering over a framework of poles. Before the acquisition of horses, the tipi consisted of five to ten cowskins and small poles of the lightest fir; after that event sixteen of the largest cow-skins were {view image of page 176} I76 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN used, and those who had seen tipis in their visions employed as many as eighteen or twenty. In the old days of plenty new tipis were made each year, the old coverings being converted into inner curtains, moccasins, leggings, and saddle-pads. In the rear, directly behind the central fire, was the place of honor, occupied by the head of the household, or by a guest to whom he wished to show marked respect. The beds of the wives and children were arranged in order of importance around the wall. For a more extended description of the skin tipi, see Volume III, pages 23-25. PRIMITIVE FOOD - Virtual masters of a broad territory teeming with game, the Apsaroke naturally subsisted principally on meat, and in particular on the flesh of the buffalo. But elk, deer, antelope, and mountain-sheep abounded, the streams swarmed with fish, water-fowl came in spring and fall, smaller birds were always present, esculent roots were plentiful, and bushes were laden with berries. For a detailed list, see the Vocabulary, page I92. ARTS AND INDUSTRIES - The constructive genius of the Apsaroke was practically limited to the fashioning of the tipi, clothing, weapons, and a few crude utensils. Bows were of cedar, or of the horn of elk or mountain-sheep, backed, no matter what the material, with sinew and glue; arrows were pointed with bone or flint, spears with elk-horn tips; shields were formed of the neckskin of a buffalo bull; saddles consisted of rawhide stretched over a framework of wood or of deer-horn prongs. The kettle was a piece of rawhide dried to form and suspended from a tripod, the water being boiled with heated stones. Some pots were carved out of a soft white stone, probably steatite, and a few clay vessels were made, but as the clay was unmixed with tempering material they were very fragile. The mortar, hollowed out of stone, and pestle, a cylindrical piece of stone, were used in crushing choke-cherries and turnips. Bowls and plates were fashioned from gnarls, spoons and dippers from the horn of the mountain-sheep or the buffalo. The large water-vessel was a buffalo-paunch suspended from a hoop, which encircled the opening, and the smaller a pericardium adjusted in the same way. All household utensils were the work of women. The only weaving practised was the making of willow mats to serve as head-rests of the beds. A small quantity of tobacco was raised, but only by members of the Tobacco order, and that not for smoking but for ceremonial use. Tobacco for smoking was obtained from the Hidatsa. GAMES- The hoop-and-pole game was called bafiikisul. The pole was about five feet long, the head tipped with antelope-horn, the handle with a buffalo-beard, from the midst of which extended a thong. Near the head, at the middle, and near the end, were pairs of deerskin wrappings, the two rings of each pair being three or four inches apart. The hoop was a ring of rawhide cut from around the buffalo eye-socket and wrapped with deerskin. Two thongs crossed it at right angles, and where they joined the hoop were strung beads of different colors. The turf was removed from a course about fifteen feet wide and twenty-five to thirty yards long, and a large log was placed across each end. The lances were hurled as the hoop bounded back from the log toward which it had been rolled. The game was for a hundred points, and the system of counting was fairly intricate. This was a spring and summer game for two players, who stripped, and smeared shoulders, breast, elbows, and knees with black mud. There were only two such lances and one hoop in the entire tribe, and these were kept by a medicine-man. These implements were made by a man who saw the game in a vision, and in succeeding generations were inherited or purchased by other medicine-men. The owner received presents from the winner of a game. The two lances and hoop were once offered for sale at a price of ten horses. The hand-game, mahiurhedhzuu ("make something hidden"), was played for ten points, elk-tusks being employed as counters. The players dressed and painted with their medicine as if preparing for war. Ad-hutdhikyui ("throw arrow") was played by five men on a side, each with two arrows. An arrow winged with raven-feathers was shot as far as {view image of facing page 176} In the forest [photogravure plate] {view image of page 177} APPENDIX I77 possible, and, first laying wagers, the others sent their shafts after it. Four points decided a game, the counting being based on the same principle as that of our game of quoits. The same game, except that arrows were thrown by hand and the count was for ten points, was called uthewapaf2edhuH. Sometimes a large number of men played the arrow game, each, as he lost, retiring and leaving his two arrows to be a part of the stake. Bupfteditufi ("ball strike") was shinny, played by men and women, usually of rival villages at the time of the spring gathering, with a ball, the size of two fists, made of deerskin stuffed with buffalo-hair. The sticks were of choke-cherry, the curved root forming the crook, and the goals were lines some four hundred yards apart. Two scores completed a game. Bupfiedapiyu ("ball kick") was a woman's game, in which the ball was a buffalo-pericardium stuffed with buffalo-hair and wound with sinew. The winner was she who bounced it into the air from the knee the greatest number of times without letting it touch the ground. Manuhpidui ("plums make") was another women's game. Five plum-seeds, notched in different ways on one side and plain on the other, were thrown into a wooden bowl. Each of the numerous possible combinations had its count. Batsh1shddkyui ("send to each other") was played on the ice by five to ten young women on each side. (See pages 29-30.) Horse-races and foot-races were popular, and all games were attended with wagers. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION - The office of head-chief, Ba2fl2i-kyafhe, Real Chief, was one of greater power than was customary among the tribes of the northern plains. He alone ordered the pitching and moving of camp. On the march he went alone in advance, carrying his pipe; ahead of him none dared go except the scouts, who were under his immediate control. In this position he was Akdadofiid$, He Leads The Moving Band. He ordered the hunt, controlled the Akfssatdg (They That Hold In Place)l, the so-called Soldier Band, and was a potent factor in deciding each spring which of the four military organizations should act as soldiers during the ensuing year. The head-chief was neither elected nor appointed. A man having achieved a war-honor of each kind became a chief, Bat2-t6, Good Man; and each warrior in the tribe held a certain rank, known to all, according to his deeds. After the death of a headchief the warrior whose record was acknowledged to be the best assumed the position without formality. The chief's lodge was always open to the needy, and each night it was the scene of a feast to which all worthy men were welcome. There was no formal council, but the chief frequently summoned his old men, listened to their debates, and rendered his decision. There were four fraternal organizations, the main purpose of each being military: BadhahifhfM, Lumpwood, said to have been founded by the chief Plays With His Face; Iy]ihukk&, Fox (kitfox), instituted, it is said, at about the same time as the Lumpwood society by a band of Apsaroke returned from a visit to a tribe which they call Fox Men, among whom they had seen the dance of a similar society; Bishkisate, Big Dog; IschYAhYpiyrh&, Muddy Hand. Each of the first two made four staffs in the spring, which were given out to members, who by accepting pledged themselves to dismount in battle, thrust the staff in the ground, and die, if need be, rather than retreat behind it. The other two societies used rawhide reatas, the loops of which were fastened about the shoulders of the chosen ones. On the occasion of the staff-making, Lumpwoods and Foxes indulged in furious rivalry, lasting several days, to determine which organization could steal the more wives from the members of the other. CLANS - There are six phratries, each comprising two clans: i. A^hiosh^, Burnt Mouth Lodge; (JwutaAh?, Greasy Mouth. 2. Bidikyo6hA, Whistle Water; Ashhiatf2 (meaning unknown). 3. Afhidhadhio, Newly Made Lodge; Ashiftftt, Big Lodge. 4. Usawafliya, Never Shoots, Packs Game; Ifhidetm, Not Mixed. 5. A/hkyamn?, Piegan Lodge; A/hbatshuzwa, Here is found a clue to the meaning of the Dakota word Akichita. VOL. IV - 12 {view image of page 178} 178 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Backbiter Lodge. 6. Adhidh7piyo, Kick Belly; Af/kyfipkaviya, Bad Coups. Piegan Lodge cannot now be distinguished from Backbiter Lodge; this is true also of Whistle Water and A/h/ia2f, and of Never Shoots, Packs Game, and Not Mixed. Descent is through the mother. Formerly marriage between members of the same clan was prohibited, and marriage within the phratry was rare. MARRIAGE - The suitor, usually through a friend, gained permission of the family of the girl to woo her; thereafter he brought the parents frequent gifts of meat, assisted them in difficult places on the march, and in other ways sought their favor; at the same time he missed no opportunity to meet the girl herself, serenading her at night with his flute, sometimes furtively peering at her through holes in the lodge. When the occasion seemed favorable he would meet her in the darkness and endeavor to persuade her to accompany him to his parents' lodge. That act signified marriage. Polygyny was the rule, and separation equally common. A man could "throw away" a wife for any reason whatsoever, or for no particular reason at all; to do so was an honor, as indicating strength of heart, and warriors proudly exhibited in their dress certain symbols that showed how many wives they had given up. Pretty Eagle, a head-chief, who died in 1904, had been married nineteen times. Women were equally ready to desert their husbands for the favorite of the moment (see pages 31-35), and it was a lasting disgrace for a man to take back a recreant wife. For the same reason there was no punishment for adultery. GENESIS - The world was covered with water, over which wandered IfitibadhYAh, He First Made All Things. He bade the hell-diver go under the water for mud, a bit of which was brought up after the fourth attempt. This he worked in his hand, blew upon it, and it spread out, forming land. Mountains and streams were the product of his mere thought. Of mud he made four images, which he rocked four times, singing a lullaby; he cast them from him, and as they struck the earth they sprang up, two pairs of human beings. Their children multiplied rapidly, and the creator gave them diverse tongues. To the Apsaroke he gave seed of the mysterious tobacco plant. CULTURE MYTH CHARACTER - Issakkiwvitta, Old Man Coyote, is generally regarded as Ifhiibadhyih, the creator, in another form. The latter, having finished the making of the earth and its creatures, took the form of a coyote and travelled about the world, applying names to the things he had created, and meeting with a vast number of mishaps, exactly as does Ikt6mi in the Lakota tales. His ridiculous acts and sayings are accounted for on the ground that he meant to teach men the folly of all things not normal. CEREMONIES - The life of the Apsaroke was not in any great measure devoted to religious ceremonies, and such as they did observe were more lacking in ritual than were similar ones among other plains tribes. The Sun Dance, AdhkihidJhui (Make Like A Lodge) - not an annual performance-was the most spectacular event of their religious calendar. The Tobacco Planting, Mafhutssur (The Soaking) occurred each spring, and, unlike the Sun Dance, the rite was the possession of an order whose members were regularly initiated. In its larger features The Soaking strongly resembles the Tobacco ceremony of the Blackfeet. Dahlpitf?- iAhuXdhissua, Bear Song Dance, was performed, usually in spring or summer and in the day-time, in fulfilment of a vow by one who owned the Bear Song Dance medicine, having seen it in a vision or having purchased it; or he might have been hired to preside over the ceremony for one who had sworn to observe it. It was an occasion for all whose tiipaSdhiri, medicine, had entered their bodies and become baftidhfip?, to exhibit their supernatural power. Each of these, as he felt his medicine-spirit moving within him, came forth into the open space, threw his arms around a pole from which hung a bear-skin, and leaned his face against the skin. Then he turned to the people, and from his mouth came paint, the color of his medicine-paint; and then his medicine itself, whether snake, bear-claws, horse-tail, or what not, came out of his mouth, withdrew, {view image of facing page 178} Mother and child - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 179} APPENDIX I79 and disappeared down his throat, all without aid of his hands. It is firmly believed by the Apsaroke that these marvels actually occur as narrated. A great war-leader, before setting out against the enemy, built Awuth-bahip, Medicine Sweat-lodge, a large structure of a hundred withes, which could be made only by those who had the medicine of Awuish-bahpL. In this lodge was taken a ceremonial sweat by the leader, other prominent war-leaders, and the more important members of the party. Ifpfidhissu'i, Pipe Dance, is the Apsaroke form of Makadhf/hta-hupaidhi, the Hidatsa ceremony of rebirth, the ritual having been obtained from the latter tribe in I825 by Red Feather At The Temple and Rotten Belly. These two, chiefs respectively of Mountain and River Crows, were initiated into the order while attending a council on Knife river for negotiating a treaty of peace with the United States. There was no ceremony attending the arrival at puberty of either girls or boys, but the latter, at about that period, were advised, but not compelled, to go into the mountains to fast and obtain strength from the spirits. The fast was preceded by a purifying sweat-bath. A man might fast at any season and any number of times during his life. The act was accompanied with constant wailing to the spirits, and with self-torture, usually the cutting off of finger-tips or even of joints. Fasting was by no means always attended by a visit from one of the supernatural powers. When a spirit did appear it became one's hipapdhiri. MORTUARY CUSTOMS - Immediately after death, sometimes while the dying person was still only unconscious, the body was dressed in fine clothing and painted red. It was then wrapped in skins. Originally the body was placed in a cave or in a niche in the rocks, but during the time of Red Feather At The Temple (about I825) the Hidatsa custom of placing the body on a scaffold was adopted. The platform of old lodge-poles lashed across the branches of a tree was arranged by relatives, and the body, usually placed on its side with the knees drawn up, in a hollowed cottonwood log, was securely lashed to it. The whole was covered with a piece of rawhide. Relatives and friends cut the hair short, severed finger-tips, slashed the thighs and calves, stabbed the head, and lived in solitude upon the hilltops in mourning. AFTER-WORLD -Apadhaih-aAh~, Ghost Lodge, is in the west, a large village where all except murderers and suicides dwell in happiness, amid the realization of every wish made on earth. Warriors killed in battle go thither by an easy ascent through a gap between two high hills, but others climb a steep hillside over a trail obstructed by a pine tree, around which they crawl in imminent danger of falling into a deep canon. Suicides wander about with short ropes dangling from their necks, and the faces of murderers are streaked with blood. CouPs - The system of counting war-honors involved greater severity than that of many other tribes. The Sioux, for example, could count as many honors of the first degree as there were enemies in the engagement - one first coup for each enemy struck; the Apsaroke could count but one first coup in any battle, and this distinction, daikfh, was achieved by him who first struck one of the enemy. Four men were permitted to strike any one of the enemy and count an honor, but only the first two who struck the first enemy boasted of their deeds and received credit for them, and only the winner of ddkAfh could recount the exploit in proving his rank. The other three honors recognized were the capture of a gun, the taking of a horse tethered in a hostile camp - iftitpriihkyua (" cut horse "), - and the leading of a successful war-party. A warrior was highly regarded for dismounting and fighting, for going back to take an unhorsed friend behind him, for standing alone against an oncoming enemy, and especially for riding alone among the enemy and coming out alive. So long as two men disputed title to any coup, credit was given to neither, not even if one claimant were a prominent chief and the other a person of little standing. The possessor of one undisputed coup of each kind became a chief, Ba20-fi-t, Good Man, but until he won the fourth he was only a Good Young Man. There {view image of page 180} I80 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN were ways of indicating about the clothing what honors one possessed, and the relative standing of various warriors was well-known throughout the tribe. MEDICINE-MEN - Not all men who had had visions were medicine-men, that is, healers. The medicine that was given to a man was more likely to be intended for his protection in battle and to give him good-fortune in his undertakings. If in his vision he saw a spirit effecting a cure, his medicine was known to be for healing and he was summoned by the ill for that purpose. He was Akbadhiai-mahipf, He That Does Supernatural Things. Treatment was by singing, blowing, sucking, and other forms of conjuration. A man who could read the future, as well as cure disease, was Bidiaipak-mahip, Supernatural Person. NAMES FOR INDIAN TRIBES - Apsaroke Arapaho Arikara Assiniboin Atsina, or Gros Ventres Bannock Blackfeet Bloods Cheyenne Coeur d'Alenes Cree Flatheads Foxes Hidatsa Mandan Nez Perces Paiute Pawnee Pend d'Oreilles Piegan Sarsi Shoshoni Sioux Spokan Umatilla Ute Winnebago Apsadhoke Adhapah6 (adhapf, tattoo; aho, many) Apan6pise (Large Holes In Ears) Hudhu-shidd (Yellow Legs) Apiwishe (Hair In Nose) Ashkyeviyi (Bad Lodges) It-shlpite (Black Feet) f-mafse (Blood Man) Isashbughe (Striped Blanket) Is'htuhihape (Flat Bow) Sahiya Ashuihape (Flat Head) fyulhukku-mafts (Fox Man) Awasht (Earth Lodge) Assakashe (Lodge At The Extreme End) Apupe (Pierced Nose) Mikyasatdakdushe (Dahlia-root Eaters) Tst-matst (Wolf Man) Akblnnahui (Paddlers) Piykaide (an adopted term) Isaghbahfit s (Bad Robes) Mi'kyashe (Grass Lodge) Akbadiasdpashkyo (They That Cut Off Our Heads) Buxkdushe (Fish Eaters) Apebanahslhishbishe (Nose Pierced With Bone) Ashs`hlpitt (Black Lodge) Duish-mafse (Rib Man) The Hidatsa LANGUAGE - Siouan. POPULATION - Fort Berthold reservation, North Dakota, 468. DRESS- Men's dress consisted of fringed hip-leggings, moccasins, and loin-cloth, all made from weathered lodge-covering; a buffalo-robe hung from the shoulders. When first observed by white men they wore no loin-cloth. On special occasions, and when courting, young men wore deerskin shirts, fringed and decorated with colored porcupine-quills. Men who had counted coup wore fox-tails at the heels of the moccasins. A bang hanging to the eyes {view image of page 181} APPENDIX I8I was curled upward on a hot stick, as was the hair hanging at the sides of the face; at the temples were two small braids decorated with porcupine-quills. In the back the hair hung loose and the whole was sometimes dressed with white clay. Women wore dresses of mountain-sheep skin to the ankles, fringed and decorated at the bottom with rattles of deer-hoofs. Deerskin leggings reached above the knees. Diagonal stripes painted on the leggings represented the husband's coups. Both sexes used a perfume of pennyroyal, sweet-grass, fir needles, and skunkoil. Women wore the hair tied in a bunch on the top of the head, and long at the sides and back, dressing it with a porcupine-tail brush. Two pieces of old, soft buffalo-skin between which were placed cattail-down and powdered buffalo-chips were wrapped around the infant, which was then strapped on a board, at the top of which projected a hood of fox- or wildcat-skin. Thus the babe was carried on the mother's back, at her side, or hanging from the pack-saddle. DWELLINGS - The earth-covered lodges were from forty to seventy-five feet in diameter. In the centre, four forked pillars twenty feet high stood from fifteen to eighteen feet apart in a square, supporting four cross-timbers. Shorter forked logs about eight feet high were set around the circumference of the lodge, supporting a series of stout poles from which the rafters extended to the centre-timbers. Willow branches were tied horizontally and covered with dry grass, then followed a layer of sods and earth, tamped solid with clubs and mallets. A smokehole left in the top was covered with a bull-boat in rainy weather. In front extended a stormentrance of heavy upright slabs, at the inner end of which was a frame door covered with rawhide fringed at the top with the same material, and held fast at night by a bar on the inside. The floor was the earth. Buffalo-hides screened the various sleeping apartments about the wall. Deerskins and buffalo-robes formed the beds; pillows were made of deer-hair packed in skin bags. A triangular head-rest of woven willow withes supported on a tripod stood at the head of the bed. Usually a man's married daughters and their families lived with him. The tipi of poles and skins was used only on hunting expeditions. PRIMITIVE FOODS - An agricultural as well as a hunting people, the Hidatsa subsisted in large part on the products of their little gardens in the timbered bottoms of the Missouri - corn, beans, squash, and sunflower seeds. Buffalo, deer, antelope, elk, and smaller animals were killed for their flesh, and many roots and fruits were gathered. See the Vocabulary, page I92. ARTS AND INDUSTRIES - Baskets were made of box-elder bark that had been laid in the mud of a swamp until stained black. The basket was constructed on a square framework of four osiers, and designs were formed by interweaving white bark. It was carried on the back, supported by a wide rawhide band across the chest. Pottery was made of blue clay pounded fine, mixed with powdered granite and water; when of proper consistency this paste was rolled flat with a cylindrical stone; the edges were turned up, and the vessel shaped as desired. A flat smooth stone held on the inside and a piece of cottonwood bark on the outside were used to remove irregularities. Patterns were incised on the vessel with a sharp stone, and it was set aside to dry for several days. Then it was turned bottomside up and baked in the firehole. Fire was primitively made with the fire-drill. Water was carried in baked clay vessels, rawhide pails, or buffalo-paunches. Flat pieces of stone, shaped by pecking and polishing, and notched, served as axes; an ash handle, one end thinned and bent over the axehead, was lashed fast with fascia from the buffalo neck. Spoons, ladles, and cups were of horns of buffalo and mountain-sheep, boiled until soft, then cut and shaped. Knives were of flint. Bows of cedar were about four feet long; those of the horn of elk or mountain-sheep were shorter, made of two pieces spliced together with sinew and strengthened with glue made by boiling the horns. Thin strips of sinew were rolled into bowstrings. Arrow-shafts were made of choke-cherry or service-berry stalks straightened by running through a hole in a buffalo hump-bone. Until iron {view image of page 182} I82 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN was obtained, stone points were used. Saddles were made of a solid piece of box-elder wood covered with rawhide. Travaux were used with dogs as late as I834. The tub-shaped bull-boat was made by stretching one or two fresh buffalo-hides, hairy side outward, over a framework of willows, the tail serving as a convenient handle. A thin, flat board bound on the end of a split stick served as a paddle. In propelling the boat the occupant pulled the paddle toward herself. Orange dye was obtained from a moss; yellow from sumac; scarlet from a whitebladed grass growing on Knife river. Corn, beans, squash, sunflowers, and tobacco were cultivated in small fields in the bottom-lands, each family tilling its own garden. After the harvest the large ears of corn were braided and hung over poles, the small ones parboiled, dried, and shelled by beating with sticks; the shelled corn was cached, sometimes beneath the floor, sometimes outside the lodge, in a spherical pit five or six feet in diameter, lined with a thin coating of clay, the grain being covered with dried grass and earth. Squashes when almost ripe were cut into thin slices and strung on ropes of braided slough-grass to dry in the sun. Beans and sunflower seeds were placed on old lodge-covers and threshed with sticks. Tobacco was cut and cured after the blossoms fell. GAMES - In hupa-makieke a small article, an elk-tooth or a piece of bone, was hidden in one of a pair of moccasins, and the opponent tried to guess in which it lay. The players "made medicine" against each other to confuse the guesser. Aftuke was a woman's game of dice in which four plum-seeds variously marked were thrown into a bowl; the counting was quite intricate. Hwuwa-dekike (" hit the ball ") was a form of shinny. Balls were made of deerskin stuffed with deer-hair; the clubs were of ash. This game was played generally by women. In nako-fhYka (" throw horn ") slender wands about five feet in length, tipped with buffalo- or elk-horn, were thrown with force against a piece of rawhide stretched on the ground, one end of which was elevated. The lances ricochetted off for a considerable distance, and he whose lance went farthest was winner. In the winter boys spun on the ice tops pegged with bone or horn, and coasted on toboggans made of buffalo-ribs sharpened at one end and fastened in blocks of wood. In summer battles were fought with small balls of mud thrown from resilient willow shoots, at night being rolled in the coals of the fire, so that when passing through the air they showered sparks. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION- The tribe was governed by a head-chief and a council of twelve other chiefs. In event of the death of one of these a new chief was elected when wild roses bloomed. Others might offer suggestions in council, but had no vote. Chieftainship was not hereditary, men being selected by virtue of brave deeds. There were a number of social and military organizations, ranging from the junior societies of youths to the bands of warriors who carried staffs which they thrust into the ground in battle and fought beside until they won victory or were killed. The names of these organizations are: Ifioka-ihikO, Fox (kit-fox) Band Tsutakidaksuki, Half-shorn Mafhtuka-kadMhfhta, Small Dog Mida-MAhAhY, Lumpwood Mafhuka-iikf, Dog Band Hedhedhoka-ihik9, Crow (Apsaroke) Mida-dali6oie, Scraped Wood Band (a Mandan term) Mimaupakr, Owners Of Stone Hammers Kidopi-iihkf, Bull Band PedhYtfkd-ihkL, Raven Band f-Ahipihe, Black Mouth Mafhuka-madhdAie, Crazy Dog Mida-it2fkita, Wood-root The Black Mouth and Wood-root organizations were the Soldiers, or Police, men of valor and strength who preserved order in camp, carried out the commands of the chiefs, and punished offenders. They levied on the tribe for meat after a hunt, which was taken to the Soldiers' lodge and cooked. On buffalo hunts they had absolute authority and severely punished a man who tried to kill before the others or who otherwise attempted to take an unfair advantage. {view image of page 183} APPENDIX I83 CLANS - The seven clans of the Hidatsa formed two phratries: Naki-topd, Four Clans, and Naki-dami, Three Clans. rMidipati, Come From Water (?) (an obsolete term) Niki-to pa IttiA/hka, Wide Hilltop N{ki-o w * a-ddm ta p Tsifka-dohipaka, Prairie-chicken People gAwahli-damita (Miti-doka (mifti, wedge; madoka, elk; referring to the use of Naiki- dami an elk-horn wedge in splitting wood) Aptuka-vika, Low Hood Maho6iate Members of the same clan did not intermarry; members of the same phratry might, but rarely did. Descent is traced through the female line. A child called the men of his own clan " elder brothers "; the women, " sisters "; the men of his father's clan, " fathers "; the women, " mothers." Cousins on the father's side were designated " brothers." Female cousins on the mother's side called a boy " son " if he were younger, " brother," if older. Male cousins addressed him as " brother," younger or elder. A man was not permitted to look at or talk to his wife's father or mother, conveying messages to them through a third person; but after bringing trophies of war to them, he might address them. On the war-path a man always helped his brothers-in-law; he was less likely to desert a brother-in-law than his blood-brother. A man could criticize his father's clansmen ironically in public, but not his own. MARRIAGE - A young man would woo a girl by serenading her with flute or eagle-bone whistle, by going about with the members of his society singing love-songs, and by meeting her secretly as occasion offered. To determine the state of her affection he might send an old woman to ask her for her wristlet or ornament of elk-teeth. He did not buy his wife unless he could get her in no other way. Then he sent his father or uncle to the girl's parents with an offer of horses for her. If they consented, her family prepared a feast, and relatives of both parties brought them presents. If he bought his wife they lived with her father; if they eloped they went to his father's lodge. Marriage was sometimes arranged by the parents of the two, with or without their consent. If a man's wife had marriageable younger sisters it was common for him to marry them too at maturity, unless they had formed other attachments. A man divorced his wife at will for ill-temper, laziness, or inconstancy. It was considered an honor for a man to " throw away " his wife, but if he took her back he was disgraced, and his friends said, " He dives under water." Adultery was not punished by mutilation, but the guilty woman might be beaten. GENESIS - The creation myth relates that the people came from an under-world by a body of water in the south, climbing up the root of a tree, which broke with the weight of a pregnant woman, leaving half the people below. The creator, itfihkawahidish, was already on the earth, improving it and compelling the animal-people to give up their evil habits. The newcomers moved northward until they reached a wooded country, where a snowstorm swept down upon them; and still farther north to a lake (which the present Hidatsa identify with Devil's lake, North Dakota), where they met people who spoke their language. The two tribes migrated to the Missouri. DELUGE MYTH - The following myth is told of a time subsequent to the arrival at the Missouri, and therefore is probably based on an actual period of high water in that stream: Among the people were five brothers and one sister, all of whom possessed spirit-power. Four of the brothers had the medicine of Buffalo, the other of Magpie, and the sister was Corn Woman. A boy, having snared a bird, plucked all its feathers except those of the wings and tail, thrust a quill through its nostrils, and released it. It soared high and flew northward. Magpie, fly {view image of page 184} I84 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN ing far from the village, saw a great white wall of water approaching from the north. He returned and warned his brothers that disaster was coming, but they scoffed and would not believe. Four times he warned them; then came the flood. Magpie flew away to the south, carrying Corn Woman suspended from his neck by a loop of buffalo-hair, and the four Buffalo' followed, swimming. One by one three of them sank, but at the end of the fourth day the single survivor joined Magpie and their sister at Birdbill butte (west of Bismarck, on the opposite side of the river). Only the people living east of the Missouri were destroyed, their brethren on the other side having taken refuge on high hills. CULTURE MYTH CHARACTER - W6hfa-mafse-ifYsih, Coyote Chief, is the trickster whose adventures the folk-tales relate. The Hidatsa declare that the Apsaroke are wrong in representing him as He First Made All Things in another form. Coyote Chief, they say, is an altogether different being. In common with other Siouan tribes the Hidatsa (and Apsaroke) have myths of a supernaturally powerful personage, who, in lowly form, rids the earth of many destructive creatures. A favorite myth of both tribes, and a typically Siouan one, is that which relates the wonders performed by KadhTtwapfihITh (in Apsaroke, Kidhilhpapltugh), child of the Sun and a woman whom he had carried into the sky. Disobediently looking down at the earth through the hole left by a turnip-root, she became homesick and lowered herself and the child to the earth by a cord of sinew. But, the cord proving too short, they hung in mid-air, until the Sun, discovering their absence, dropped a stone, which struck the woman on the head. Her grip relaxed, she fell to the ground and was killed, but the boy was not harmed. He wandered into a garden, whose owner, an old woman (whom the Apsaroke call Red Woman), adopted him and named him Grandmother's Child. The husband of this ogress was a water-monster, and the first work of the wonderful boy was to kill it with the arrows which the Sun had given him, and cast its body into the nearby lake which had been its home. Finding her foster-son dangerous, the old woman sent him on many perilous quests, that he might be killed, and thus he found opportunity to learn the haunts of many evil creatures, all of whom he destroyed. CEREMONIES - As is to be expected of a village people, the Hidatsa paid more attention to religious rites than the wandering plains tribes. The Sun Dance was called Dahipik0, a contraction of dahipi, a hide, and an obsolete word meaning to gather; for in earlier times the sun-lodge was covered with buffalo-robes. In conception and performance this ceremony did not differ materially from the Sun Dance of other plains tribes. It was a rite of supplication for spiritual aid primarily, for success in war, and the general welfare of the people, in which the participants practised self-torture by scarifying and piercing. The Dahpikf usually occupied four days, the dancers waiting for visions, which were interpreted as favorable revelations from the spirits. Makadhfihta-hiupad-hi, Sacred Child, closely corresponds to the Lakota Hukikd-lowa'pi. The initiate was figuratively born again; he performed various rites, each one a step forward in this change of his spiritual nature, and thereafter his life-purpose was to be directed toward acts of generosity, hospitality, and truthfulness. He was given a sacred pipe which he kept as a symbol of his regeneration, from which he was supposed to derive spiritual strength in time of need. Six songs of this ceremony are reproduced on pages i86 -i88. Ko6hat-atiak&, the Corn Ceremony, was performed in the fulfilment of a vow made in the spring to the corn spirit, Kadhutetagh, Old Woman Who Never Dies. It lasted but one day and consisted mainly of invocations for bountiful crops and for the commonweal. The persons participating owned medicine representing the birds belonging to Old Woman Who Never Dies, and imitated these birds in their actions. Midhadia-kidutikii, Taking Up The Bowl, is based on the legend of the finding of a mysterious pottery vessel - the spirit of Old Woman Who Never Dies. It was observed with rites of ordeal for four days, and was supposed {view image of facing page 184} The mythic stone - Hidatsa [photogravure plate] {view image of page 185} APPENDIX I85 to be especially efficacious in time of drought. The sacred vessel was brought out, offerings were made to it, and it became symbolic of the deities Itihkawahidigh and Adhapduhish, the bowl-case representing Old Woman Who Never Dies. TsfAh-atiak&, Wolf Ceremony, was observed primarily to make a man successful as a war-leader. The wolf is the symbol of scouts and war-parties, the leader generally being known as Old Man Wolf and the warriors as Young Wolves. A man who saw Ts~fh-atiake in a vision asked that it be performed. The participants fasted four days and four nights, and practised torture rites, ending with a run and an exhausting dance at the edge of the village. Fasting for visions, accompanied by self-torture, was practised. Other ceremonies of the Hidatsa were brief and comparatively unimportant, consisting almost entirely of the transfer of medicine-bundles, singing, and the supplication of supernatural powers. Most of them were based on myths involving the performance of some wonder, when the culture-hero received instruction how to proceed with the ceremony; few have been observed in recent times. There were two ceremonies of Calling For The Buffalo, differing only in the legends from which they sprung. They consisted of hanging offerings of feathers and tobacco on an altar consisting of four wands thrust into the ground north of the village, and chanting prayer-songs for the return of the buffalo. Lean Wolf mentions the following additional ceremonies, some of which he remembered only by name: Mitf-keika, Make Buffalo Return Awati-atiak~, Missouri River Ceremony Mit-ditiako, Buffalo Ceremony Ashi-atiakg, Small River Ceremony MapukAh-atiakg, Snake Ceremony Tsakak-dtiakg, Bird Ceremony Midimap-dtiakg, Sun Ceremony Kadhuhie-dtiak9, Old Woman Ceremony Amadhadh-atiak9, Earth Naming Ceremony Dahipi2-datiak&, Bear Ceremony MORTUARY CUSTOMS - The clan prepared the body for final disposal. Dressed in finest clothing and covered with ornamented robes it was laid on a scaffold. The coup-stick, painted red, was placed above the body of a warrior, but no food was left at the grave. If a man made ante-mortem disposal of his property, his wishes were respected, otherwise the personal property was divided among the mourners; the maternal relations took the weapons and the medicine-bag. Should a man request it before his death, his body would be left in an empty tipi on the prairie. The entrance was securely fastened, and no one ever lifted the flap of the death-lodge. AFTER-WORLD - The spirit was supposed to go eastward and enter a hole in the ground; after travelling by various trails it came to Dokiadhhi-ati, Spirit Village, where departed souls dwelt as they had on earth. Murderers and suicides lived in a separate village, exiles from happiness. MEDICINE-MEN - A healer was called Akuwapu'sh, He That Heals, and a war-leader Akudidi, He That Guides. Both received power by fasting, when spirits appeared, teaching them how to paint, dress, sing, and perform certain conjurations. War-leaders professed to be able to foretell events. NAMES FOR INDIAN TRIBES - Apsaroke Kiiha-fia (Manyplies Envious) Arapaho Adhapi'-ahu (Tattoo Many) Arikara Adhakidahd * This stone, partially embedded in the turf on the bench south of the Missouri, nearly opposite Elbowoods, North Dakota, is pointed out by the Hidatsa and by the Apsaroke as the one dropped by the Sun upon the head of his truant wife. See page I84, Culture Myth Character. {view image of page 186} i86 Assiniboin Atsina Blackfeet Cheyenne Cree Flatheads Hidatsa Mandan Nez Perce's Pawnee Shoshoni Sioux THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Hidhu-ghidhi (Bone Yellow) Edhi-1htia-dolhp~ila (Big Belly People) If.-pippha (Black Foot) I1i~hi-pdslhi (Striped Robe) Shahi Ahtd-hapi (Head Flat) Hidif~i Adh~ihpa-k~6a (Towards Mouth Of Creek) Apa-hopi (Nose Pierced) Ts-eTha-dohpilka (Wolf People) Miki-ati (Grass Lodge) Ita-hfi~ki (Long Arrow) Hidatsa Songs Six Songs of Makadhishta-Hupadhl Moderato > >~~~~~ >__> > - t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - {view image of facing page 186} Home of the water-monster [photogravure plate] {view image of page 187} APPENDIX I87 fj '-_ —_# -i- -- -t -t - _ I -1 1 ~~~~ - ro t _ > > VJ - - - -. — -:- —.> > > - - Moderato A, > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > >> > -, > > > > > > 3 3 I) Vt - Ap. - _ _ Moderato I I >__> > __ > > > > > > tJ _ w w 1-1 l- a _ a _ * This pond, situated in the river-bottom below the spot where rests the Mythic Stone (see preceding plate), is the fabled home and burial-place of the water-monster slain by Grandmother's Child. See page 184, Culture Myth Character. {view image of page 188} I88 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Allegro moderato n L > >_ > accelerando > > Ei ') >,, I > _ - l......>& faster tV rM > * > > a From * to the end much faster and in a changed voice, contracting the throat, and producing a harsh, sharp, and penetrating tone. Two Songs of the Thunderbird Ceremony Allegro n >e t > >L >b > > V > > -v - -A- OL Ai;i~' i-l —10 - Cu *' * _-I *" "- _ - - i _ --. - - W iv -dP-o -dP-.;W — W o -W Allegro moderato -w I r- I -~~~~~ ne~~~~~~~~e_ _~~~~~~~~~ u -_ -. - -. fu -- -- t) U. - - U - - U -. - U - U - - U -. -2 - - - -; i — W. - a-. a- 0 — 4 {view image of facing page 188} The mythic tree [photogravure plate] {view image of page 189} APPENDIX 189 Tobacco-Medicine Song of Tattooed Face Allegro rh > _ ___ > > _ > > ~J _.AS,.,..L i.. I -,,i 'I --,1 _ L/- _"- _ t, x.,.iw Apsaroke and Hidatsa Comparative Vocabulary 1 Anatomical Terms English ankle-joint arm blood bone chest chin ear elbow eye face finger finger-nail foot hair hand head heart knee leg lip lungs Apsaroke i-fsa-dha-hI-she (foot where lump) a-dh6 i-dhe hu-dhe du-ghu-d ih-kye ah-pe i-shpa-hd i-shte i-se i-ghku-dhe i-shpu-hpd i-fse i-ghi6 i-shche a-shu-d da-se i-siu-gh i-hu-dh& i-da-hpe da-ho Hidatsa i-fsi-dhu-pi-du-a-kd a-dha i-di hi-dhui a-pa-ta ih-ka ah-pa igh-pa-he i-ghta i-ta sha'-ki-a-du-fsa-mi-he sha-ki-hpui i-si a-dha gha-ki ah-tu na-ta i-hua-ha i-di-ki i-de-ta (mouth edge) na-hu 1 b, m, and w are used interchangeably by the Apsaroke and the Hidatsa; also d and n. Thus the same word may be heard as bahip, mahip, wahip; or da'lo, ma'ho. * In the shade of this tree, it is said, stood the tipi of Fire Moccasins, a giant whom Grandmother's Child destroyed after stealing his moccasins of fire and thus depriving him of his power. See page I84, Culture Myth Character. {view image of page 190} Igo 190 ~~THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN English mouth neck nose nostril toe toe-nail tongue tooth A4psaroke a-pt a-pa-n6-pe (nose hole) dei-yiM Hidatsa a-pa a-pa a-pa-dhu-h6'-pi i-f&i-a-dhu-&i-wi (foot branches) i-fi~i-hpu d6-9hi I-sfhiI Animals antelope badger bat bear, black bear, grizzly beaver buffalo buffalo bull buffalo cow buzzard chipmunk coyote crow curlew deer duck eagle, bald eagle, golden elk fish fox, kitgoose gopher mink moose mountain-lion mountain-sheep otter owl tih-ka-slh6 (real deer)* ma-kik-m1d-&-d&p6 da-hpi-f9* bi-dup&" bi-ght* bi-ghi-yd1 a-hi-i1-hi-pt (wrinkled forehead) mid-llt-t6 a-dhi-t6 nd-pta-ko-i-sch6 d~ah-ka-gh6 i-f9i-di-kya-4hfi (real horse)* bu-Ud* i-yfl-huk-ke bil-dh6* ma-pd-11tilk-bil-d~-d6 (otter turn into woman) 2 a-pa-g(hpil-yix (soft nose)* igh-pi-a1* isil-hpd41d-ta-86* (has face for earrings) p6-pa-t6 auwaIki da-hpi-fgi* ki-doU-pi* mi-tP nfik-fah-ffi* w6h-gia* fh-ki-ku* ffi~i-fii-pi-~ha (black-tail deer)* ffi-ti1-tii-ki (white-tail deer)* mi-ha-ka* ip-ho-1ki ma-i-~hd ma-do-ki* f-ho-ka mi-dha* ffih-p~-66-pi (chirping prairie-dog)* nak-f6i-a a-pa-ta-pa (soft nose)* i-tu-pai-i-htP-a (great cat) a-hi-hti-a (big horn)* mi-dha'-po-kd i-6i-ku-pd 1 The names of animals used for food are indicated by stars. 2 In folklore the mink, formed like a woman, lures young men to their death in the water. {view image of page 191} APPENDIX '9' English plover porcupine prairie-chicken prairie-dog rabbit rabbit, jackskunk snowbird spider squirrel weasel wildcat wolf A4psaroke i-se-~hpi-t~ (black face)* hu-wd-fi6 hup-hi-t&" a-wu-ko-h6 6t-t6 Hidatsa tf-o-ka-dhigh-ta* a-pi-dhi* fiif6ki* fi~ih-pa* i-tq-ki* m~i-da-da-ka* koh-k6k-9hi ii-fi-fga i-tu-pi fie-4ha west north east south zenith nadir Cardinal Points hdfg-a-~hu-ko (wind toward the back of the lodge) bi-dha-di-wa-hp6 (goes into water) h6-f6i-kyo (toward the wind) h6-66-mu-ko (wind from the lowland) h6t-bi-di-a-ko (wind from the door) bi-dha-da-0ihf-i1 (comes out of water) hdt-du-wo-1h6 (wind ridge) a-ha-~he-ky6-wa-d6 (sun between) a-ha-~he-ky6-wa-d6 ii4ha-ta d-wah-ta black blue brown gray green Colors ~hT-pI-t6 hi~h-~hT-9fhpI-t6 (red black) hi-d6 hiih-~h6 ghi-d& t6-hi ~hi-Jhi-hi-~hu&. (yellow red) mi-ka-tda-hi-9ha (like red grass) hi-~hi i-h16a-ta-kii; a-ta-lii; 6-ha-ti red white yellow 1 It is believed that the sun goes down into the water, passes around to another zenith, and then comes out of the water in the east. {view image of page 192} I92 192 ~~THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Primitive Foods English acorns artichoke beans buffalo-berries cedar-berries choke-cherries corn corn, boiled corn, green corn gruel cornel berries eggs grapes milkweed blossoms onions pine seeds plums red-haws rose-hips sand-cherries service-berries squash succotash sunflower seeds tule roots tumble-weed leaves turnips A4psaroke ma-dha-dh'I-!hi-d6-t6 ma-dhfif~h-~h6 (something looks red) bu-dihuh-pa'-ba-fiu-t1 ma-tyd-dhffe 1h6-ha-gh6 a-ma-ko-ma-d~hah-t,6 ih-ky6 da-hpi-8'e-Ata-9`h6 (bear's eye gleaming) mu-du-p6 ku-kd'-w6 i-hd Hidatsa kak-ghai a-mi-gbhi ma-hi-Xifi ma-fgi-dhu-wa-td' k6-ha-ti hd-pa-ti; ma-tni-i ma-dha-ka-pi fia-ki-ka-da-ka mi-ihip-pil-sha (something black) mi-ka-ii-ti ma-ka-ta ma-wo-il mi(g-ka-pa' a-wl1-mi-f&u (earth berries) ka-kd'-wi ma-a-Jhh'g-ki-h6 ma-p'h'i a-h'i arrow arrow-point (of iron) arrow-point (of stone) arrow-shaft basket boat (bull-boat) bow bowl (wooden) cap deerskin Handicraft a-d~ho-t6 ba'-y~ di-ghu-k6 ma-dhi-hi-kya'-sl ih6-si-kyu-pu-tl ii-hum-bu-hM ma-i-tai ma-i-ta-i mnih-ti mi-dhi-ha-pa-Jhd-i a-pd-ka (also means headdress) ma-hi-pi 1 See also under the head of Animals. {view image of page 193} APPENDIX '93 English digging-stick dress fire-drill hoe house (skin tipi) house (earth lodge) lance leggings loin-cloth moccasins mortar pestle pipe pottery shirt spoon storage-vault (cache) sweat-lodge tobacco-bag A4psaroke i-ba-86h-pa-hu-il ka-kd hu-88 ba-dh&ffi-sti-86 hu-pd Ahi-pil-u-wi-di1-hM (mud-pot) a-wd-su-il Hidatsa a-hfih-pl mi-a-td-hi (woman's shirt) a-we-he ma-ti mf-dha-ti-dhu-td hu-pffii mi-i-mi-k6 m-1i-puidaht ti-pii-a-mi-clha-ha i-tUi-hi a-ghii (horn) a-wtI-s~hf (earth hole) a-wa-a-w6-ti Natural Phenomena ashes charcoal cloud darkness day earth fire ice lake light lightning Milky Way bi-di'p-fi6-dhu-f8i-d ah-pa-hd ma-pt a-w6 bi-ds bu-dhbi-h6 bi-difi-ky6 (great water) am-bi-a-dh5 naig-kyd-dah-n6 a-wa-ha-w6 ih-kyiA-htI-hii-1 (all stars) ha-dt mi-di-kyii-p6 (water head-dress) a-wu-1h6 pu-e mi-dhfipuk-9ba a-hpa-hii haip-he-~ha a-wa mi-dhfia-a mi-dhiii-hi mi-ni-liti-a (great water) ka-dhlh -ka ma-hu-pi mi-dha'-fi-pa a-clhui-ghi (spirits' ash-pile) a-wa-Th'i m~-ku-mi-ni (night sun) a-ma-ha,-mi mnih-ku ilh-ka-ha-hi-a ha-JhM ha-dh&.a-pti-ka (rain head-dress) a-E1h mi-i-h6h-pa a-hpa-hii mi-dhi-(8i mist moon mountain night Pleiades rain rainbow river rock sky smoke VOL. Tv - 13 {view image of page 194} '94 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN English snow star sun thunder water wind AIpsaroke bhi- il ih-kyg a'h-ha-dh6 bi-dg Hidatsa ma ih-ka' mi-ni; ma'-pi-mi-nit ta-hd'h mi-ni hu-&'i Numerals one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve thirteen fourteen fifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen nineteen twenty thirty forty fifty one hundred ha-wi~-til nu-pa na-wi 9bh6-pa sa-pu-fti nu-pa-pi (two less) ha-wti-ta-pi (one less) pi-dti-ktik ah-pti-wa-ttilk (with one) ah-pi-du-pflk (with two) ah-pil-da-wik ah-pi-ghfopk ah-pi-fli-ti-htik ah-pudk-a-wtik alh-pi-sa-pu-tik ah-pi-du-pa-pik ah-pti-wa-til-pik nu-pa-pi-dil-ktlk (twice ten) nah-mi-tl-pil-dil-ktik pi-dilk-i-saik (great ten) nu-wttf&a nu-pa na-wi to-pa a-ka'-wa' ghai-po nd-pa-hpi nu-w&-fia-hpi pi-dhil-lkai a-hp'i-nu-wft-(a a-hpi-nu'-pa a-hpil-na-wi a-hpi-to-pa' a-hpii-a-ki-wa' a-hpi-ihi-po a-hpi-nd-pa-hpi Personal Terms aunt (father's sister) baby boy brother, elder (masculine pronouns) myyour his mnas-ba-hil-t (my aunt) ihi-kyi-ke i-ohia-mi ma-ka-dhigh-ta (small thing) mna-ka-dhifh-ta-mna-fild (baby man) mi-kyS di-ky6 i-ky'e mi-a-ka d'i-a-ka i-a-ka {view image of page 195} APPENDIX '95 English brother, elder (feminine pronouns) my your her brother., younger my your his or herchild clan enemy father (masculine pronouns) my (direct address) your his (feminine pronouns) my your her girl man medicine-man mother my (direct address) your ~ his or her people A4psaroke Hidatsa ma-sa-dhffi di-si-dh6 i-sa-dh8 ma-ta-met-&a di-ta-me't-ga i-ta-m6t-ga ma-8iu-k6 di-9i6-k6 i-&iu-k'e ma-ki-t6 (something small) a-~ha-ma-de'd-hid1 (lodges grouped) ma-skyo-t6 mi-dilp-118 a-hM dii-dtlp-1h6 i-didp-h6 ma-saa-kU di-sia-k6 i-saa-kU ma-fU-wa-hp6 akb-hldm-p ma-sa-kU ih-kyi di-si-k6 i-sa-kt ma-9i6-ka' di-f~id-ki ma-ka-dhigh-ta na-ki ma-i-ha' a-te a-te ma-ka-dhIgh-ta-mil-a (baby woman) ma-6t ma-96-hu-pa' ih-ka'gh i-hii doh-pa'-la1 mni-Jho-ka-doh-pa'-la (we people) dohi-pi-k~a-i-haf6(different people) ma-ta-mi-a di-ta-mi-a i-ta-mi-a ma-dhd di-dhd' i-dhd people (tribesmen) b'i-du-k6 people (strangers) agfh-pa-i-ht (oti sister, elder (masculine pronouns) my ma-sa-ka'-t6 your -di-si-ka-t6 his i-sa-ki-t6 (feminine pronouns) my -ma-sa-ka'-t6 your -di-si-ka-t~ her -i-sa-ka'-t6 Formerly applied only to Indians. her lodges) {view image of page 196} i96 196 ~~THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN English sister., younger (masculine pronouns) my your his (feminine pronouns) my your her white man woman A4psaroke Hidatsa ma-sa-fii-t,6 di-si-gi-t,6 i-sa-8'146 m-h-I-h di-tah-ki-gha di-tah-ki-4ha ma-so-kg di-s6-k6 i-so-kt ma-sch'i-di 1 ma-ta-kui di-ti-kui i-t~i-kud ma-shi2 mi-a Trees ash basswood box-elder cedar choke-cherry cottonwood elm fir oak pine spruce willow bi-ghpt bu-dhuh-pt ma-dhM-pu-d ma-dha-ti-d& man-nas-fit ma-dhi-96 bi-di-fit mi-~hpa' mi-da-a-tl-ki (white wood) mi-t6-ta-dha-ki mi-da-hu-pi (sacred wood) ma-96i-a ma -ku mi-d~i-'I mi-da-k~a-milh-ka (knotty wood) m~i-da-a'ii Miscellaneous food forest large small spirit, human spirit, disembodied spirit-creature spirit-land tobacco tobacco (ceremonial) ma-de'ma-dhu-ghd ma-nt i-se, ma-i-Jhi-he a-pa-dha'-he a-pa-dhaih-a-iht 6-p6 i-faih-fid ma-dhu-ei mi-da i-ht'i-a ka-dhigh-ta i-~h~i-hi dok-i-dha-hi ma-hu-pa' O-pi ICorruption of maifhta-shzidi, " yellow eyes." 2 Compare Dakota wafhichun and.Mandan masfina. {view image of page 197} APPENDIX 197 Biographical Sketches Apsaroke BIG Ox, Bifiheifidi-safh Born about 1830. River Crow; Not Mixed clan; Fox organization. He had led ten successful war-parties and was rising rapidly when about 1877 his private enemy, White Thigh, made medicine against him and " he went under," losing all his property and influence. He has since then been known by all the Apsaroke as " the man whose arm has been taken." On a high mountain called Thunder Nest he went to fast and on the fourth day beheld a black cloud coming swiftly from the west. Birds scattered before it and trees bent low; many fell torn from the earth. Big Ox crept under a rock; the roaring deafened him and the lightning blinded him. He seemed to sleep; he awoke in the lodge of Thunderbird, who said: " Look below. See if you can find your enemy." On the plain below he saw White Thigh utterly naked walking over the prairie. When Big Ox returned he asked the people to bring him a living jack-rabbit and some long cactus thorns. When these were given to him he thrust a thorn into each eye of the rabbit, saying, as he turned it loose, " Here goes White Thigh! " That day, it is asserted, White Thigh lost his sight, and he became so poor that he had not even a loin-cloth to cover his nakedness. Every Apsaroke knows the story of Big Ox and White Thigh, and many are to be found who swear that they were eye-witnesses of the revenge upon the latter. As a Thunder medicine-man Big Ox is feared by his tribesmen, lest if his displeasure be incurred he may cause Thunder to strike the unlucky one. Portrait facing page 90. BREAD, MaAiuwifh Born I863. Mountain Crow; Whistle Water clan. First war experience under Young Wolf Calf, when the party captured a hundred horses from the Piegan. On another occasion, under Wet, he himself captured a horse from the Yanktonai. Married five times; " threw away" four wives; is the father of one child. Never fasted and never achieved an honor. Portrait, folio plate 121. BULL CHIEF, Tsiduip-ba2tefslYh Born 1825. Mountain Crow. Believing he could win success without fasting, he joined many war-parties, but always returned without honor. He therefore climbed Clouds Peak, the highest point in the Bighorn mountains, and there on the bare rocks he stood a day and a night. The mountain-rats ate holes in his robe and a fierce blizzard swept across the peak, so that he could not remain longer. Soon afterward the camp was moved, and he fasted four days and four nights in the southern part of Wolf mountains; no vision appeared. At this time all the men were possessed of an especial desire to count coups, and everybody was fasting. Bull Chief soon endured two more unsuccessful fasts, and then at the head of Redlodge creek, lance in hand and clad only in loin-cloth, moccasins, robe, and a piece of old lodge-cover, he fasted four days and four nights, much of the time in blinding snow. He saw his own lodge and a splendid bay horse standing in front of it. This vision was soon followed by the capture of a tethered bay, his first honor. Thenceforward he very frequently counted coup. Not long after his marriage, a bank of earth fell upon his young wife and killed her; and though he was looked upon with favor by all the tribe, and many women were hoping to be chosen {view image of page 198} I98 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN by him, he sorrowed for the dead girl and determined to go through a form of torture. Two friends killed an old buffalo bull and dragged the fresh head, with a broad strip of skin down the back, including the tail, to the edge of the village. While the people were making merry that night, Bull Chief's heart was sad with the thought of what was at the edge of the camp. Early in the morning he bathed in the river and went to the lodge of Big Shadow,1 a clansman, and said, " My friend, pierce me." Big Shadow had heard of the buffalo-head, and answered, " Go! I shall come." He directed Bull Chief to bathe again, remove every ornament from his body, and rub himself with sage. The young man did so, and went and sat beside the buffalo-head, after which his clansman came with three other men. He painted Bull Chief from head to foot with white clay, then pierced the muscles of his back in two places, and to the skewers which he thrust through the slits he attached thongs that were fastened to the nostrils of the buffalo-head. Then he pierced the shoulders, and from the slits hung the shield and tomahawk. He pulled the thongs tight, gave Bull Chief a staff, and bade him arise. While the other three sat hehind and smoked, Big Shadow sang and exhorted Bull Chief to be a man and go four times about the camp, which stretched along the river for about half a mile. So he dragged the head and skin along, wailing, while dogs rushed out barking, leaped upon the skin, and jerked the sticks in the slits. Sometimes the skin caught in the sage-brush, and he had difficulty in refraining from turning back. At sunset he went to a hilltop to which Big Shadow had directed him, and lay down, his head between the horns of the buffalo and his feet at the tail, pointing eastward. As day dawned a man seemed to come and stand at his feet; then he turned and departed. Just before sunrise Big Shadow came. "Last night someone came to you; I know it," he said. " I did not sleep," said Bull Chief; " how then could anyone come to me? " " Someone did come, I know it," persisted the other. " Yes," said Bull Chief, " I will tell you of it." Big Shadow returned to the camp, leaving the young man to bathe before coming to his lodge for food. After the faster had eaten, Big Shadow said, " Last night in my dreams I saw a man before you. Why should you conceal it from me? " Then Bull Chief told him how the man had been dressed, and the other said, " It is the Morning Star, my Father, that came to you." Thereafter Bull Chief dressed as the spirit had been dressed, and he believes that all his honors and long life are the result of its guidance and protection. Bull Chief counted three first coups on Sioux and two on Indians killed by white men; but the latter are " not good." Three times he captured guns from enemies who were still alive and shooting at him. On another occasion he took two revolvers and a bow from a Sioux. Captured two tethered horses. He never led a war-party from the camp, but four times he took detachments from parties that were turning back, and each time came home with undisputed honor. Three times he dismounted in battle and alone held the enemy back. He has a record of having killed eight men - three Sioux, two Nez Perces, one Shoshoni, and two Piegan. Member of Never Shoots, Packs Game clan, and of the Fox organization. Never accepted the lance of the Fox society, but was four times placed at the head of the procession as they marched to the dance, a position accorded the bravest man present. Married fifteen times; gave up thirteen of his wives. Father of thirteen children. Portrait, folio plate I28. BULL GOES HUNTING, Tsidip-idikyaAh Born about I815-I820. Mountain Crow. A noted leader who during his life went on the war-path at the head of eleven successful parties, seven of which brought back scalps, and four of them horses. Rescued six men who had been wounded in battle, and was himself five times surrounded by the enemy. He died in 1905. Portrait facing page 104. 1 For Big Shadow's fast and vision, see pages 67-81. {view image of facing page 198} Bull Tongue - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 199} APPENDIX I99 BULL TONGUE, Tsidup-tThjyh Born about 1838. Mountain Crow; Newly Made Lodge clan; Fox organization, which he joined before he was twenty. Married at eighteen or nineteen and has had in all twelve wives, ten of whom he discarded. At the age of twenty he went on a campaign against the Nez Perces, and was chosen as one of the three scouts. In the same year he went against the Flatheads, in the fight with whom he dismounted and was surrounded by the enemy, but succeeded in escaping. His father and brother however and the brother of the former were killed in that battle, and Bull Tongue himself received an arrow wound in the thigh. After the return to the Apsaroke camp near the head of the Rosebud he went up on a high mountain to fast for spirit-power and for revenge upon the Flatheads. He was three days in reaching the top, during which time he drank but did not eat. He remained on the summit three days and three nights, and cut off the tip of a finger, but no vision appeared. Seven times he fasted in Pryor mountains and in Wolf mountains, but no spirit came. His father-in-law sold him his medicine of hawk, and Hillside that of buffalo bull, and both of these Bull Tongue afterward saw in visions, a sign that they had become really his own medicine. Another man made wolf-medicine for him, but that he never saw for himself. At the age of seven, Bull Tongue accompanied his father on the war-path, and before he had reached twenty he had been to war twenty times. In all he participated in seventy-four campaigns, about thirty of which resulted in fighting. In eight of them a man was lost; fifteen times scalps were brought back; seven times horses were captured, and four times Bull Tongue himself brought back horses. Three times he followed horse-raiders to their camp and returned with their horses; three times his party killed a man in the enemy's camp. Bull Tongue has participated in fifteen hot fights, including the battle with Sioux and Cheyenne on Pryor creek (see page 96), the fight in which Red Bear was killed, the campaign of that chief against the Shoshoni (see page 83), and the expedition of Spotted Horse against the Sioux and Cheyenne (see page 105). He has killed nine men in battle. Struck dakAhe twice, but the deeds are not undisputed; captured one gun; never led a war-party. Three times he dismounted to check the enemy, and four other times held them back without dismounting. Twice he brought away a friend on his horse. Bull Tongue boasts especially of the following two deeds: When Sitting Bull was encamped on Milk river he stole into the village and killed a woman beside her tipi, calling out, " Here is Bull Tongue! He has struck you! " At another time a party of Apsaroke approached a Flathead camp. Two women came out to bark cottonwood trees for the sake of the juice, which was used to make a sort of pudding; both were killed, and Bull Tongue counted second coup. The Flatheads came rushing out, and, Bull Tongue's father being surrounded, the son rode back to his aid into the thick of the enemy. His father was killed, but Bull Tongue fought on a long time until rescued by his friends. Portrait facing page I98. COUPS WELL-KNOWN, Adhahfii-ehikyuAh Born I859. Mountain Crow; Not Mixed clan; Fox organization. His name was given him at birth. He received medicine of the buffalo bull from his father, Crazy Head, who obtained it by purchase from Ch6kopsh, a noted war-leader of a former generation. He never won a coup. Portrait, folio plate I44. DOES EVERYTHING, BahidIfh Born I86i. Mountain Crow; Not Mixed clan; Fox organization. When only eighteen or twenty years of age he captured a gun, struck second dakAfh, and killed two Piegan in one {view image of page 200} 200 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN fight, thus receiving his name. Later he took two horses from the enemy's camp. Portrait facing page 34. FISH SHOWS (correctly, Fish Appears), BusTisfh Born about 1848 on Shoshone river, south of Bighorn mountains. Mountain Crow; Big Lodge clan; Fox organization. He never fasted ceremonially, for though he wished to do so his father prevented him, saying, " I have given my clansmen many presents; I think this will make you a man." At sixteen he first went to war, under the leadership of the famous Red Bear, who himself killed a Sioux on Little Missouri river. Fish Shows was on the warpath about forty times, but his only honors were the capture of three guns. Portrait, folio plate I35. FLATHEAD WOMAN, AFhu1hap-biiih Born about I851. Mountain Crow; Big Lodge clan; Lumpwood organization. Captured one gun and three tethered horses, and with medicine purchased from Hillside led four successful war-parties. Famous as a leader who could foretell events, and is now known and highly respected by the whole tribe as a " man of one heart," against whose character nothing can be said. " He is like a virtuous woman," is the way they express their regard for him. Portrait facing page 70. FOG IN THE MORNING, Shiwasedyth Born about i858. Mountain Crow; Not Mixed clan; Lumpwood organization. Never won an honor. After the death of his son he fasted many times until at length he had a vision, after which he claimed "White Man Above" as his medicine, also Thunder. Thereafter he gained considerable property, and his success being attributed to his medicine, he derived some fame - and more property- as a dispenser of good luck. Portrait facing page 14. GOES AHEAD, BassikoSh Born about I858. Mountain Crow; Newly Made Lodge clan; Fox organization. A scout in the campaign of the Little Bighorn, in which he killed a Sioux, and was one of the three Crow scouts with Custer until the Sioux attack (see Volume III, pages 44-49). He was also with Gibbon in his northern campaign. Portrait facing page Ioo. HAIRY MOCCASINS, IsapiwiiAhIh Born about I858. Mountain Crow; Bad Coup clan; Lumpwood society. Though he accompanied a number of war-parties, he never participated in any real fighting. Scouted with Gibbon, Miles, and Howard, and with Custer in his last campaign. He was one of the three scouts who were with Custer to the close of the Reno fight, at which time the Sioux made their attack on Custer (see Volume III, pages 44-49). Of his four wives one was "thrown away" and one was taken by Wet, of the Fox society. Portrait facing page 98. HOOP ON THE FOREHEAD, Ai4iwaAihwi/ht/h Born I852 or 1853. Mountain Crow, son of Bull Chief; Whistle Water clan, and Fox organization, which he and a brother left because Wolf Lies Down, who had attempted to take the brother's wife in the annual contest between Foxes and Lumpwoods, joined the former society. First fasted at eighteen, when he offered a finger to the sun and in return received {view image of page 201} APPENDIX 20I a vision which later brought him a pistol in battle. Thrice more he fasted, each time selfinflicting some bodily torture, and each time experiencing a vision. At about twenty he went on the war-path, but there was no fighting, a failure attributed to the fact that the leader lacked the favor of the spirits. In all he took part in forty-three war expeditions, winning one dakckhZ and capturing a gun; but he was never a war-leader. He scouted with Crook on the Rosebud, with Miles against the Bannock, with Howard in the pursuit of the Nez Perces, and with Gibbon against the Sioux; started to join Miles's command in a campaign against the Sioux, but met the enemy, counted his ddkahe, and returned. Married at about thirty; took seven wives in all, and gave away five. Portrait, folio plate II8. HUNTS THE ENEMY, A/hpaiha-flidYrh Born about I828. River Crow; Not Mixed clan; Fox organization. Obtained his owlmedicine by fasting. Won three dakAhe, captured a tethered horse and three guns - one of the latter from a Pend d'Oreille chief, another at such close quarters that the enemy thrust the muzzle against the Apsaroke's mouth in an attempt to shoot him. Led nearly thirty successful war-parties, in four of which he himself killed each time two Piegan. One of the greatest warriors and war-leaders of the tribe. It was Hunts The Enemy that killed his uncle Hair In A Lump, as related on page 58. Died in I907. Portrait facing page 58. HUNTS To DIE, AdhaAhe-tfidY/h Born about 1838. Mountain Crow; member of Newly Made Lodge clan and of the Lumpwood society. Medicine of the sparrow-hawk was given to him, and he also received it in a vision. Seven young men went into the mountains on Redlodge creek, first purifying their bodies in a sweat-lodge at the foot of the mountains, and crouching in the smoke of ground-cedar leaves. Crossing a narrow canon by two trees that met in the middle, each selected a peak. Hunts To Die remained four days and four nights, crying to Those That Have No Bodies. On the fourth night sparrow-hawk came, and before his eyes became a man on a bay horse. He painted his body and placed a sparrow-hawk on his hair. A voice said, " Watch him; he is going into battle." The enemy appeared, and the sparrow-hawk man sang, " I am charging; I have made him helpless; I am charging." Then again: "When the earth rises, I always see it" (meaning, when the earth is renewed in the spring I shall live long to see it). Then thrice he charged among the enemy and came out unharmed. The next morning the faster returned to the camp, shot a sparrow-hawk, painted it, and hung it in the honor-place of the lodge. Hunts To Die thus describes how he received bear-medicine: " We were hunting and saw a bear sitting in his den, only his head showing. I told my companions to hold their guns ready while I went up and slapped the bear in the face. When he rushed out, they were to shoot him. But the bear was too swift; he overtook me and seized me by the neck with his jaws. He was very, very old, and had no teeth, and his claws were worn down to his toes; but he threw me to the ground and rubbed my face in the dirt. We wrestled for a time, then he sat up on his haunches, growling. He was so old that all the hair was worn off his belly. We threw pieces of meat to him, which he swallowed. He was very hungry. Then we painted his face red, and he looked like a white man with a beard. We threw a rope over his head and dragged him back to the den, and laid the rest of the meat there, praying to him to pity us. That night the bear came to me. He transformed himself into a man, smeared his forehead with mud, and sang, " I charge, and they are helpless; I move, they run." The first expedition in which Hunts To Die played the part of a full-fledged warrior was led by the famous {view image of page 202} 202 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Red Bear. The young man was a scout, and as such was sent with a few others to drive off the herds of the Cheyenne village under cover of the darkness; he was especially commissioned to get a roan pinto pony that the chief had seen in a vision. He brought seven horses and gave them to Red Bear, who said he would not leave without the roan pinto with the split ear; so the scouts returned and took more horses, among them the one Red Bear desired. Hunts To Die led it to the chief, and said: " Here is your horse. I shall return to the village and take a tethered horse. You start on." A rendezvous was named, and for the third time the scout approached the camp, this time alone. Once inside the camp-circle he selected a fine black horse and cut the tether, but while tying a rope about its muzzle, an even better animal got up and he decided to take that also. He pulled gently on the hair rope, but when the horse felt it tighten, he stepped back and trod on a dog under the edge of the tipi. The yelping aroused the people; a man stepped out and in the glimmering dawn saw the raider. As he clapped hand to mouth and uttered a piercing whoop the Apsaroke leaped for the horse's back, but in his excitement vaulted entirely over the animal. Still grasping the rope, he ran, the horse following; but when he leaped a small stream it balked and jerked him back into deep water. He was compelled to abandon his capture in order to gain the shore through rank slough grass. Bullets were now splashing about him. He entered a small grove into which some Cheyenne followed him, and at the other end he discovered several lying in wait for him. He dislodged them with a few arrows and made a dash for another piece of woods, which he gained in safety. Two women on a small knoll were singing a song of victory, a song which, more than forty years after the event, Hunts To Die still remembers. It suddenly occurred to him that everybody must have left the village to pursue him, so leaving the shelter he crept through the grass to the stream and reentered the camp. In the meantime the Cheyenne had fired the woods. The noise had frightened the tethered horses and most of them were running wild; but he succeeded in picking up a trailing rope, and leaping to the back of the captured animal, drove off four others, guiding his mount with his bowstring. He travelled eastward to the headwaters of Powder river, then down that stream toward the Yellowstone. From tough bark he twisted a rope halter, and killing a buffalo he scraped the hide as well as he could and used it for a blanket, with the hairy side inward. From the skin of a foreleg he made a rude moccasin to replace one he had lost in the stream. At Sage creek he overtook two companions, and the three continued down Powder river, then up the Yellowstone to the Apsaroke camp. Hunts To Die was a favorite scout of the great war-leader Red Bear, and seldom missed an opportunity to participate in an expedition under him or any other successful leader. It was because of his activity in war that he was given the name he bears. Before the age of thirty a Sioux bullet shattered his hip-joint, incapacitating him as a warrior. Still he participated in the buffalo chase, tied fast in his saddle, and more than once fought from his horse when the enemy attacked near the camp. Portrait facing page 10. LONE TREE (correctly, One Pine), Badfi-hawfitush Born about I828. River Crow; Not Mixed clan. After a long series of fasts in which he cut himself severely, a brown eagle appeared and gave him ability to lead war-parties, a vocation in which he achieved such success that although he has no coup to his credit he is regarded as having had a most honorable career. He was well known as a " mysterious person" who could clearly foresee the future and predict success or failure of war-parties. He made his prophecies in a darkened lodge, wrapped in a buffalo-robe pinned in the front with a bunch of eagle-feathers and with the hairy side out. It is said that he frequently informed his returning warriors where they would find the home camp, and that his predictions never failed. He {view image of page 203} APPENDIX 203 foretold the death of more than a hundred of the party consisting of Apsaroke and Atsina who were preparing to go against the Piegan, saying, "I saw blood flowing toward me and I (that is, his medicine, brown eagle) did not drink "- proof that the blood was not that of enemies. The prediction was verified. See Volume V, page IO9. Portrait, folio plate I43. MEDICINE CROW, PedThi2y-wahi paTh Born 1848. Mountain Crow; member of the Newly Made Lodge clan and of the Lumpwood organization. At eighteen he fasted four days and three nights, and on the morning of the fourth day a spirit resembling a white man appeared and foretold the passing away of the buffalo and the coming of many white men with cattle, horses, and steamboats. His medicine of hawk was purchased from another man. Counted three first coups, captured five guns and two tethered horses, and led ten successful war-parties. In a fight with the Nez Perces he killed a warrior, counted first coup upon him, and captured his gun - two regular honors at one time, besides the distinction of killing an enemy. This act he twice repeated in battles with the Arapaho and the Sioux. Twice he fought on the side of the white men when " their flag was on the ground ": once against the Nez Perces in Chief Joseph's retreat, and again under General Crook when the Sioux under Sitting Bull were fleeing across the Canadian border. Medicine Crow participated in ten severe fights, killed three men, had two horses shot under him, and had the distinction of having " thrown away " six wives. Portrait, folio plate 117. OLD DOG, Bishki-hadh1ih Born about 1828. Mountain Crow; Burnt Mouth clan; Lumpwood organization. Counted one dakfhe and captured four guns, one of them from the Nez Perce chief Red Sun. Of his seven wives many were taken from him by members of the rival military society. He bought the hawk-medicine from another man, but when he reclaimed a wife who had been taken by a Fox, the original owner of the medicine took it away from Old Dog, who later bought the otter-medicine. Portrait facing page 88. ON TOP, IfIhedasth Born about I830. Mountain Crow; Newly Made Lodge clan; Fox organization. His medicine of buffalo bull was procured by fasting, and on ceremonial occasions he always wears a bull's tail on his head. Three dakAhe stand to his credit, one of them gained on the enemy's line in a battle with more than a hundred Sioux. Portrait facing page 84. PLENTY COUPS, Adhahafi-ahu/h Born 1847. Mountain Crow of the Whistle Water clan. When he was about sixteen years of age his brother was killed at Tongue river by the Sioux, and the boy climbed for two days to reach a peak in the Crazy mountains, there to give vent to his grief and to pray for revenge. He addressed the sun: " Father, the enemy have slain my brother. I wish them to cry often for my hand, and in return I give you my finger." Then he hacked off the end of his left index-finger, crying, " Father, my body is clean and pure; I give a portion of it to you. I am a poor young man; take pity on me." " In those days," says Plenty Coups, " no white man had defiled the mountains; the spirits dwelt there and I sought their power." He had at that time already been on the war-path, and now began to take the trail with great frequency, {view image of page 204} 204 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN so that at the age of twenty-six he had counted a coup of each kind and was called chief. Subsequently his record was four coups of each of the four sorts - striking the first enemy in a battle, capturing a gun, taking a tethered horse from the enemy's camp, and leading a successful war-party - and as no other Apsaroke could equal his achievements he became, on the death of Pretty Eagle in I903, the chief of the tribe. Portrait, folio plate 124. RED WING, AhpfA/hyf'h Born about i858. Mountain Crow; Piegan Lodge clan; Lumpwood society. Obtaining no medicine by fasting, he purchased that of brown crane and owl, and led a successful war-party with it. Captured two guns in battle. When stationed at Fort Custer as United States scout he accompanied a detachment of troops in pursuit of Sioux horse-raiders; the latter surrendered, and Red Wing shook hands with one of them, subsequently claiming dkakAhi since he had been the first to touch the enemy. A strict interpretation of the rules allowed the honor. Portrait, folio plate I20. SHOT IN THE HAND, MaoipYTh Born about 1841. Mountain Crow; Whistle Water clan; Fox organization. By fasting he obtained his hawk-medicine; it was his custom to make a powder of a hawk's heart, sweetgrass, and green paint, and to eat a portion of the mixture just before going into battle. Counted three dadk/h, captured three guns and one tethered horse, but lacked the medicine to become a war-leader. Once rushed up a height to strike the Piegan who were entrenched on the summit, when a shot brought him to the ground; he arose and charged again, and was again shot, this time rolling to the foot of the hill. Seven times he struck an enemy who was firing at him. After the suspension of intertribal hostilities the Ogalala chief Red Cloud, who boasted of having performed this feat four times, sent a challenge to the Apsaroke to produce a man who could equal the record, and Shot In The Hand was promptly named. Shot In The Hand played a spectacular part in the battle against the Sioux on Pryor creek (see page 9I). On another occasion he dismounted beside his father, who had been shot in the thigh, and though the latter was killed the son was rescued, wounded in the arm. Four times in as many different fights he seized an unharmed enemy by the hair and hurled him from his horse. He once accepted the staff of the Foxes, but there was no occasion to use it that summer. He " threw away " seven of his eight wives. Portrait, folio plate I33. SITTING ELK, It2idikyashe-wat'h Born about 1828-I830. River Crow of the Never Shoots, Packs Game clan, and Fox organization, which he joined at about thirty, having been chosen to take the place of a friend who had been killed. He never fasted. " I cannot help it," he remarked; " it is the truth." But when he was six years of age he was taking part in a sham fight with mud balls thrown from sticks. A ball that had not been rolled in the sparks of the fire and consequently could not be seen as it came, struck him in the eye, which soon swelled shut. The next evening the boys were playing again, and a woman relative said chidingly, " Foolish boy, go and get your eye hurt again! " He went, but stood at the end, and was the last to charge and the first in the retreat. Soon a mud ball struck the same eye, and it seemed as if his " brains would fall out." A sister-in-law cared for him that night. Toward morning he fell asleep and dreamed. He saw the sham fight continued; gradually it changed, and he suddenly saw two opposing war-parties contending. A man with a lance decorated with hawk-feathers stood forth, sang {view image of page 205} APPENDIX 205 three songs, and charged among the enemy. As he entered their ranks he became a chickadee. Soon he reappeared without a scratch on his body. Having had a vision and obtained songs, Sitting Elk felt that it would do no good to fast; yet with some doubt, fearing that it might have been merely a dream, he said nothing about his medicine. At forty he began to feel certain that it had been a real vision from the spirits, and thereafter used the songs and made his medicine known. He accompanied his first war-party in his eighteenth year, but though he went many times on the war-path, for one reason or another he participated in no fighting until he was thirty-three, when in an engagement he counted a second coup. On this occasion he was scouting in advance of the party when the deed was done and consequently gained a distinct honor, though not one of the four regular coups. Counted one dakAhe, and captured two guns and one tethered horse. The last honor he does not count, because during the night retreat it was discovered that the animal was a mare, hence the capture could not count as an honor. When a companion informed him of the fact he threw the rope from her neck in disgust and turned her loose; and though others at once pursued her, she could not be retaken. Sitting Elk never saw any spirit that gave him power to lead war-parties. Six times he turned back alone, dismounted, and checked the enemy while his companions retreated, a deed which he performed three times in one fight with the Piegan. North of the Yellowstone, a little above the mouth of Tullock's fork, a hunting party was suddenly attacked by Flatheads. Sitting Elk dismounted. His friends not only retreated, but deserted him, and he was completely surrounded. He charged upon the enemy, one of whom, also on foot, was shooting at him from under his horse's neck. As the Apsaroke rushed at him he abandoned his horse and ran; Sitting Elk seized the bridle, just as another Flathead dashed up and shot as he passed. The bullet struck his shoulder, but did not enter the flesh.' The Apsaroke leaped upon the horse and charged among the Flatheads, who scattered, and as he passed between them they mounted and pursued. One was gaining rapidly, kicking his horse and holding his gun in air. Sitting Elk turned suddenly; the Flathead shot, and the bullet passed through the horse's shoulder into the rider's leg. In the resulting collision both men were hurled to the ground. The Flathead leaped to his feet and ran, but not before Sitting Elk had secured his gun in the melee. With two guns in his hands he gave chase; the Flathead turned and shot with his revolver, the bullet striking the Apsaroke in the elbow as he instinctively threw up his arms. Another of the enemy rode close and struck him with a lance. He was now completely hemmed in, and the enemy paused to reload. Not knowing who they were, he called out, " Piegans, stop! Let us talk! " They made no reply. Then, " Nez Perces," he cried, " let us talk! " Still there was no answer. In anger he shouted: "Why are you keeping silent? You cannot kill me this day. You are women and would better go home! " Then they rushed him again, shooting, but still he was not seriously wounded. " My body was full of bullets, and I was wild," says Sitting Elk. "The sun was low and I was anxious to die and be done with it." He put out his hand toward them, sang, and charged madly upon them; they broke and ran. Again they rallied and charged back at him, and so they continued fighting, running hither and thither, backward and forward. Suddenly a horseman appeared on the crest of a hill and dashed down to the scene of the fray. It was Little Crane. The Flatheads began to scatter, and the fight was over. Sitting Elk gave his rescuer a gun, the one he had captured, and was taken up on the horse, and thus they rode toward the hill 1 In the thick of the chase or the fight the Indians in the days of the muzzle-loading musket did not ram the bullet home with a wad; consequently the ball was apt to, and frequently did, roll down the barrel toward the muzzle and was then discharged with little force. {view image of page 206} 206 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN where his tribesmen were waiting. Sitting Elk roundly upbraided them for not having come to his assistance. All the Apsaroke know of this single-handed fight, and all maintain that it lasted for what we would call several hours. Sitting Elk married at thirty-four and has had eleven wives, ten of whom he has " thrown away." He is the father of four children. Portrait, folio plate 146. SKINS WOLF, Tstt-diihYpuTh Born 1840. River Crow. At fifteen he began to realize what the good things were; that without spirit power he could not perform great deeds and have horses and wives; so without instruction from anybody he fasted three days and three nights, and in the beginning cut off the tip of a finger and offered it to the sun. In the middle of the second day a spirit-warrior appeared before him, holding a decorated coup-stick; the spirit did not sing or utter a word. Skins Wolf returned to his father's lodge, but said nothing, for the vision was clear and needed no interpretation by the old men. Not meeting with success as rapidly as he had thought he would, at the age of about thirty he took his gun into the mountains, laid his little finger on the stock, and chopped off the tip, to show the spirits that he wished to capture guns. He then fasted three days. No spirits came, but he saw many horses coming from the enemy's camp, and from the neck of the leader dangled a short rope. By that sign he knew that he was given the art of capturing tethered horses from the enemy. A third time he fasted two nights and a day. He married at about thirty, having previous to that time been too poor to take a wife. In all he has had twelve wives, usually only one at a time, but twice he had two at once; and six children, two of whom were born after their mothers had been " thrown away." At twelve Skins Wolf accompanied a war-party against the Piegan, which returned without finding any. Two years later he was a member of another party that brought back horses - an honor for the boy even though he played no immediate part in their capture. At fifteen he participated in active fighting, and in the following year won a recognized coup. On one occasion some River Crows were visiting the Prairie Gros Ventres (Atsina), when some Piegan charged the camp; in the rally and return charge Skins Wolf was shot through the arm and cut in the body, while his horse was shot down under him. He struck first coup (ddkAhg) four times, capturing guns from two men so struck, and a bow from the third. Took one gun and a bow besides these. Three times he captured tethered horses from the enemy's camp. He never led a warparty; but a war-leader gave him a pipe, and going out alone he captured a horse, which was equivalent to leading a party; and in accordance with the rules he was thereafter called chief. He was then fifty-two. Sixty times he took the war-path against Assiniboin, Piegan, Flatheads, Pend d'Oreilles, Cheyenne, and Sioux. A party of thirty, Skins Wolf among them, once left the mouth of the Yellowstone in midwinter, travelling afoot along the northern side of Milk river into Piegan territory. Unsuccessful in finding the enemy, they wandered about during the remainder of the winter and the spring, camping here and there, and at last finding the Piegan captured some horses and returned in June, after an absence of five months. A warparty once fell upon three Piegan and killed two; the other ran. Skins Wolf pursued, when the Piegan took refuge in a low cave that led through a small hill near the summit. The Apsaroke followed, even when he saw his enemy point a gun. It chanced that the cap failed. Skins Wolf rushed in, took his enemy alive, dragged him outside, and killed him. Portrait facing this page. SPOTTED JACK-RABBIT, IAhtahfihhYh Born I864. Mountain Crow; Never Shoots, Packs Game clan. Son of Shot In The Hand. At sixteen, having returned from his first war-party without accomplishing anything {view image of facing page 206} Skins Wolf - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 207} APPENDIX 207 because a fall from his horse had broken his shoulder, he decided that he must gain power from the spirits by fasting. He went into the mountains, but received no vision. In all he fasted ten times, and at last was rewarded with a vision. He received no medicine from it, however, and was compelled to take that of his father. Spotted Jack-rabbit counted one ddkAhe, an unusual honor for a man born so near the close of intertribal hostilities. Scouted with Miles against the Bannock, and with Howard against the Nez Perces. Was shot through the leg in the threatened uprising at Crow Agency in 1887 (see page 44). Portrait facing page Io8. Two LEGGINGS, Isa'ihaduui'h Born about 1848. River Crow; Not Mixed clan; Lumpwood organization. Having no great medicine derived from his own vision, he was adopted into the Tobacco order by Bull Goes Hunting, who gave him his medicine of a fossil, or a stone, roughly shaped like a horse facing both ways. Two Leggings thus became a war-leader. In pursuing some Piegan who had killed a woman in the Apsaroke camp opposite Fort C. F. Smith on the Bighorn, he counted dakAhe and captured a gun by the same act - a high honor. Led two parties against the Hunkpapa Sioux, each time taking scalps. Captured fifty horses from the Yanktonai at Fort Peck, and with Deaf Bull led a party that brought back eighty horses from the Teton Sioux. Portrait, folio plate II3. Two WHISTLES, I{iMchoAhtupAh Born I856. Mountain Crow of the Not Mixed clan and Lumpwood organization. Never achieved a recognized coup, but at the age of eighteen he led a party consisting, besides himself, of two others, which captured a hundred horses from the Sioux. Participated in four severe battles against Arapaho and Sioux, one being the engagement at the mouth of Pryor creek (see page 96). First fasted at the age of thirty-five. The first night he saw the warbonnet of a Sioux; the next day he cut the skin and flesh of his arms in representation of eight hoof-prints; and that night the moon came to him and said, "At lyehopish (the country about Livingston, Montana) are buffalo and horses mixed; you will never be poor." In the outbreak caused by the medicine-man Wraps Up His Tail, at Crow Agency in 1887, Two Whistles was shot in the arm and breast, necessitating the amputation of the arm above the elbow. His medicine of hawk was purchased with a horse from a Sioux. Portrait, folio plate III. WET, A i chy h Born about I85I. Mountain Crow; Whistle Water clan; Fox society. As a boy he was a natural leader among his companions, planning and conducting mock war-parties, captaining sham battles, imitating all that warriors did. He fasted on the small nearby hills just as did the men in the mountains. When he was sixteen, having already accompanied a warparty, his father, Daghkyusih, Blown Down, made the morning-star medicine for him and bade him go, with the medicine bundles on his back, into the mountains for a real fast. He climbed many of the high peaks in the Bighorn and Pryor mountains, seeking a guardian spirit. At length the morning star appeared before him as a war-chief and explained the secrets of the medicine bundles. He was dressed in a long deerskin shirt, from the shoulders of which hung scalps and weasel-tails, indicating that he was a chief. Spots of white paint were at the temple. As he turned to go, the tails of foxes could be seen at the heels of his moccasins, showing that he possessed many war-honors. On the back of the shirt was painted his image, in the centre of which appeared eagle-feathers. A few steps away the spirit looked {view image of page 208} 208 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN back and said, " My child, you shall be as I am." Wet returned to his father's lodge, and after the usual purification in the sweat-lodge, described his vision. Soon afterward the old man sent his son with a war-party, which had not gone far when he charged upon an antelope hunter, killed and scalped him in plain view of the other Lakota, and with the scalp dangling from his belt dashed across the plain, swam the Bighorn, then in flood, and from the other bank waved the scalp in defiance. Wet became a great war-leader and a man whose words in council always commanded respect. He counted two daikshe and several secondary coups; he also captured a gun and a tethered horse. He threw away many wives as offerings to the spirits. Portrait, folio plate I45. WHITE MAN RUNS HIM, Maschidit-kudush Born about 1854 or I855. Mountain Crow; Big Lodge clan; Lumpwood organization. His only coup was counted by the capture of a tethered horse. Noted for his many successful horse-raiding expeditions against the Sioux. Scouted with Custer in his last campaign, and was one of the party of three or four scouts who, at dawn of the morning of the Custer fight, first sighted the Sioux camp. A small party of Crow and Arikara scouts under Lieutenant Varnum, having travelled nearly all night, arrived shortly before dawn almost at the summit of the highest peak in Wolf mountains, where the party slept for a short time. At approaching light, White Man Runs Him and a couple of companions went to the top of the high peak which gave them the first view of the Sioux encampment. Following Custer's coming up to view the valley and its camp of hostiles, he was with Custer until the Sioux made their attack on him. White Man Runs Him's recollections of that day are exceedingly clear. The author spent several days with him travelling carefully over the ground covered on the day of the disastrous fight on the Little Bighorn, part of this time being accompanied by Gen. C. A. Woodruff (see Volume III, pages 44-49). White Man Runs Him possesses no medicine derived from his own vision, but once fasted four days and four nights in the Bighorn mountains on a peak still known to the Apsaroke as " Where White Man Runs Him Fasted." Of his seven wives he gave up six " good ones," that is, those who had borne him children: to discard such was an indication of a strong heart. Portrait, folio plate 115, and Volume III, facing pages 48, 52. WOLF, Tsetufh Born I857. Mountain Crow; Not Mixed clan; Fox organization. His medicine of wolf was obtained by purchase. He has to his credit a dakAhe and a captured gun, both honors having been won at the same time, when he rushed into a protected hollow where were concealed two Yanktonai who had already killed three and wounded two of the attacking Apsaroke. Again, when six of a party of seven turned back without finding the enemy, Wolf alone went forward and captured a tethered horse from the camp. In pursuing some Yanktonai who had taken Apsaroke horses, he and a companion charged; his horse went down, and as he arose he himself was shot. Portrait, folio plate 142. WOLF LIES DOWN, Tsft-Aihph Born about I843. Mountain Crow; Never Shoots, Packs Game clan; Fox organization. Never obtained medicine by vision, but purchased wolf-medicine, paying five hundred elkteeth. Counted one dakfhe by leaping over a rocky barrier among the enemy, who were in a deep hole protected by stones and brush - the leap was in itself a dangerous feat. Captured {view image of facing page 208} Young Hairy Wolf - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of page 209} APPENDIX 209 one gun, and one horse tethered in the enemy's camp; led one successful party against the Yanktonai at Fort Peck; was one of the leaders of a party that killed seven Sioux. Once accepted the curved staff of the Foxes, but did not have occasion to use it, as there was little fighting in the succeeding summer. In the battle with the Sioux on Pryor creek (see page 9I) his brother-in-law, One Feather, lost his horse and was surrounded by the enemy; Wolf Lies Down turned back, took him on his own horse, and though wounded in the head made his escape with great difficulty. Portrait, folio plate I23. YOUNG HAIRY WOLF, Tsft-daihthuis h Born about 1841 on the Yellowstone, near the present Forsyth, Montana. River Crow of the Never Kills, Packs Game clan, and the Fox organization. At fifteen he accompanied a mounted war-party which met some strangers; it appeared that there would be fighting, when it was discovered that they were Nez Perces, and the meeting resulted only in friendly greetings and the exchange of guns and presents. Young Hairy Wolf won no honor until about forty years of age, when he counted dakSho on a Piegan. Captured two guns and led one successful war-party. He laments that while he was waiting for his medicine " to become good, the white men came and spoiled everything." He was on the war-path seventy times, and received his name because of his frequent service as scout. He claims the following as his bravest deed: Twelve men on foot went to the north of the Missouri in midwinter, and in the heart of the Piegan country were surrounded by a hundred of the enemy. They took refuge in a washout, and the Piegan pressed so closely upon the Apsaroke that the latter easily threw large stones among them. After considerable shooting, and while the Piegan were already singing their victory songs, Young Hairy Wolf, followed by his comrades, leaped out and charged the enemy, compelling them to give way. He singled out an individual, pursued him, and shot seven arrows into his body. It was afterward learned that the man died. In this encounter no Apsaroke was killed. Young Hairy Wolf once accepted the curved staff in the Fox society, but that year his father would not permit him to take the war-path. He was afterward chosen by the Lumpwoods to take the place of a deceased member to whom Young Hairy Wolf bore resemblance, and by custom he was compelled to join the rival organization. At somewhat past thirty years he married, and soon after fasted for the first time. He now believes that he must have had little sense, because up to that time he had not thought of such things. He experienced no vision, for he remained out only one night; it was stormy, he grew cold, and returned to his lodge. Later he fasted three days and three nights without self-mutilation. On the third night the mountains were covered with fog, and others who were on the heights gave up their fasting. A hooting owl on the edge of the forest frightened him (the hooting of an owl is an ill omen), but still he remained. A person came and sat on a knoll. The faster looked away, then back again, and the spirit was now dressed as for war, his forehead painted white and his hair braided. He sang a war-song, which Young Hairy Wolf took for his own. Again he fasted six days in the Sun Dance, beginning two days before the poles for the sun-lodge were cut. The morning after the lodge was erected, his breasts were pierced and he was fastened to one of the poles, facing the sun. Two hoof-prints were cut in his shoulders. He looked at the sun so long that his " eyes became dry." When he looked down at the earth he could not see it, and he wept; the moisture enabled him to see again, but he gazed at the sun no more. All the other fasters soon tore themselves loose, but at the end of the day the crier went about saying that some one must cut down Young Hairy Wolf. They came and said, " What do you wish to do? " He answered that he wished to remain until morning. " You will die," they objected. The man who had pierced him brought a medicine-man, who made medicine before VOL. Iv- 14 {view image of page 210} 210 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN him and then threw him back so forcibly that the skewers were torn from the flesh. He fell, and lay on the ground until darkness came, and the man who had pierced him raised and supported him as he walked into the sun-lodge, where he lay on a bed of sage with a buffalo-skull for a pillow. His spirit left his body and beheld a great white lodge. A voice said, " This is your father's lodge." He entered and saw a floor of buffalo-skins, and a man with his hair piled on the top of his head holding a pipe with the bowl on the ground and smoking slowly. Over his head hung a rattle, painted red. It was the Sun. The man arose, and his body was tall and slender, though while he sat he had appeared heavy. " I know why you are sad," he said, and sang a song, which Young Hairy Wolf took for his own. The voice bade the spirit of the faster go and look, so he went outside and beheld what seemed to be the bodies of men and horses. He thought it meant that many Sioux were to be killed, but the next year at the same season he ran a great herd of buffalo over the precipice he had seen in this vision, and he knew then that he had misinterpreted it. Another time he fasted three days and three nights. A medicine-man in the beginning had cut hoof-prints in the backs of his hands, and from loss of blood he fainted. When consciousness returned, he found that he had wandered from the spot where his robe had been placed, and as the night was very cold he was almost frozen. He saw a person, dressed in a buffalo-robe pinned in the front with a bird's head, sitting on the ground in the attitude of an eagle. The spirit sang and at the same time rose in the air, and its face was that of Young Hairy Wolf. The bird soared to the summit of a butte, which seemed to be a sun-lodge, and perched there; then as it descended the slope the butte shook like the poles of a lodge. Young Hairy Wolf frequently experiences the same vision. He has had six wives, at four periods two at once, and has " thrown away " four of them. Portrait facing page 208. Hidatsa GOOD BEAR (correctly GOOD GRIZZLY BEAR), Dahpit2'i-takIs h Born I848. Went on the war-path when eighteen; has been in sixteen battles and captured tethered horses twice, and on two occasions rescued unhorsed men in battle. In one encounter his own horse was killed under him. He was in the Dahpik0 three times, once as chief dancer, when he gave away a hundred buffalo-robes and four horses. He fasted three times. Once while hunting he killed a bear, and his friend fastened the skin to slits in Good Bear's shoulders. As a sacrifice to the spirits he then followed the back-trail of the bear until it came to the Missouri river, which he swam, though it was in the spring and the ice was breaking up. Portrait facing this page. LEAN WOLF, Ts^sha-hadhahifh Born 1820. First went on the war-path at eighteen and killed two enemies. Married at twenty. He counted three first coups, the first at the age of twenty-two, and gained a number of second and third honors. Once in a night attack on the Sioux a Hidatsa war-party crept up on a lodge near White river. Lean Wolf fired his gun into the tipi, and then rushed up to enter and count coup, but his war-bonnet of buffalo-horns caught in the flap and prevented his entrance. The man inside shot at him, and his white blanket was blackened with powder, while the bullet tore through the cloth of his long trailer of eagle-feathers. He fasted in the Dahpike, but was not suspended by thongs. After fasting four days he was once pierced in the shoulders, and to these slits a year-old bear, whose teeth had been filed down, was fastened {view image of facing page 210} Good Bear - Hidatsa [photogravure plate] {view image of page 211} APPENDIX 211 for several hours. He fasted several times without spiritual revelation, and when twenty-seven years of age determined to take part in the Mandan Okipe. His friend, Lone Buffalo, and two other medicine-men helped him. From the upper part of each arm they cut small pieces of flesh in the shape of hoof-prints, that he might have success in capturing horses; they also cut two gashes in the skin of his shoulders, and hung two fresh buffalo-heads from them. Then he joined the other tortured dancers, singing and wailing to the spirits to regard him with pity. The next day he felt he had not done enough, and asked the two men to open the veins in his arms at the elbows. He also wished them to cut the veins in his legs, but Lone Buffalo dashed the medicine-men aside, saying, " Do you wish to kill this man? " The warriors then took hold of his wrists, one on each side, and started to run with him outside the lodge. In one hand Lean Wolf carried a lance. Finally they cried, " We ask that this man become a great warrior!" and threw him from them. He fell on his hands and knees, and with the aid of his lance regained his feet and walked about crying. He fasted five days. Lean Wolf has participated in many ceremonies, has always been active in affairs of his tribe, and is (I907-08) the best living authority on the aboriginal life of the Hidatsa. Portrait facing page I34. LONG-TIME DOG, MaAhuka-tiefh Born I850. At the age of eighteen he accompanied a war-party for the first time. The following year he counted first coup on an Ogalala, and later on a Hunkpapa. When he was twenty-six, a war-party pursued three Sioux horse-raiders, one of whom he killed. During a Sioux attack on the Hidatsa village at Fort Berthold, North Dakota, the combined forces of Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara charged the Sioux; ten of his comrades were killed behind Old Dog as he counted coup on a dead enemy. Portrait facing page I52. SITTING OWL, Itakup~-amakish Born I847. Went on his first war excursion at seventeen, and at twenty-four led a warparty against the Sioux. Has struck first coup three times. On one occasion he fasted six days and six nights. Sitting Owl has taken part in many bull-boat raids on the Sioux; he says, "The Missouri river was like a road to me." Portrait facing page I32. WHITE DUCK, Miha-k~Th Born I857. He was seventeen years of age when he first fought against the Sioux, and was three times on the war-path. At the age of twenty-five, accompanying an Apsaroke war-party, he killed a Blackfoot. Has fasted four times, two days each time. Portrait facing page I44. {view image of page 212} {view image of page 213} Index {view image of page 214} {view image of page 215} INDEX Aberdeen, Montana, Apsaroke camp at, 1o6 Adhahfii-ahufh. See PLENTY COUPS AdhahtSi-ehkyuAh. See CouPS WELL-KNOWN Adhaputihish. See SPOTTED HAIR AdhaShe-tids/h. See HUNTS TO DIE Adoption among the Apsaroke, 23 Adultery, how punished by Hidatsa, I83 not punished by Apsaroke, 178 After-world of the Apsaroke, 179 of the Hidatsa, 144, 185 Aged, how regarded by Apsaroke, 10, 73 respect for, inculcated, 142 See HOSPITALITY Agriculture not practised by Apsaroke, xi of the Hidatsa, 129, I33, I34, 181, 182 Ahhuezifihfhehh. See PAINTS HIS SHIRT RED AMichih. See WET Ahiwazhuwis'hAh. See HooP ON THE FOREHEAD Ahpf1hfhrAh. See RED WING Ahwahhaways. See AMAHAMI Akaschtisf. See HE THAT BUILDS THE LODGE Akbad iu-mahpe defined, 57, I80 AkbaeftukadhatfE, a name of IftihbadhIsh, 52 Akbahidted7iete, a name of Iftihbadhlsh, 16, 52 AkbaiAhihide, a ceremonial title, 62 Akbafiikyade, Apsaroke Praise Singer, 68 Akbatfivckydti, a spirit, 53 AkbiShkyabadhate. See RECKLESS DOGS Akdado/tizde, a chiefship title, 9, 177 Akichita, meaning of, 177 Akissatde. See SOLDIERS Akudidi, Hidatsa war-leaders, I44, I85 Akumahupdhe. See MEDICINE MAKER Akumdpdhe. See SINGER Akuwdpus'h, Hidatsa healers, 144, 185 Al-la-ka'-we-ah, a tribe, mentioned, 42, 43 Altar, food offered to, 158 in Bowl Ceremony, 157 in Corn Ceremony, 150, 151 in Hidatsa ceremonies, 185 in war ceremony, 84 Amadha'sh-iatiake. See EARTH NAMING CEREMONY Amahlami band, 131, 132 relations of, 43 Amatihea band, 13I, I32 Amite, a region in Wyoming, 114 Ammunition traded to Apsaroke, 43 Among The WYillows, capture and escape, 97 -99, 102-104 Anatomical terms, 189, I90 Animal people in Hidatsa myth, 183 Animal spirits, ceremonies performed by, 159 of the Hidatsa, 144 Animals, creation of, I17 terms for, 190, 191 Antelope in Apsaroke myth, 124 Antelope-horn, gaming pole tipped with, 176 Antelope-skin, Apsaroke clothing of, 175 bag of, 47 leggings of, 23 Antler, arrow-chippers of, I40 See BONE; HORN Ants in creation myth, 117 Apache, Apsaroke raid against, 40, 49 Apadhatd-as/h. See GHOST LODGE ApiSh. See CORN-SILK Apsaroke, account of the, 3-126 and Blackfoot warfare, 211 and Hidatsa relationship, xi, 131 belief in Coyote Chief, 184 biographies of, I97-21I Hidatsa name for, 185 origin of the, 130, 131 tradition of Midhokafs, 130 treaty with, 132 tribal summary, 175-180 vocabulary of, I89-196 Apsaroke society of Hidatsa, 182 Arapaho allied with Lakota, 92 and Apsaroke warfare, 3, 19, 39, 91, 203 Apsaroke name for, I80 Hidatsa name for, I85 Arikara and Hidatsa tale compared, I6I and Sioux warfare, 141, 211 {view image of page 216} 216 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Arikara, Apsaroke name for, I80 Hidatsa joined by, 133 Hidatsa name for, 185 scouts with Custer, 208 Arrow creek. See PRYOR CREEK Arrow game of the Apsaroke, 6, 176 Arrows, boys taught use of, 26 in Apsaroke myth, II9, 121 I1, 22, I24,25 in Apsaroke warfare, 202, 209 in Hidatsa legend, 166, 172, 184 of the Apsaroke, 21, 176 of the Hidatsa, 140, i8i, I82 shields tested with, 20 used for mutilation, 35, 36 used in buffalo hunt, 112, 1I6 used in Sun Dance rite, 71 used in taking oath, 24 why not exposed to incense, 89 Arrow-straightener in Apsaroke myth, 121 of Hidatsa, i8i Arts of the Apsaroke, 20-23, 176 of the Hidatsa, i8i See HANDICRAFT; INDUSTRIES Asadhaho. See MOUNTAIN CROWS Ash, gaming clubs of, I82 used for axe-handles, 140, 181 Ash/iatfl, an Apsaroke clan, I77, I78 A/shi-atiak&. See SMALL RIVER CEREMONY Aslhitia. See CANNONBALL RIVER Aszkiszid-huu. See SUN DANCE A/hpaihd-tfidYsYh. See HUNTS THE ENEMY Asrhutap-biiSfh. See FLATHEAD WOMAN Assakke defined, 24 Assiniboin and Apsaroke warfare, 206 and Hidatsa warfare, 141, 146, 164 Apsaroke name for, I80 enemies of Apsaroke, 39 Hidatsa name for, I86 in Hidatsa myth, 163 song for returning scouts, 88 Atkinson, Gen. H., treaty commissioner, 132 Atsina, Apsaroke name for, I8o enemies of Apsaroke, 39 Hidatsa name for, 186 visited by Apsaroke, 206 Atu'tiSh. See THROWN To THE REAR OF THE LODGE Aweti, an Hidatsa, 139 Hidatsa name of Missouri river, I30 in Hidatsa myth, 163 Awati-dtiake. See MISSOURI RIVER CEREMONY Awatuhiwg band, 38, 45 Awekyuadowatsh. See SITS IN THE MIDDLE OF THE LAND Awls carried by warriors, 86 traded to Apsaroke, 43 Awuih-bahpe. See MEDICINE SWEAT-LODGE Axes of the Hidatsa, 140, i8i removed from sacred lodge, 84 traded to Apsaroke, 43 Backbiter Lodge, an Apsaroke clan, 178 Bad Coup, an Apsaroke clan, 9I, 178, 200 Bad Horn, an Hidatsa, 138 Bag, as pillow, i8i buffalo-skin, for tobacco mixture, 66 for moccasins, 86 hair worn in, 47 in Hidatsa legend, I60 of the Apsaroke, 22 See MEDICINE-BAG; PAINT-BAG; PARFLECHE; POUCHES; SADDLE-BAGS Bdhidsfh. See DOES EVERYTHING Baldric of otter-skin, 46 Balky, an Apsaroke scout, 106 Ball, magic, in Apsaroke myth, II9-I2I Ball games of Apsaroke, 177 of Hidatsa, 182 Bannock, campaign against, 200, 207 enemies of Apsaroke, 39 Hidatsa name for, 186 Bark, halter made of, 202 smoked in Hidatsa myth, 164 used in basketry, i8i used in pottery making, i8i willow, used for lashings, 15 Baskets of the Hidatsa, i8i See BURDEN-BASKET Bassukofsh. See GOES AHEAD Bathing before torture, I98 by the Apsaroke, 6 by warriors, 86 during Sun Dance rite, 71 See SWEAT-BATH Bafit-f2e, a chiefship title, 12, I77, 179 BatflfEi-kyasde, a chiefship title, II Badfi-hawutusii. See LONE TREE Batfiwatkusua defined, 24 Beads on gaming hoop, 176 See NECKLACES Beadwork of Apache women, 49 of Apsaroke warriors, 23 on Apsaroke clothing, 20 {view image of page 217} INDEX 217 Beadwork on Apsaroke robe, 175 on horse-trappings, 20 on women's clothing, 22 See CLOTHING; QUILLWORK Beans in Hidatsa myth, 162, 164 raised by Hidatsa, 129, i8i, 182 Bear as tutelary spirit, 46, IOI, 138, 145, 147, 148, 201 fastened to flesh of dancer, 2IO, 211 imitated by warrior, go Bear Cap, Apsaroke warrior, go, 94 Bear Ceremony of Hidatsa, 185 Bear-claws as medicine, 178 necklaces of, 23, 175 Bear Hunts Around, an Hidatsa, 138 Bear Medicine, an Hidatsa, 146-148 Bear root in tobacco mixture, 65 Bear-skin as lodge door, 83 in ceremony, 178 used in torture, 78, 210 worn by Red Bear, 26 Bear Song Dance of Apsaroke, 178 Bear's scalp on head-dress, 46 Bear That Has A Bad Heart Always, Apsaroke chief, 39 Beauvais (Dipper) creek, Apsaroke on, 105 Beaver, glue made from tail of, 21 musk of, as perfume, 23 mythic power of, 66 Bed of sage in Bowl Ceremony, I57, I58 of sage in sun-lodge, 210 of the Apsaroke, I76 of the Hidatsa, 138, I8I Belantse-etea, the Hidatsa, 132 Bells on buffalo-horn of warrior, 90 used by mourners, 36 Belt an indication of industry, 142 Berdash participates in Sun Dance, 70 BidhiSipak-mahpe defined, 57, I8o Big Bird in Hidatsa myth, 163, I64 Big Dog society of Apsaroke, 13, 17, 86, '77 Big Forked Horn, Apsaroke warrior, 100 Bighorn mountains, 114, I97, 200, 207, 208 Bighorn river, 39, 42, 43, 50, 80, 87, 89, 92, 105, 114, 115, 207, 208 Big Lodge, an Apsaroke clan, I77, 200, 208 Big Otter, Apsaroke warrior, 98, IOO, 104 Big Ox, portrait of, 90, pl. sketch of, I97 Big Shadow, an Apsaroke, 198 experiences of, 80 Big Shadow, Sun Dance of, 67-80 Binesipede. See RIVER CROWS Biographies of Apsaroke, 197-210 of Hidatsa, 2IO-211 Birch, red, how regarded, 73 lance-shafts made of, 21 used in making staff, 15 Birdbill butte in Hidatsa myth, 184 Bird Ceremony of Hidatsa, I85 Bird On The Ground, portrait of, 32, pl. Birds imitated in ceremony, 151, 152, 157, 158, 184 Bifhei'fidi-sash. See BIG Ox BisAhki-hadhitish. See OLD DOG Bismarck, N. Dakota, 184 Blackbird as tutelary spirit, 59 See THOSE OF THE BLACKBIRD Blackbird On The Ground, Apsaroke warrior, 97 Black canon, 92, pl. Black Coyote in Hidatsa legend, I65, 167, 170, I7I Black Eagle, Apsaroke warrior, 86 Blackfeet and Apsaroke warfare, 3, 27 and Hidatsa warfare, 211 Apsaroke name for, 180 enemies of Apsaroke, 39, 40 Hidatsa name for, I86 kill Rotten Belly, 48 Tobacco Ceremony of, 178 Blackfoot, an Apsaroke warrior, 51, 93, I04 Black Hills, Apsaroke captive in, 104 Apsaroke hunt in, 39 crossed by Hidatsa, 130 occupied by Apsaroke, 4 pressure of Sioux on, 39 Black Horn, Hidatsa warrior, I45, I46 Black Mouth society of Hidatsa, I82 Black Wolf, a mythic character, 122-124 Blankets taken on Apsaroke raid, 49 Blood Indians, Apsaroke name for, 18o Blowing, treatment by, I80 Blown Down, an Apsaroke, 207 Blue Belly, an Apsaroke, 48 Boat, dugout, in Hidatsa myth, 162, 163 See BULL-BOAT Bobtail Bull, Hidatsa leader, 132 Bobtail Wolf, an Hidatsa, 138, 139 Bone, arrow-chippers of, 140 arrow-points of, 21, 176 necklaces of, 175 See BUFFALO-BONE; BUFFALO-SCAPULA; EAGLE-BONE {view image of page 218} 2I8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Bowl-case in Corn Ceremony, 150 symbol of Old Woman Who Never Dies, '57 Bowl Ceremony of Hidatsa, I56-I58, 184, 185 Bowls of the Apsaroke, 21, 176 used for tobacco mixing, 65 used in gaming, I82 Bows and arrows of the Apsaroke, IO captured by Apsaroke, I98, 206 captured by Red Bear, 50 capture of, an honor, I2 of the Apsaroke, 21, 176 of the Hidatsa, 18I tested before battle, 98 why not exposed to incense, 89 Bowstring, horses guided with, 202 of the Hidatsa, ISI tested before hunt, I 5 Box-elder, baskets of bark of, i8I bowl-case of bark of, 157 bowls made of, 21 saddles made of, 182 utensils made of, 140 Boys, games of, 92, 93, 204, 207 instruction of, in war, 98 participate in Sun Dance rite, 71 Bozeman trail, traders on, 41 Brant as tutelary spirit, 146 Hidatsa warrior, 145, I46 tracks on mythic bowl, I56 Brass discs on war altar, 84 rings in warrior's hair, 89 Bravery, chiefs selected for, 182 how rewarded in dance, I98 indicated by discarding wives, 208 of Lakota warrior, 8I of Reckless Dogs, 14 of Red Bear, 50 of the Apsaroke, 3, 15-20, 80, 93-96, 99 -I01, 109, 177, 205-209 of the Hidatsa, 146, 182 See CouPs; HONORS; TORTURE; WAR Bread, biography of, I97 Bridles of the Apsaroke, 20 Brothers-in-law, Hidatsa regard for, I83 Brush, buffalo-beard used as, I38 porcupine-tail used as, 22, I2I, I75, i8i Buffalo as tutelary spirit, 45, 56, 6o, I35, 145, 154, I99, 203 creation of, II7 dependence of tribes on, I33 Bufalo freshly killed, used for warming, II6 habits of, when hunted, 71-72 how butchered, 45 importance of, as food, 176 in Hidatsa myth, 162, 183, 184 invocation for, 152 offered to sun, 152 passing of, predicted in vision, 203 tribal separation due to, 38, 130 white, venerated by Hidatsa, 136 See MEAT Buffalo-beard, baldric made of, 45 on gaming pole, 176 used as brush, 138 Buffalo-bone, arrow-straightener of, I8I ear-pendants of, 175 knives of, 45 Buffalo calf-skin robe in legend, I60 sacred pipe in, 103 Buffalo Ceremony of Hidatsa, I35, 159, I85 Buffalo-chip for making incense, 75, 84, 89 horses rubbed with, Io6 in medicine, 148 piled when enemy seen, IO8, IO9, I68, I69 used on infants, 8 I Buffalo Comes From Below, Apsaroke scout, 86 Buffalo-fat, pipe sealed with, 9 Buffalo-hair, balls stuffed with, I77 hoods made of, 115 image stuffed with, 76 used as handkerchief, 45 used for controlling wind, III Buffalo-head attached to dancer, 78, I55, I98, 211 on sun-pole, I53, 155 Buffalo-horn of warrior, 90, 210 receptacles of, 21, I40 Buffalo hunt by Apsaroke, 5, 9-II, 45, 86, 105, o16, III-II6 by Hidatsa, I35, I36 ceremonial, for Sun Dance, 7I, 72 customs, 48 preparations for, 67 product of, how transported, 68, 71, 72 See HUNTING Buffalo-meat, use of, at corn husking, I34, 135 Buffalo-paunch as utensil, 21, I76, I8I food of Old Woman Who Never Dies, I56 for drumhead, I57 Buffalo-pericardium, ball made of, 177 vessel of, 21, 176 {view image of page 219} INDEX 2I9 Buffalo-ribs, sleds of, 29, 182 Buffalo-robe as prayer offering, 134 as sweat-lodge cover, 55 canopy of, in ceremony, 157 gift of, in Sun Dance, 21I Hidatsa beds of, 18I how worn, 111 in Tobacco lodge, 64 in vision, 2IO of Apsaroke warrior, 23 of Apsaroke women, 22 provided for Bowl Ceremony, 156, 157 sun-lodge covered with, 184 worn by Hidatsa, 180 worn by scouts, I05 worn on hunt, 115 See ROBES Buffalo-scapula, hoe made from, 134 necklace discs of, 23, 175 Buffalo-skin as bull-boat cover, 140, 182 bag of, for tobacco mixture, 66 dragged by Sun Dancers, 78 for clothing, 14I, 165, 175 for lodge curtains, 138, i81 for sun-lodge, 71-74 infants wrapped in, 181 in Sun Dance, 77, 153-155 mittens of, 115 on Hidatsa altar, 150 rattle of, 48 used for shields, 20, 176 used for tipis, 21, 28, 175, 176 when prepared, 112 white, how prepared, 136 white, in sun-lodge, 80 See RAWHIDE; SKIN Buffalo-skull as sleigh, 29 fastened to dancer, 158 for pillow, 2IO in Apsaroke myth, I20 in Sun Dance, 154, I55 used in taking oath, 24 Bufalo-tail in vision, 57 worn as medicine, 203 Buffalo-tongues given to warriors, 78 in Apsaroke myth, 123 in Hidatsa ceremony, I60 in Sun Dance, 68, 69, 76 in Tobacco rite, 66 the property of leader, 135 Buffalo-wallow, use of mud from, 90 Buffalo Woman in Hidatsa legend, 159-161 Bull, an Apsaroke warrior, 18-20 Bull Backbone, a medicine-man, 57 Bull-boat as smoke-hole cover, 137, 181 of the Hidatsa, 140 (pl.), 141, 170, I82 used in warfare, 141, 211 Bull Chief, an Apsaroke, 200 sketch of, 197, I98 Bull Goes Hunting, an Apsaroke, 207 portrait of, I04, pi. sketch of, I98 Bull Rises Small, Apsaroke warrior, 97-99, I02 Bull society of Hidatsa, 182 Bull That Turns Around, medicine-man, IIo Bull Tongue, portrait of, 198, pi. sketch of, I99 Bundle. See MEDICINE BUNDLE; SACRED BUNDLE Burden-basket of Hidatsa, 140 Burden-strap. See CARRYING-STRAP Burial platform of the Apsaroke, 36 (pl.), 38 (pl.) See MORTUARY CUSTOMS Burnt Mouth, an Apsaroke clan, 177, 203 Buisii/h. See FISH SHOWS BuuttawosaAh. See RUNNING COYOTE Caches of the Hidatsa, I82 Cactus fruit in tobacco mixture, 65 pith, hair rubbed with, 175 Calling For The Buffalo. See BUFFALO CEREMONY Camp-circle defended in battle, 94 how entered by hunters, 72 of Apsaroke, I9, 68 Camping by Hidatsa, 139 Camp-moving by Apsaroke, 6, 7, II, 28-31, III, 177 in Sun Dance rite, 68 in Tobacco Ceremony, 64 Camps of the Apsaroke, 5-8, 25, 40 (pl.), 96 (pl.), 105 Cannonball river, Mandan on, 130 Caps of the Apsaroke, 175 See WAR-BONNET Captives participate in Sun Dance rite, 70 treatment of, 90, 91, 102-104, 108, IIO Cardinal points, names for, 191 observed by hunters, 72 See ORIENTATION Carrying-strap of rawhide, 18I Castor used for perfume, 175 Catlin, George, Long Hair mentioned by, 47 {view image of page 220} 220 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Catlin on Apsaroke population, 41 theories of, 134 Cattail-down used on infants, 181 Caves, Apsaroke dead placed in, 179 Cedar, bows made of, 21, 176, i8i planted in sun-lodge, 75, 76 sacred character of, 196 See GROUND-CEDAR Ceremonies of the Apsaroke, 52-83, 178, I79 of the Hidatsa, 143-161, 184, 185 Ceremony, Hidatsa, corn the basis of, 133 naming, among Apsaroke, 25 Charbonneau, Toussaint, interpreter, 38 Charcoal used in tattooing, 175 Charity. See HOSPITALITY Cheyenne allied with Lakota, 92 and Apsaroke warfare, 3, 19, 39, 50, 198, 202, 206 and Lakota alliance, 102, I05, Io6 Apsaroke name for, 180 Hidatsa name for, 186 Chief, Hidatsa, hunts planned by, 135 Chief In The Middle, Apsaroke warrior, 27 Chief Joseph, retreat of, 203 Chiefs, dress of, 207 of the Apsaroke, 8-12, 38, 39, 44-52, I77, I97-2IO of the Hidatsa, 139, 182, 210, 211 Children, adoption of, 23 betrothal of, 31 care of, in battle, 95 ceremony of naming, 25 of the Apsaroke, 5, 7, 8, 26, 27, 46, pl. of the Hidatsa, 139, 142, 144, 149, 156 See BOYS; INFANTS; YOUTHS Choke-cherry in medicine, 147, I48 sticks in ball game, 177 used for arrows, I8I ChokopAh, an Apsaroke warrior, I99 Clans of the Apsaroke, 23-25, 177 of the Hidatsa, 139, 183 See SOCIAL ORGANIZATION Clark. See LEWIS AND CLARK Clarkes fork occupied by Apsaroke, 83, 86 Clay, caches lined with, I82 in genesis myth, 117 pottery made of, 140, I8I white, for body painting, 28, 157, I66, 198 white, for face painting, 87 white, in Sun Dance, 75 white, on hair, I8I white, on necklaces, 175 Clay, white, scouts painted with, Io8 See EARTH; MUD Clothing, ceremonial, in Bowl Ceremony, 157 discarded by hunters, 71 gala, in myth, 119 gifts of, to bride, 23 girls taught to make, 29 in Sun Dance rite, 73 of Apsaroke bride, 30, 31, 34 of Apsaroke faster, 197 of Cheyenne warrior, I9 of chiefs, 207 of hunters, 115 of the Apsaroke, xi, 5, 7, 8, 14, i8, 20, 22, 23, I75 of the dead, 35, 36, 179, I85 of the Hidatsa, I40-142, i8o, 181 of warriors, 12, 105 provided for Bowl Ceremony, I56, 157 traded by Apsaroke, 43 war-honors indicated on, 130, i8o, 181 Cloud, Apsaroke symbol of, 47 Clouds Peak in Apsaroke country, 197 Clubs for gaming, 182 used in lodge-building, i8i Coats of the Apsaroke, 175 See CLOTHING Coburn, Montana, fight near, 19 Coeur d'Alenes, Apsaroke name for, i8o Coffins of the Apsaroke, 35, I79 Colors, names for, 191 Combs of Apsaroke women, 175 of porcupine-tails, 121 Complexion of the Hidatsa, 134 Conjuration taught by spirits, I85 treatment by, i8o Contest, medicine, of Apsaroke, 57, 58 See GAMES; RIVALRY Cooking by the Apsaroke, 21 in Apsaroke myth, '22 of buffalo-tongues in Sun Dance, 76 See FOOD Cooking-vessel of Apsaroke, 176 of rawhide, 21 See UTENSILS Corn, food of Old Woman Who Never Dies, 156 harvest of Hidatsa, 134 Hidatsa prayers for, 139 husking of, by Hidatsa, 135 importance of, to Hidatsa, 133 in Hidatsa myth, 162, 164 raised by Hidatsa, 129-I34, i8i, 182 {view image of page 221} INDEX 22I Corn Ceremony of Hidatsa, 134, 148-152, 184 Corn-ears as necklace, I49, I52 Corn-silk, myth of, I 17-26 Corn Spirit of the Hidatsa, I49 Cottonwood log as coffin, 35, I79 sap as food, I99 stakes, offerings on, I56 used for fencing, 67 used for lodge-poles, 68-70 See BARK Coues, E., cited, 42 Coups, counted by Cheyenne, IIo counted by Lakota, 102, I03 counted by Red Bear, 50 counted in legend, 166 how counted by boys, 27 indicated by body painting, I66 indicated on clothing, 130, I8o, 181 of the Apsaroke, 12-I3, 15, i6, 25, 68, 72, 77, 97, 99, I79, I97-209 of the Hidatsa, 169, I70, 210, 2II symbolically counted, 66 when not counted, I98, 205 See HONORS; WAR Coup-stick in vision, 206 of the Lakota, 5 placed with dead, I85 Coups Well-known, sketch of, I99 Courtship, clothing worn during, 141 in Apsaroke myth, I18 of the Apsaroke, 30, 31, 178 of the Hidatsa, I80, 183 on buffalo hunt, 113 Coyote, tail of, as medicine, 139 See OLD MAN COYOTE Coyote Chief in Hidatsa myth, 184 Coyote-cry sounded by scouts, 72, io8, IO9 See WOLF-CRY Cradle-board of Hidatsa, 181 Crane as tutelary spirit, 204 Crazy Dog society of Hidatsa, 182 Crazy Head, an Apsaroke, 44, 91, 199 Crazy mountains, 47, 203 Crazy Pend d'Oreille, an Apsaroke, I8-20 Crazy Woman creek, Apsaroke camp on, Io6 Creation. See GENESIS Cree and Hidatsa warfare, I46 Apsaroke name for, I8o Hidatsa name for, I86 Criers. See HERALDS Crook, Gen. George, Apsaroke scouts with, 201, 203 Crooked Face creek, Apsaroke on, 96 Crops controlled by Thunderbird, 138 See AGRICULTURE Cross The Water, Mandan name of Hidatsa, I30 Crow Agency, uprising at, 207 Crow Breast, Hidatsa chief, 132 Crow Flies High, Hidatsa leader, 132 Crows. See APSAROKE Crow society of Hidatsa, 182 Crying Dog, Hidatsa Sun Priest, 138, 139 Culture being of Apsaroke, 178 of Hidatsa, I84, I85 Cups of the Hidatsa, 140, i8I See UTENSILS Curtains of old lodge-covers, 176 Custer, Gen. G. A., Apsaroke scouts with, I04, 200, 208 DaApike. See SUN DANCE Dahpiif?-atiake. See BEAR CEREMONY DalApif2-dasadhitidetsh. See BEAR THAT HAS A BAD HEART ALWAYS Dahipitfl-hifhsJhYsh. See RED BEAR Dahpifk?-ishtudhissui. See BEAR SONG DANCE Dahpifi?-fakkfsh. See GOOD BEAR DadkAh defined, 179 See COUPS; HONORS Dance in Wolf Ceremony, I85 of Apsaroke societies, I5 of Lumpwood warrior, I6 of Tobacco order, 63 torture, in Bowl Ceremony, 158 See LONG DANCE; SCALP DANCE; SUN DANCE; WAR-DANCE Dancing by boys, 28 by children on ice, 29 in praise of youth, 27 in Sun Dance rite, 71, 76, 78, 79 in Tobacco Ceremony, 64 Dancing White Horse, an Apsaroke, 67 DdsawutisCh. See ONE HEART Dashkyfish. See BLOWN DOWN Deaf Bull, an Apsaroke, 207 Death-cry of wounded enemy, 169 sounded in Sun Dance, 70 Death-song of Apsaroke, 99, 109 Deer, a white trader, 52 creation of, I 17 Deer-hair, balls stuffed with, I82 pillows of, I81 Deer-head in Corn Ceremony, 150 {view image of page 222} 222 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Deer-hoofs on clothing, 142, i8i rattles of, II9 Deer-horn framework of shield, 176 Deerskin apron worn by Sun Dancer, 75 balls made of, 177, i82 bands worn by warriors, 17 beds of Hidatsa, i8i clothing, i8, 23, I40-142, 175, I8o, 207 image made of, 76 in Apsaroke myth, I23 medicine carried in, 54 on war altar, 84 thong used by hunters, 71 tobacco bundle of, 66 used in making staff, 16 wrappings on gaming objects, 176 See SKIN Deluge. See FLOOD Descent among the Apsaroke, 23, 178 among the Hidatsa, 139, I83 Devil's lake in Hidatsa tradition, 162, 183 Dice. See GAMES; PLUM-SEED GAME Dipper creek. See BEAUVAIS CREEK Dippers of the Apsaroke, 170, 176 Discs of bone for necklace, 175 of brass on war altar, 84 of metal in hair, Io8 Disease, ceremony to dispel, 159 in Apsaroke myth, I25, I26 prayers to prevent, 139, 152 Dishes. See UTENSILS Divorce among Apsaroke, 35, 178 among Hidatsa, I83 See MARRIAGE; WIVES; WOMEN Doer Of Supernatural Things, a medicine title, 57 Does Everything, portrait of, 34, pl. sketch of, I99 Does Not Rain, Apsaroke chief, 48 Dogs as beasts of burden, 105, I82 Dog society of Hidatsa, I82 Dokidhati-ati. See SPIRIT VILLAGE Dok-ihdali defined, 143 Dragonfly as hair ornament, 47 Dreams as omens, II See VISION Dress. See CLOTHING Drought treated by ceremony, I45, I84, I85 See RAIN Drum in Bowl Ceremony, I57, I58 in incantation, 6 in Sun Dance, 155 Drum in war-dance, 96 of Apsaroke boys, 27 Duck in creation myth, 116 Dung. See BUFFALO-CHIPS Dwarf in Apsaroke myth, 122 Dwellings of the Apsaroke, I75, I76 of the Assiniboin, 163 of the Hidatsa, I64, 181 See LODGES; TIPIS Dye made of moss, 45 of the Hidatsa, I82 Eagle as tutelary spirit, 108, 202, 203 captured by Hidatsa, 136, I37 head and tail on war altar, 84 in Hidatsa myth, 163 in vision, 2IO medicine-man, 74, pl. nest in sun-lodge, 71, 73, 74, 77, 78 song of Hidatsa Horse, 73 venerated by Hidatsa, 137 See GOLDEN EAGLE Eagle-bone, whistle of, 49, 75, 84, io8, I54, I83 Eagle-catcher, Hidatsa, 136, pi. Eagle-feathers as badge of honor, 12 fan of, in Sun Dance, 70 in Apsaroke myth, 122, 124 in Bowl Ceremony, 157 in hair, I8, 45, 47, 89, io8 in Hidatsa legend, I6I in invocation, 49 in Sun Dance, 80 of medicine-men, 202 of warriors, 171 on buffalo-robe, I65 on clothing, I8 on head-dress, 46, 210 on lance in legend, I65, i66 staffs adorned with, 27 symbolism of, 76 tied to buffalo, 72 used by buffalo hunters, 71 worn by chief, 49, 50 worn in Sun Dance, 75, 154 worn in vision, 207 Eagle-wings carried by medicine-man, 73 Ear-pendants of Apsaroke women, 175 Ear-piercing among Hidatsa, 142 Earth, black, for treating pneumonia, 145 fresh, in war ceremony, 84 used in Sun Dance rite, 75 See CLAY; MUD {view image of page 223} INDEX 223 Earth Naming Ceremony of Hidatsa, I59, I85 East Pryor creek, campaign on, 92, 94, 96 hunting on, 115 See PRYOR CREEK Eats With Dog killed by Lakota, 80 Edhapuaih. See ROTTEN BELLY Education of Apsaroke children, 26-29 See YOUTHS Effigy. See IMAGE Elbowoods, North Dakota, I3I, I85 Elk hunted by Apsaroke, 114 in Hidatsa myth, 162 Elk-horn, bows of, 21, 176 glue made from, 21 lances tipped with, 21, 46, 176 objects made of, i8i wedge of, 69 Elk-meat not highly regarded, 115 Elk-skin, bowl-case covered with, 157 clothing of, I4I, 175 glue made from, 21 lodges of Shoshoni, go See SKIN Elk-teeth as game counters, 176 as medium of exchange, 208 as ornaments, IOI captured by Apsaroke, go dresses ornamented with, 22, 30, 31, 175 Elopement by Apsaroke, 3I Embroidery. See BEADWORK; QUILLWORK E-she-huns-ka. See RED FEATHER AT THE TEMPLE Exchange. See ELK-TEETH; GIFTS; HORSES; TRADE; TRADERS Falcon, mourning for, 36-38 Fan of eagle-feathers in Sun Dance, 70 Fasting by medicine-women, 154 by No Vitals, 62 for visions by Apsaroke, 5, 10, 25, 27, 36, 45-47, 50, 53, 58-60, 63, 78 -80, 85, 179, 197-210 for visions by Hidatsa, 144, 210, 211 for Wolf Ceremony, 185 in Hidatsa legend, I65 in tobacco garden, 67 power derived by, 185 sweating before, 54 See OFFERINGS; VISION Fat Fox, an Hidatsa, 138 Father-in-law. See PARENTS-IN-LAW Fat river, Green river so called, 46 Feast at birth of child, 142 before house building, 137 during Corn Ceremony, I5I, I52 during Tobacco Ceremony, 63 given by chiefs, I39 in Apsaroke myth, I25 in Bowl Ceremony, 158 in Sun Dance rite, 71, 76, 153 of supplication, I49 See FOOD Feathers as badge of honor, 23 offerings of, in ceremony, 185 on Hidatsa belt, 142 See EAGLE-FEATHERS; HAWK-FEATHERS; OWL-FEATHERS; PELICANFEATHERS; RAVEN-FEATHERS Fecundity, how symbolized in Hidatsa belief 143 Fights Recklessly, Apsaroke warrior, 94 Fire in Corn Ceremony, 150 in Hidatsa lodges, 137 in sacred lodge, 48, 84, 85 in Sun Dance, 76, 77 in Tobacco rite, 66 not borrowed from skull lodge, 165 Firearms. See GUNS Fire-drill of Hidatsa, I8I Fireplace in sweat-lodge, 54 of Tobacco lodge, 64 Fir needles as incense, 84, 157 as perfume, 181 for sacred fire, 48 First Feather Of The Tail, Apsaroke leader, I05, o06 Fish-hawk as personal medicine, 45 Fish Shows, sketch of, 200 Flannel bands worn by warriors, 17 Flatheads, Apsaroke name for, I8o Apsaroke warfare against, 3, 39, 40, I99, 205, 206 Hidatsa name for, I86 horses of, 97 Flathead Woman, portrait of, 70, pi. sketch of, 200 Flood, Hidatsa tradition of, 130, I83, 184 Flute used in courtship, 6, 30, 178, I83 Flying Eagle, an Hidatsa, I39 Fog, mythic creation of, 121 Fog In The Morning, portrait of, 14, pL sketch of, 200 Food, creation of, I17 gifts of, to bride, 24 {view image of page 224} 224 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Food in Apsaroke myth, II8 in Sun Dance, I54 not deposited with Hidatsa dead, 185 of the Apsaroke, 115, 176, I92 of the Assiniboin, I64 of the Hidatsa, I64, i8i preparation of, by Apsaroke, 176 preparation of, by Hidatsa, 182 provided for Bowl Ceremony, 156, 158 See BUFFALO; COOKING; CORN; ELK; FASTING; FEAST; MEAT Footprints of Sun Dancer effaced, 77 Foot-race. See RACING Forest, mythic creation of, 121 Forsyth, Montana, 209 Fort Berthold, 132, 139, 2II Berthold reservation, I32, I8o Buford, 132 C. F. Smith, 52, 92, 207 Custer, 204 Laramie, treaty of, 41, 51 Peck, 207, 209 Phil. Kearny, 1o6 Fossil as medicine, 207 Fox as tutelary spirit, 149 in Hidatsa myth, 163 Fox Indians, Apsaroke name for, I8o Fox Men visited by Apsaroke, 177 Fox-skin in Sun Dance, 153 in sun-lodge, 80 on clothing, 141 on cradle-board, i8i on war altar, 84 why carried by scouts, 85 Fox society of Apsaroke, 13-20, 31-34, 86, 93, 177, I97-201, 203, 204, 207-209 of Hidatsa, I82 Fox-tail a badge of honor, 12, I8o, 207 Fuel gathered for Sun Dance rite, 75 Furniture of Lakota tipi, 103 of the Apsaroke, 28, 30 Fur-traders. See TRADERS Future world. See AFTER-WORLD Gallatin valley, Apsaroke in, 92 Games of the Apsaroke, 5, 6, 29, 30, 92, 93, 176, 204 of the Hidatsa, I82 See TOPS Generosity. See GIFTS; HOSPITALITY Genesis of the Apsaroke, 52, 6i, 62, II6, 117, 178 Genesis of the Hidatsa, I43, I62, 163, I83 Gens de Panse, French nickname, 42 Ghost as tutelary spirit, 60 Ghost Lodge, Apsaroke after-world, 179 Gibbon, Gen. John, Apsaroke scouts with, 200, 201 Gifts before Corn Ceremony, 149 between Apsaroke and Nez Perces, 209 by host to guests, 59, i18 by Sun Dancer, 68 during courtship, 30, II8, 178, 183 for success in war, 27 for success of children, 26 for treatment of ills, 147 in Bowl Ceremony, 157 in Tobacco Ceremony, 64 instructions concerning, 62 medicine-songs acquired by, 145 offered for name, 25, 142 offered in Corn Ceremony, 151 of horses by warriors, 23 of horses in courtship, 31 of meat to poor, 24, 26 on return of warrior, 170 taboo dissolved by, 35 to assakke, 24 to children, 25 to clansmen, 200 to Hidatsa Corn priest, 134 to medicine-man, 48, 148, 176 to mourners, Io4 to participants in ceremony, 159 to society by initiate's clansmen, 24 to Sun Dance priest, 70 to Tobacco Order initiate, 63 wedding, 23, 24, 31, 34, I83 Girls, names of, among Apsaroke, 25 of the Apsaroke, 28, 29, 48 (pl.), 68 (pl.) Glue of the Apsaroke, 21 of the Hidatsa, i8i used in bow-making, 176 Goes Ahead, portrait of, IOO, pl. sketch of, 200 Goes To War, an Apsaroke, i8 Golden Eagle, Apsaroke warrior, Ioo Golden eagle as tutelary spirit, 73, 74 messenger of star, 59 See EAGLE Good Bear, portrait of, 210, pl. sketch of, 210 Good Fur Robe, Hidatsa chief, 130, I65 Good Man, a war title, 12, 177, I79 {view image of page 225} INDEX 225 Good Young Man, a war title, 12, 179 in Sun Dance, 75, 76 Goose as tutelary spirit, 51 Gopher as tutelary spirit, 162 in Apsaroke myth, II9 Government. See CHIEFS; POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Grandmother's Child in Hidatsa myth, I43, 171, 172, I84, I87 Grass braided for stringing food, 182 caches covered with, I82 dye obtained from, I82 in hair of scouts, I66 used in lodge-building, I37, I8I See SWEET-GRASS Greasy Breast. See IVAKIDINSH Greasy Mouth, an Apsaroke clan, 177 Green river, 46 Grosventres, Hidatsa so called, 42 See ATSINA Gros Yentres of the Missouri. See HIDATSA Ground-cedar a sacred wood, 73 used for incense, 75, 76, 201 used in sun-lodge, 75, 77 worn on head, 66 See CEDAR Gum. See SPRUCE GUM Guns captured by Apsaroke, I98-201, 203-209 captured by Red Bear, 50 capture of, an honor, 12, 25, 179 effect of, on Apsaroke, 4 held in incense, 89 in Indian fights, 205 of the Apsaroke, 93 traded to Apsaroke, 43 Habitat of the Apsaroke, 4, 43 of the Hidatsa, I29 Hailstones, a Thunderbird symbol, 8 Hair adorned with eagle-feathers, 12, 84 as badge of honor, 23 cut in mourning, IOI, Io6, I79 human, on coup-sticks, 5 human, worn, 46 medicine symbols worn in, 65 of captive as offering, 104 of Reckless Dogs shorn, 13 painting of, by chiefs, 84 rope made of, 202 spirit symbol worn in, 54 tearing of, in grief, 69 See BUFFALO-HAIR; DEER-HAIR VOL. IV.- 15 Hairdressing in visions, 209, 210 of Apsaroke, I8, 22, 23, 46, 47, 50, I75 of Hidatsa, 141, i80, 181 of medicine-man, 147 of Sans Arcs, 103 of warriors, 45, 89, Io8 See SCALP-LOCK Hair In A Lump, a medicine-man, 58 death of, 201 Hair On Top, Apsaroke chief, 67-69 as pipe-bearer, 80 sketch of, 48-49 Hairy Moccasins, portrait of, 98, pl. sketch of, 200 Half-shorn society of Hidatsa, I82 Halter made of bark, 202 Hammer, stone, of Apsaroke, 69 Hand of enemy in Sun Dance, I53, 154 Hand game of Apsaroke, 176 Handicraft of the Hidatsa, 140 terms for, I92, 193 See ARTS; INDUSTRIES Har-rar-shesh. See DOES NOT RAIN Harvest by Hidatsa, 134 prayers for, 149 See AGRICULTURE; CORN; TOBACCO Hawk as tutelary spirit, I99, 203, 204, 207 Hawk-feathers on lance, 204 Head-band of white buffalo-skin, 136 Head-dress of Apsaroke chief, 46, 51 of medicine-men, 73 of Sun Dancer, I54 See HAIRDRESSING; WAR-BONNET Healers. See MEDICINE-MEN Heart mountain, 86, II4 Heart river, Hidatsa on, 38, I29, 130, I65 He First Made All Things, Apsaroke deity, 52-54, 6I, 62, 79, II6, 117, 178 Hidatsa deity, 139, I43, I44, 151, 156, 157, 162, 183-185 He Leads The Moving Band, a chiefship title, 9 Helena, site of, occupied by Apsaroke, 4 Hell-diver in Apsaroke myth, 116, 178 Heralds, Apsaroke, announcements by, 6, II, 68, 73, 75, 77, 86, 89, I05, III Hidatsa, announcements by, 134, 135, 139 in Apsaroke myth, 126 Herbs used for perfume, 23, I75 used in healing, 56 He That Builds The Lodge, a ceremonial title, 63 {view image of page 226} 226 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN He That Hears Always, a name of Iftihbadhigh, 52 He That Mixes, a ceremonial title, 62 He That Sees All Things, a name of Ifihibadhigh, 52 He That Sings Praises, a priestly title, 68 He That Wishes To Become Reckless Dog. See RECKLESS DOGS Hidatsa, account of the, I29-172 Amahami fused with, 43 and Apsaroke relationship, xi, 39, 58 and Apsaroke trade, 38 Apsaroke name for, I8o biographical sketches of, 210, 211 knives traded by, 46 Lewis and Clark among, 38 origin of the, 38 song for returning scouts, 88 treaty with, 41 tribal summary of, I80-I86 village site, I30, pl. vocabulary of, I89-I96 Hida'da-adhutadhifh, Hidatsa Crossing, I30 Hidatsa Horse, Apsaroke medicine-man, 57, 73, 74 Hida'f-ati, establishment of, 139 Hidatsa Yillage built, 132 Hide, glue made from, 21 See RAWHIDE; SKIN High Hawk winter-count cited, 96 High Swallow, Apsaroke warrior, 94 Hillside, an Apsaroke, 14, 19 sells medicine, I99, 200 His Horse Is Spotted, Apsaroke warrior, 94 History of the Apsaroke, 38-52 Hoes of shoulder-blades, 134 Holds The Eagle, portrait of, 60o, pl. Home Boy, legend of, I65 Honor place in Apsaroke tipi, 84, 176 in Bowl Ceremony lodge, 157 in Hidatsa lodge, 138, 150 medicine placed in, 201 of sun-lodge, 77, 78 sacred bowl kept in, 157 skulls placed in, 164, I65 Honors, announcement of, in Sun Dance, 78 chiefship gained by, I77 earned in war, I2-I3, 34, 40 how declared, 24 how heralded, IIo indicated on clothing, 23, I41, 142, I8o, 207 Honors symbolized in Sun Dance, 77 why desired in Hidatsa belief, 144 won through fasting, 59 See COUPS; WAR Hoods of buffalo-hair, 115 See CLOTHING Hoof-prints cut on body, 59, 207, 209-211 discerned by scouts, 87 Hoofs. See DEER-HOOFS Hoop-and-pole game, 6, 120, 176 Hoop On The Forehead, sketch of, 200 Horn, arrow-points of, 21 bows made of, 176 implements and utensils of, 21, 55, 140, 170, 176, I8I, 182 See BUFFALO-HORN; DEER-HORN; ELKHORN; MOUNTAIN-SHEEP HORN Horse In The Night, an Apsaroke, 91, 92 Horse-racing, medicine for success in, 153 See RACING Horses a measure of wealth, 57 Apsaroke, trappings of, xi, 20 (pl.) as medium of exchange, 22, 60, 6i, 145, 153, 176, 207 boys taught use of, 26 captured by Apsaroke, 4, 34, 41, 59, 69, 197-2IO captured by Hidatsa, 210 captured by Red Bear, 50 capture of, how regarded, I2, 13, I79 care of, by Apsaroke, 5, Io, I9, 29, 51, 60, 94,95,97, 1I5, io6, IO9, 113 care of, by Hidatsa, 142 docking of tail of, 13 effect of, on Apsaroke, 4 effect of, on tipis, 21, 175 first obtained by Apsaroke, 46 gift of, by warriors, 23 gift of, in courtship, 31 gift of, in Sun Dance, 210 gift of, in Tobacco Ceremony, 64 invocation for, 53 Nez Perce, raided by Apsaroke, 40 of dead warriors, 36, 37 of eloper harmed, 3I of the Apsaroke, 24 seen in vision, 206, 210 stabled in dwellings, 138 traded by Apsaroke, 43 See BUFFALO HUNTING; TRANSPORTATION Horse-tail as medicine, 178 {view image of page 227} INDEX 227 Hospitality, invocation for, 53 of Apsaroke chiefs, 11, 177 of buffalo hunters, 113 of the Apsaroke, IO, 15, 24, 26, 51 of the Hidatsa, 135 taught by ceremony, I84 See FEAST; GIFTS Howard, Gen. O. O., Apsaroke scouts with, 200, 201, 207 Hurda division of Hidatsa, 131 Human Hand, an Hidatsa, I39 Hump Bull, Apsaroke warrior, 47 Husking of corn by Hidatsa, I35 Hunka-lowanpi and Hidatsa rite compared, 184 Hunkpapa and Apsaroke warfare, 207 and Hidatsa warfare, 211 See LAKOTA; SIOUX Hunters of the Apsaroke, 114, pi. participate in Sun Dance rite, 71 Hunting, boys taught in, 26 by the Apsaroke, 26, 27, iii-ii6 by the Hidatsa, I3I, i8i, I82 division of product of, 139 medicine for success in, 153 See BUFFALO HUNT Hunts The Enemy, portrait of, 58, pl. sketch of, 201 Hunts To Die, Apsaroke informant, xi, xii, I7, 27, 31, 56, 67, 130 portrait of, IO, pl. sketch of, 201, 202 Huipadhia defined, 53, 54, 56, 179 Idhathi defined, 143 Ikt6mi and Old Man Coyote, 178 Image in Apsaroke myth, 178 in genesis myth, I16 of Lakota as medicine, 48 of Lakota in Sun Dance, 76, 78-80 on shirt in vision, 207 used in sorcery, 57 Implements of the Apsaroke, 176 of the Hidatsa, i8i, 182 See HANDICRAFT; UTENSILS Incantation to bring buffalo, 48 treatment by, 6 See MEDICINE-MEN Incense accompanying gifts, 62 child held in, 25 for growth of corn, 134 for scenting lodge, 171 Incense herbs as medicine, 54 in Bowl Ceremony, I57, I58 in Corn Ceremony, I50 in Hidatsa ceremony, I50, pl. in Sun Dance, 75-77, I53, I54 in vision, 56 made by warriors, 84, 89, 90 of sage, I50, 151 purification by, 201 used in medicine, 147 white buffalo-skin held in, 136 Industries of the Apsaroke, 176 of the Hidatsa, i8i See ARTS; HANDICRAFT Infants of the Hidatsa, i8i See CHILDREN Invocations for bountiful crops, I84 for revenge on enemy, 72, 73 to sun, 49, 74, I04 See FASTING; OFFERINGS; PRAYERS Ipfiidhissuri. See PIPE DANCE Iron Bull, Apsaroke warrior, 51, 52, 93, 98, 102 Iron Eyes, exploit of, 97-I10 Irving, Washington, refers to Rotten Belly, 48 fsakemaniu. See PLAYS WITH His FACE IsapisfsiiAh. See WHITE MOCCASIN-TOP Isapiwifhrfh. See HAIRY MOCCASINS Isafiaduiih. See Two LEGGINGS Isbahiye defined, 24 Ishbishetbisrhg, a mythic character, 118-122 Isfhe'duh. See ON ToP Ishichoshtupfs. See Two WHISTLES lfhpudgtg. See No VITALS IshtfilisuuhhiAh. See SPOTTED JACK-RABBIT IshtiwiWte. See ONE EYE Ispedtf(lsh. See RAVEN FACE Issakkuwatt9. See OLD MAN COYOTE Itakatetafh. See OLD MAN WHO NEVER DIES Itakupg-amakiAh. See SITTING OWL Ita'sh-ifakYfh. See GOOD FUR ROBE Ita-widafa'Sh. See TATTOOED FACE Ifi;dikyashe-watfh. See SITTING ELK Ifitibadhrfh. See HE FIRST MADE ALL THINGS Ifti kawahidifh. See HE FIRST MADE ALL THINGS Iftuwaofhpufhe. See RED FEATHER AT THE TEMPLE Ivakidhu'ih, a mythic character, I22-125 {view image of page 228} 228 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Iydka'h. See HAIR ON TOP IfyhopYfh, an Apsaroke locality, 207 Jack-rabbit as personal medicine, 46 as shield decoration, 47 ears as hair ornament, 18 feet as necklace, 18 skin worn in Sun Dance, I54 Jack-rabbit Child, a Reckless Dog, 14 Joseph. See CHIEF JOSEPH KadhdYfhpapytulh in Apsaroke myth, 184 KadhYtwapfhAfh in Hidatsa myth, 184 See GRANDMOTHER'S CHILD Kaidhuhe-atiak?. See OLD WOMAN CEREMONY Kadhutetafh. See OLD WOMAN WHO NEVER DIES Kee'-hat-sa, name applied to Apsaroke, 43 Keiser, Apsaroke camp at site of, 93 Kettles traded to Apsaroke, 43 Kick Belly, an Apsaroke clan, 8, 9, 83, 92, 104, 105, 178 Kill, an Apsaroke, I03 Kills In The Back Of The Lodge, a girl's name, 48 Kinnikinnick used by Apsaroke chief, 9 See PIPE; SMOKING; TOBACCO Knife river, Hidatsa on, 131 treaty of, in I825, 41, 42, 47, 179 Knives obtained by Apsaroke, 38 of the Hidatsa, 140, i8I removed from sacred lodge, 84 traded by Hidatsa, 46 KRoiat-atiak?. See CORN CEREMONY Ladles of the Hidatsa, 140, i8i Lakota and Apsaroke warfare, 17, 58, 67, 72 8o and Cheyenne alliance, 102, 105 and Hidatsa rite compared, I84 image of, in Sun Dance, 76, 78-80 seen in vision, 80 song for returning scouts, 88 See SIOUX Lance borne by suppliant, 211 in Hidatsa legend, 165-167, 170, 171 in Sun Dance rite, 70, 76, 77, 154 medicine placed on, 139 of Lakota and Cheyenne, Io9 of the Apsaroke, 21, 46, 47, I02 scalps carried on, IIO Lance seen in vision, 204 used by Lakota, 93, 102, 103 used in gaming, 182 See HOOP-AND-POLE; SPEARS; STAFFS Land Beyond The Mountains. See AMITE Language of Mountain and River Crows, 42 See VOCABULARY Lean AWolf, Hidatsa informant, I30, 136, I40, 141, 145, 146, I56, I85 portrait of, 134, pl. sketch of, 210 Legends of the Apsaroke, I116-126 of the Hidatsa, I59-I72 See MYTHS Legerdemain in ceremony, I78, 179 Leggings in Hidatsa legend, 168 of Cheyenne warrior, 19 of the Apsaroke, 12, 22, 23, 175, I76 of the Hidatsa, I41, 142, i8o, i8i presented to medicine-men, 148 See CLOTHING Levin, C. H., acknowledgments to, xii Lewis, Meriwether, cited, 42, 43 Lewis and Clark, expedition of, 38, 41-43, 131 Little Bighorn river, agency on, 41 Apsaroke on, 68, 92, 104, Io6 battle of, 200, 208 Little Crane, Apsaroke warrior, 205 Little Knife river, Hidatsa on, 132 Little Missouri river, Hidatsa on, 129, 200 Little One That Tells Things, a spirit, 53 Livingston, Montana, 41, 207 Lizard as tutelary spirit, I45, 146 Lodge-covering reversed during battle, 95 used for carrying corn, 134 used for clothing, IoI, i8o used for saddles, 105 uses for, 22, 176 when obtained, 112 Lodgegrass creek, Apsaroke on, 93 battle on, 91 Lodge-poles, ceremony connected with, 68-71 for staff-making, 15 how transported, 7, 8 Lodges, Apsaroke, 18 (pl.), 42, 51, I20 (pl.) combined for ceremonies, 14 elk-skin, of Shoshoni, go erected by women, II2 for Tobacco Ceremony, 63 made of sage-brush, 86 miniature, of Apsaroke girls, 28 of mourning of Apsaroke, 36 {view image of page 229} INDEX 229 Lodges of the Hidatsa, I37-139 of the Lakota, 96 place of newly married couple in, 30 sacred, for Sun Dance, 153 sacred, of Apsaroke, 48, 83 See CAMPING; DWELLINGS; MEDICINELODGE; SWEAT-LODGE; TIPIS Loin, Apsaroke warrior, IOO Loin-cloth, Indians distinguished by, 50 of the Apsaroke, 23, I75 of the Hidatsa, 141, I8o only clothing of warriors, 89, go Lone Buffalo, an Hidatsa, I39, 211 Lone Dog. See LONG-TIME DOG Lone Tree, sketch of, 202 Long creek, buffalo hunt on, III Long Dance of Apsaroke, IIO, I I I Long Hair. See RED FEATHER AT THE TEMPLE Long-time Dog, portrait of, 152, pi. sketch of, 21I Looking Glass, Nez Perce chief, 96, 97 Love-charm of Hidatsa, I34 Love-songs of Hidatsa youths, 183 of scouts, IO6 Lower Mandan Village, treaty at, 132 Lullaby in Apsaroke myth, 178 See SONGS Lumpwood society of the Apsaroke, 7, 11, 13 -20, 31-34, 36-38, 86, 93, I77, 200, 201, 203, 204, 207-209 of the Hidatsa, I82 Made To Lead, a ceremonial title, 65, 66 Mad Wolf Bear, Apsaroke warrior, 17, 71 Magpie in Hidatsa myth, 183, I84 Mahaifh. See SPRING BOY MahodhWtl defined, 52 Mahp~ defined, 52, 53 Madhupa-wia. See MYSTERY WOMAN Matiawfih. See BREAD Maif'hpiddhtdh defined, 52 Makadhifta-hiupddhi, Hidatsa ceremony, 179 songs of, I86-I88 See SACRED CHILD Make Buffalo Return. See BUFFALO CEREMONY Make Lodge-like. See SUN DANCE Make The Narrow Road, an Apsaroke custom, III Mandan and Apsaroke peace, 39 and Apsaroke visit, 43 Mandan and Hidatsa relations, 130, 131, I33 and Sioux warfare, 2II Apsaroke name for, I80 Hidatsa name for, 186 Lewis and Clark among, 38 Okip6 Ceremony of, 2II smallpox among, 133 song for returning scouts, 88 tradition of Apsaroke origin, 42 treaty with, 41, 48, 132 Many Dry Heads, a creek, 115 Many Lodges, the Mountain Crows, 8 MaohipYh. See SHOT IN THE HAND MapuksJh-dtiakO. See SNAKE CEREMONY Marriage among Apsaroke, 22-25, 29-35, 69, 178 among Hidatsa, 139, I42, 183 See COURTSHIP; DIVORCE; WIVES; WOMEN Masakuu. See MADE To LEAD Maschidit-kudufh. See WHITE MAN RUNS HIM MaAhuka-tieAh. See LONE DOG Mafhutssut. See TOBACCO CEREMONY Massage employed in healing, 145 Matted Hair, story of, 59 Mawahpakasfh defined, 52 Mawahipe defined, 52, 53 Maximilian on Apsaroke population, 41, 42 Meadow lark in Apsaroke myth, 124 Measurements of the Hidatsa, 137 of tobacco gardens, 66 Meat, gift of, to poor, 24, 26 how cured, 5 supplied Apsaroke chiefs, II See BUFFALO; ELK; FOOD Medicine, buffalo, of Hidatsa, 135 for success in hunting, 67 hoop in Sun Dance, I54 image of Lakota as, 48 objects of chief, 84, 85 of Twists His Tail, 49 of warriors, 90, 93 of Wraps Up His Tail, 44 personal, of Apsaroke, 178 personal, of Hidatsa, 138, I39 position of, in sweat-lodge, 55 power of, 145, 146, 153 practices of the Apsaroke, '6, 56-61 practices of the Hidatsa, I45-I48 purchase of, I99, 203, 204, 207, 208 shields as, 21 {view image of page 230} 230 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Medicine sweat-lodge of Apsaroke, 54, I79 tobacco seed as, 66 tripod of Apsaroke, 52, pl. worn by Sun Dance participants, 76, 77 See SPIRITS; TUTELARY SPIRIT; VISION Medicine-arrows in Apsaroke myth, I24-I26 Medicine-bag, how disposed of, I85 in sweat-lodge, 55 in Tobacco lodge, 64 of Sun Dance priest, 80 Medicine bundle borne by faster, 207 how carried, 31 in Corn Ceremony, 149-152 in Hidatsa ceremony, 150 (pl.), I85 in Sun Dance, I53, I54 in Tobacco Ceremony, 64-66 of fasters, 63 of warriors, 84, 90 place of, in lodge, 55 Medicine Child, a medicine-man, 58 Medicine Crow, Apsaroke herald, III sketch of, 203 Medicine-lock. See SCALP-LOCK Medicine-lodge, Apsaroke, 56, pl. Medicine Maker in Corn Ceremony, I49-152 in Sun Dance, I53-I55 Medicine-making by warriors, 89, IO8, 141 in gaming, 182 in Sun Dance, 209, 20I Medicine-men in Bowl Ceremony, I58 in Sun Dance, 67-80, I54 instructed by spirits, 53, 54 keepers of gaming objects, 176 of Apsaroke, 56-6i, i8o of Hidatsa, I44, I85 serve as chiefs, 9 wind controlled by, 112 Medicine-power sought by Sun Dancers, 78 See FASTING; SPIRITS; TUTELARY SPIRIT; VISION Medicine-songs of Apsaroke, 28, 45, 87, 89, IO8, IO9 Medicine-women in Sun Dance, I54 Mental suggestion employed in healing, 145 Mice people in Apsaroke myth, 119 Midahatgi-atiuTh. See WILLOW VILLAGE Midhadia-kidutiki. See TAKING UP THE BOWL Midhokafl, original name of Hidatsa, 129-131 separation of, 38, 42, 62 tradition of, 156 Midimdp-dtiake. See SUN CEREMONY Midipati, an Hidatsa clan, 131 sacred skulls kept by, i65 Migration of the Apsaroke, 39 of the Hidatsa, 129-132, 138, i6o, 163, I83 MiAia-ktsh. See WHITE DUCK MiihdpatYfh. See ROCK VILLAGE Miles, Gen. N. A., Apsaroke scouts with, 200, 201, 207 Military societies of the Apsaroke, 13, I77 of the Hidatsa, 182 See SOLDIERS; WARRIORS Milk river, Apsaroke raids on, 40, I99, 206 Mynitadhi, Mandan name of Hidatsa, 130 Minnetaree, derivation of, I30 Hidatsa so called, 42, 43, 132 Missouri river, Apsaroke on, 38, 39, 209 culture of tribes of, 133 Hidatsa on, I29-13I, 140, I84, 210, 211 Missouri River Ceremony of Hidatsa, I85 Mit-atiak&. See BUFFALO CEREMONY Mite-keiku. See BUFFALO CEREMONY Mittens of buffalo-skin, 115 Mitutahank, Mandan village, 41 treaty at, 132 Mixed-bloods among Hidatsa, 133, I34 Moccasin game of Hidatsa, 182 Moccasins adorned by warriors, 12 honors indicated on, I80, 207 how improvised, 202 in Apsaroke myth, II9, I21 in campaigning, 86 of Apache women, 49 of scouts, I05 of the Apsaroke, 22, I75, I76 of the Hidatsa, 141, 142, I8o See CLOTHING Modesty of Apsaroke women, 6 Moles in Apsaroke myth, 119-121 Monsters. See WATER-MONSTERS Morals of the Apsaroke, 4 of the Hidatsa, 133 Morning Star as tutelary spirit, 47, 207 Hidatsa belief as to, 138 in Apsaroke mythology, 62 in vision, 198 pelican the messenger of, 50, 85 Mortars of the Apsaroke, 176 Mortuary customs of Apsaroke, 35-38, I79 of Hidatsa, 185 Moss used for dye, 45, 182 Mother-in-law. See PARENTS-IN-LAW {view image of page 231} INDEX 23I Mounds, tobacco gardens marked by, 65, 66 to mark fasting place, 46 Mountain Crows, an Apsaroke band, 8 at treaty of 1825, 41 population and status of, 42 Mountain-lion skin in sun-lodge, 80 on saddle, 31 Mountain-sheep, a Cheyenne leader, 19 Mountain-sheep horn, bows of, 21, 176 objects made of, I8i receptacles of, 21, 140 Mountain-sheep skin, clothing of, 140-142, I57, I75, i8i See SKIN Mountain Tail, Apsaroke medicine-man, 68, 69, 72 Mourners, property divided among, 185 Mourning among Apsaroke, 5, 35, 36, 73, 83, 87, 100, IOI, I79, I98 among Hidatsa, 146 among Lakota, 104 during Sun Dance, 77 See MORTUARY CUSTOMS Mud in genesis myth, 116, 178 players smeared with, 176 rubbed on chest of warrior, go used as dye, i8i See CLAY; EARTH Muddy creek, Apsaroke on, II5 Muddy Hand society of Apsaroke, 13, 17, 86, I77 Muhr, A. F., acknowledgments to, xii Mules traded by Apsaroke, 43 Murderers, future life of, 179, I85 Hidatsa belief regarding, 144 how punished by Hidatsa, I39 prohibited from Bowl Ceremony, 156 prohibited from prayer, I39 Musical instruments. See DRUM; FLUTE; RATTLE; WHISTLE Musselshell river, 39, 47, III Mutilation by mourners, 35-37, IOI, I79 by warrior, 104 during Sun Dance, 78, I84 while seeking vision, 53, 58-6o, 155, I79, I99, 200, 202, 203, 206 See TORTURE Myers, W. E., acknowledgments to, xii Mystery-place in ice, Io6 Mystery-power, song of, 157 See MEDICINE; SPIRITS; TUTELARY SPIRIT Mystery Woman of the Hidatsa, I43 Myths of the Apsaroke, II6-I26, 178 of the Hidatsa, 156, I59, I62-172, 183, 184 See GENESIS; LEGENDS; RELIGION Naki-dami phratry of Hidatsa, 183 Ndki-topd phratry of Hidatsa, 183 Names, how bestowed by Apsaroke, 25 ludicrous, how bestowed, 24 personal, of Hidatsa, 142 Naming of natural objects, 178 Natural phenomena, spirits of, 52 terms for, I93, I94 Navaho, corn cultivated by, I34 use of pollen by, 133 Navigation. See BULL-BOAT Necklaces, bear-claw, of warriors, 23 corn-ears as, 149, 152 of rabbit-feet, I8 of the Apsaroke, 175 when not worn, 8 Never Shoots, Packs Game, an Apsaroke clan, 177, I78, 198, 204, 206, 208, 209 Newly Made Lodge, an Apsaroke clan, I77, I99-201, 203 Nez Perces allied with Apsaroke, 96, 97, 209 and Apsaroke warfare, 3, 39, 40, 114, I98, I99, 20I, 203 Apsaroke name for, I80 campaign against, 207 hairdressing of, 22, 175 Hidatsa name for, I86 horses raided by Apsaroke, 40 No Neck, an Apsaroke, 98, 99, IOI Nose That Shows, an Apsaroke, Io6 Not Mixed, an Apsaroke clan, I77, 178, I97, 199-202, 207, 208 No Vitals, a legendary chief, xi, 38 and Tattooed Face indentical, I31 sketch of, 44 Tobacco Ceremony instituted by, 62 Numerals, Apsaroke and Hidatsa, I94 Oaths taken by Apsaroke, 24, 35 O'Fallon, B., treaty commissioner, 132 Offerings by the Apsaroke, IO in Bowl Ceremony, 156, 158 in ceremonies, I85 of buffalo-paunches, 156 of captive's hair, 104 of fat to corn, 135 {view image of page 232} 232 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Offerings of white buffalo-skin, 136 to medicine bundle, 151 to spirits, 45, 54, 58-60, 155 to sun, 27, 28, 78, 8o, 89, io8, 200, 206 to winds, 154 See FASTING; GIFTS; INVOCATION; SPIRIT-POWER; SPIRITS; TORTURE; TUTELARY SPIRIT; VISION Ogalala and Hidatsa warfare, 2II See LAKOTA; SIOUX Okipe Ceremony of Mandan, 2II Old Crow, youthful escapade of, 27, 28 Old Dog, portrait of, 88, pl. sketch of, 203 Old Man Coyote in Apsaroke myth, 178 Old Man Who Never Dies, Hidatsa deity, I43 Old Man Wolf, a warrior title, 171, I85 Old Mission, Apsaroke agency, 41 Old Woman Ceremony of Hidatsa, I85 Old Woman's Sack, name of hills, 86, 87 Old Woman Who Never Dies, Hidatsa myth character, I33-135, 138, I43, 149, I50, 151, I56-I58, I83-185 Omen as to spirits, 140 evil, hooting of owl an, 209 in winds, 84, 141 of the Apsaroke, 98 One Eye, Apsaroke chief, 45 One Feather, an Apsaroke, 209 One Heart, Apsaroke chief, 45, 46 One Pine. See LONE TREE Only Boy, Apsaroke warrior, 98 On Top, portrait of, 84, pl. sketch of, 203 Ordeals of the Apsaroke, xii See MUTILATION; TORTURE Organization, military, of Apsaroke, 13 tribal, of Apsaroke, 8-20 See POLITICAL ORGANIZATION; SOCIAL ORGANIZATION Orientation observed by Sun Dancer, 77 of Apsaroke lodges, 68 of Hidatsa lodges, 138, I39 of sun-pole, 153 of sweat-lodge cover, 55 of tobacco garden, 64, 65 See CARDINAL POINTS; SUN Origin. See GENESIS Ornamentation of pottery, i8I of tipi-flap, I5 Ornaments removed before torture, I98 See ARTS; CLOTHING; PAINTING; QUILLWORK Osiers, baskets made of, 181 bowl-case of, 157 houses covered with, 137 See WILLOW Otter as tutelary spirit, 203 mythic power of, 66 See THOSE OF THE OTTER Otter-skin, baldric of, 46 in Tobacco rite, 66 in warrior's paraphernalia, 90 Lakota hair wrapped with, IO8 on war altar, 84 used in making staff, I6 Owl as tutelary spirit, 201, 204 hooting of, an evil omen, 209 in Apsaroke myth, 124, I25 in Hidatsa myth, 159 Owl-feathers, symbolism of, 76 Owners Of Stone Hammers, an Hidatsa society, 182 Packs Antelope, a legendary hunter, 159 Paddles of the Hidatsa, I82 Paint as medicine, 54, 147, 204 blue, on shirt, I8 from mouth in ceremony, 178 in hair, 23, 175 red, symbol of blood, 70 sacred, in Apsaroke myth, 121, I22 See DYE Paint-bag, how carried, 31 Painted skull used in taking oath, 24 Painting as protection from water-monsters, 8 mode of, how acquired, 144 of boat in Hidatsa myth, I62 of bodies by Apsaroke, 45 of bodies by chiefs, 47, 49 of bodies by Hidatsa warriors, I66 of bodies in Hidatsa ceremony, 157 of body and hair, 45 of body before death, 58 of body in Tobacco Ceremony, 65 of body in vision, 201 of body taught by spirits, I85 of coup-stick of dead, i85 of dead, 57, 179 of dead warriors, 35, 36 of face by chief, 50, 207 of face by Singer, 149 {view image of page 233} INDEX 233 Painting of face in vision, 209 of face of bride, 34 of faces of medicine-men, 147 of Good Young Men, 75 of honors on leggings, 142, I 8 of image in Sun Dance, 76 of medicine-bear, 201 of performers in Sun Dance, 70, 75, 77, 78, i54 of planting-sticks, 67 of players in game, 176 of scouts with clay, Io8 of shirts by warriors, IIO of Sun Dance paraphernalia, 80 of suppliant, I98 of tipis, 51 of war honors, 12 of warriors, 46, 47, 70, 75, 80, 84, 87, 89, 90, 98, io8-I I of white buffalo-skin, 136 of women in Sun Dance, 77 on Apsaroke shields, 20, 21, 47 on bear-robe of Red Bear, 26 on rattle in vision, 210 See CLAY; WAR-PAINT Paints His Shirt Red, Apsaroke chief, 45 Paiute, Apsaroke name for, I8o Panther-skin. See SKIN Parade, Apsaroke, IIo, pi. See PROCESSION Parents-in-law, taboo of, 35 Parfleches of the Hidatsa, 140 presented to bride, 23, 30 presented to medicine-men, 148 Paunch Indians identified, 42, 43 Pawnee, Apsaroke name for, I80 Hidatsa name for, I86 PedhiflY-wahpafA. See MEDICINE CROW Pelican as tutelary spirit, 50 messenger of Morning Star, 85 parts of, on war altar, 84 Pelican-feather on war altar, 84 worn by chief, 50 Pemmican, boys' serenade for, 28 in Apsaroke myth, 18, 119 in Hidatsa myth, I60, I64 in Tobacco rite, 66 Pendant on Apsaroke saddle, 20 See CLOTHING; ORNAMENTS Pend d'Oreille and Apsaroke warfare, 39, 40, 201, 206 Apsaroke name for, I80 Pennyroyal in Hidatsa myth, I64 used as perfume, 181 Perfume of Apsaroke, 23 of Apsaroke and Lakota, 93 of Hidatsa, 175, i8i Personal names, Apsaroke, Ii8 Personal terms, Apsaroke and Hidatsa, 194 -I96 Pestles of the Apsaroke, 176 Phratries of the Apsaroke, 24, 25, 177 of the Hidatsa, 183 Physical character of the Apsaroke, xi, 3 Pictographs on Hidatsa clothing, 141 Piegan and Apsaroke warfare, 44, 48, 199, 201, 203-207, 209 Apsaroke name for, I8o horses captured from, 197 song for returning scouts, 88 Piegan Lodge, an Apsaroke clan, I77, I78, 204 Piercing. See TORTURE Pillow, buffalo-skull for, 210 of the Hidatsa, i8i Pine charcoal used in tattooing, 175 Piney creek, Apsaroke camp on, Io6 Pipe carried by chief, 9, 177 carried by Sun Dancer, 70 in ceremony for rain, 145 in Hidatsa myth, I64 in Lumpwood ceremony, 15, 17 offered to Hidatsa deities, I56 presented to priest, 149 sacred, in Bowl Ceremony, I56, I57 sacred, in sweat-lodge, 55 sacred, of the Hidatsa, 138 sacred, of the Lakota, 103 sacred, presented to initiate, 184 seen in vision, 210 taken on war-path, 59, 8o, 93, 105, 2o6 used in sorcery, 57 used in war ceremony, 83-85 See SMOKING; TOBACCO Pipe Dance of Apsaroke, I79 Pipe-filler in Tobacco Ceremony, 63 Pipe-stem, talking through, meaning of, Io2 Place Of Many Fasts. See PRYOR MOUNTAINS Planting. See TOBACCO CEREMONY Plates of the Apsaroke, 176 See UTENSILS Platform burial of the Apsaroke, 36, pl. See MORTUARY CUSTOMS; SCAFFOLD BURIAL Platte river, Apsaroke hunt on, 39 {view image of page 234} 234 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Plays With His Face, Apsaroke chief, 47 Plenty Coups, an Apsaroke, I8 sketch of, 203 Plum-seed game of Apsaroke, 5, 177 of Hidatsa, 182 Pneumonia, how treated by Hidatsa, 145 Political organization of Apsaroke, 177 of Hidatsa, I39, I82 See CHIEFS; ORGANIZATION Pollen not employed by Hidatsa, 133 Polygyny among Apsaroke, 178, I97-210 See MARRIAGE; WIVES; WOMEN Pomme blanche. See TURNIPS Poor, gift of meat to, 24, 26 how treated by Apsaroke, IO See HOSPITALITY Population of Apsaroke, 3, 4, 41-43, I75 of Hidatsa, I80 of Hidatsa and Mandan, 133 Porcupine-quills, tattooing with, 175 See QUILLWORK Porcupine-tail as hairbrush, 22, 121, I75, i8i Pots. See COOKING-VESSEL; UTENSILS Pottery of the Apsaroke, 21, 176 of the Hidatsa, 140, I57, I8I See BOWL; UTENSILS Pouches of Apsaroke women, 20 See BAGS Powder. See AMMUNITION; GUNS Powder river, Apsaroke on, 39, 40, 43, 49, 202 Lakota on, Io6, Iog Power derived through visions, 144 of medicine-men, 185 See MEDICINE; MEDICINE-POWER; SPIRIT-POWER Prairie-dog. See THOSE OF THE PRAIRIEDOG Praise Singer in Sun Dance, 68, 69, 76, 77 Prayers by medicine-women, 154 confined to warriors, 139 during fast by Apsaroke, 203 for captive by Lakota, I04 for children, 26 for growth of corn, I34 for successful hunt, 135 for tribal welfare, 149 for visions in Sun Dance, 78, 155 in Bowl Ceremony, I56-158 in Corn Ceremony, 15I, I52 in sweat-lodge rite, 55 of the Apsaroke, 24 of the Hidatsa, 54, 138, 139, I42 Prayers to Hidatsa creator, 143 See FASTING; INVOCATION; OFFERINGS; SUPPLICATION; VISION Prayer-songs for buffalo, i85 in Bowl Ceremony, I57, I58 See SONGS Presents. See GIFTS Pretty Eagle, Apsaroke chief, I8, 52, 204 wives of, 31, 178 Priest. See MEDICINE MAKER; MEDICINEMAN Procession in Apsaroke dance, I98 in Corn Ceremony, I50 in Sun Dance rite, 69 of Apsaroke, 15, I8, 19 of Apsaroke societies, 32 of mourners, 36, 83 on return of warriors, IIO, III Property acquired by medicine, 200 division of, at death, 37, I85 Property-marks on planting-sticks, 67 Prophecy of children's success, 26 of medicine-men, 202, 203 of Red Bear, 50 of war-leader, 200, 202 Pryor (Arrow) creek, campaign on, 93, 96, 97 fight on, 19, I99, 204, 207, 209 hunting on, 115 See EAST PRYOR CREEK Pryor Gap traversed by Apsaroke, 91 Pryor mountains, Apsaroke in, 115 campaign in, 92 fasting in, I99, 207 Puberty ceremony absent among Apsaroke, 179 customs of Apsaroke, 25 Pueblos, corn cultivated by, I34 Punishment by Apsaroke Soldiers, 112 by Hidatsa Soldiers, 139, I82 for adultery by Hidatsa, 183 Hidatsa belief as to, 144 lack of, for adultery, 178 of children, 26 of unchastity, 69 See MURDER; SOLDIERS Purification before relating vision, 208 by sweating, 201 rite of Apsaroke, 54 See INCENSE; SWEAT; SWEAT-LODGE Quillwork in Apsaroke myth, I19 of the Apsaroke, 20, 22, 175 of the Hidatsa, 140-142, i8o, 181 {view image of page 235} INDEX 235 Quirts of Apsaroke, 71, I02 Quivers of Apsaroke boys, 26 of the Lakota, IOO Rabbit. See HUNTING; JACK-RABBIT Rabbit-ear worn in hair, 46 Rabbit-head, portrait of, 158, pl. Racing by Apsaroke, 177 See HORSE-RACING Rafts used by Apsaroke, 8 Rain, ceremony for, I56-159 controlled by Thunderbird, 138 influenced by animals, 66 invocation for, 152 produced by medicine-man, 48, 74, 145 Rainy Hills, fight in, 98, 104 Rattles, deer-hoof, on clothing, II9, 142, I8I of buffalo-hide, 13, 48 seen in vision, 2IO used by mourners, 36 used in incantation, 6, 146 Rattlesnake Hills, Lakota in, Io6 Raven eaten by Hidatsa, 146 in Corn Ceremony, 151 in Hidatsa myth, 162 Raven Face, Apsaroke chief, 45, 46 See ONE EYE Raven-feathers in hairdressing, 147 on arrow in game, 176 on clothing, 141 worn in Sun Dance, 154 Raven Necklace, a legendary Hidatsa, I59 Raven society of Hidatsa, 182 Raven Woods, Apsaroke camp in, III, 112 Ravin nation, the Apsaroke, 43 Rawhide, carrying-strap of, i8i cooking-vessel of, 176 covering for corpses, 179 door-covering of, 8 I hair-ornament of, 47 hammer handles of, 69 hoop for gaming, 176 medicine carried in, 54 rattle of, 13, 48 rope of Hidatsa, 140 ropes carried by warriors, 17 ropes in Bowl Ceremony, I58 ropes in sun-lodge, 73, 74, 77, 155 ropes of Apsaroke, 35, 177 saddles covered with, i8i sleds covered with, 29 stole of Twists His Tail, 49 Rawhide, utensils of, 21, I8i See BUFFALO-SKIN; SKIN Real Chief of the Apsaroke, 12 Reatas. See RAWHIDE; ROPE Receptacles. See UTENSILS Reckless Dogs, customs of, I3-14 Red Bear, Apsaroke chief, II, 25, 26, 50, 51, 80, 83-91, 11I-II5, I99, 200, 202 Red Cloud, honors won by, 204 Red Feather At The Temple, Apsaroke chief, 35, 38, 39, 4I, 47, 48, I79 Red Lodge, Montana, fight near, 36 Redlodge creek, fasting on, I97, 201 occupied by Apsaroke, 83 Red Owl, an Hidatsa, 146, I47 Red Scout, Midhokafs chief, 38 Red Shield, Hidatsa warrior, 145 Red Sun, a Nez Perce, 203 Red Wing, sketch of, 204 Red Woman in Apsaroke myth, 123, 124, 184 Relationship among Apsaroke, 23-24 among Hidatsa, I83, 194-196 terms of, Apsaroke, I94-196 Religion of the Apsaroke, 3, 52-83, 178 of the Hidatsa, 143-161, I84, I85 See CEREMONIES Reno fight, 200 See CUSTER; LITTLE BIGHORN RIVER Reservation, Apsaroke, established, 41, 51 Rib-men, Winnebago so called, 46 Riding, boys taught in, 26 in circle by scouts, 72 Rivalry between Lumpwoods and Foxes, 18-20, 177, 200, 203 River Crows at treaty of I825, 41 habits of, 43 live apart, 47 population of, 42 reputed origin of, 39 status of, 42 Rivers, buffalo taken from, 136 how crossed by Apsaroke, 8, 24, 30 Roadmaker, an Hidatsa, 140, 156 Robes of the Apsaroke, 175 of the Hidatsa, 141 of victory, 34 presented to medicine-men, 148 See BUFFALO-ROBE Rock creek occupied by Apsaroke, 83 Rock Village of Hidatsa, 131 Root-digger, magic, in Apsaroke myth, I 9, 121 Roots eaten by Apsaroke, 176 {view image of page 236} 236 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Roots eaten by Hidatsa, 181 used for incense, go Rope, hair, of Cheyenne, 202 See RAWHIDE Rosebud creek, Montana, agency on, 41 Rosebud river occupied by Apsaroke, 40, 199, 201 Roses, wild, season marked by, 182 Rotten Belly at treaty of 1825, 41 ceremony obtained by, 179 sketch of, 47, 48 Rotten Grass creek, 105 Running in Wolf Ceremony, I85 See HORSE-RACING; RACING Running Coyote, Apsaroke chief, 45 death of, 36 Sacred bundle. See MEDICINE BUNDLE Sacred Child, an Hidatsa rite, 184 Sacred Woman in Blackfoot Sun Dance, 153 Sacrifice. See FASTING; MUTILATION; OFFERINGS; TORTURE Saddle-bags of the Apsaroke, 20, 31 Saddle-pads of the Apsaroke, 176 Saddles of the Apsaroke, 20, 22, 105, 115 of the Hidatsa, 182 Sage as incense, 157 for bed in sun-lodge, 210 in Bowl Ceremony, I57-I59 in Corn Ceremony, I50, I52 in Sun Dance, 76, 8o, I54 suppliant rubbed with, I98 used in sun offering, 27 used in sweat-lodge, 55 Sage creek, campaign on, 86 fight on, 8o Saint Louis fur companies, 40 Saint Xavier Mission, 46 Salt-weed as buffalo food, 86 Sarsi, Apsaroke name for, I80 Scaffold burial by the Apsaroke, 35, 36 (p!.), 60, 179 by the Hidatsa, I85 Scalp, Apsaroke, in Lakota sun-lodge, 104 as badge of honor, 23 carried by women, I I how carried by warriors, I I of bear on head-dress, 46 on cooking-sticks, 76 seen in vision, 80 taken by Apsaroke, 46, 49, 50, 56, 66, 69, 8i, 90, 98, 198, I99, 207, 208 Scalp taken by Hidatsa, I69-17I used in Sun Dance, I53, I54 worn by chief, 5I worn on clothing, 12 Scalp Dance of Apsaroke, 9I, 92 Scalping, treatment of, I47, I48 Scalp-lock of Sun Dancer, 75 ornaments on, IO8 See HAIRDRESSING Scalp-shirts of the Apsaroke, 12, 207 Scarifying. See MUTILATION Scars, painting of, by warriors, 89, Io8 Scolds, an Apsaroke, 69 Scouts, Apsaroke, 86 (pl.), 105-109, 177, I99 -209 employed in hunting, 67, 72, 111-115, I35 fox-skin carried by, 85 Lakota, 92 medicine for success of, 153 painting of, in Sun Dance, 75 sent for lodge-poles, 68 symbolized by wolf, I85 with war-parties, 80, 86, 87, 98, 168 wolf-skin worn by, 13 Scraped Wood society of Hidatsa, I82 Serenade by boys, 28 in courtship, 30, 178, 183 Service-berry used for arrows, 181 Seven Stars, myth of, 117-126 Shadows in Hidatsa belief, 143 Sharp Nose, Arikara warrior, 141 Shell river, buffalo on, III Shells in Hidatsa myth, 162 worn by chief, 49, 50 Sheridan, Wyo., Apsaroke camp at, Io6 Shield, captured by Apsaroke, 90 carried in Sun Dance, 154 how carried in moving, 31 hung from slits in suppliant, 198 of Lakota and Cheyenne, 1O9 of the Apsaroke, 20, 47, 176 of Sun Dance participants, 76, 77 Shinny played by Apsaroke, 177 played by Hidatsa, 182 Shipii, an Apsaroke warrior, IO9, 11o Shiptafte, an Apsaroke division, 38, 45 Shirts of the Apsaroke, 18, 175 of the Cheyenne, 19 of the Hidatsa, I8o See CLOTHING; SCALP-SHIRTS Shivahu'va in Hidatsa myth, 163, 164 ShiwasedtYh. See FOG IN THE MORNING {view image of page 237} INDEX 237 Shoshone river, Apsaroke on, 80, 114, 200 Shoshoni and Apsaroke warfare, 3, 39, 83-9I, 198, I99 Apsaroke name for, I80 captive with Apsaroke, 97 Hidatsa name for, 186 hunting by, II4 See SNAKE INDIAN Shot In The Hand, Apsaroke warrior, 94, 206 sketch of, 204 Shrine of Hidatsa, 165 Signal for enemy seen, 72, 108, i68 smoke, of Apsaroke, 96 war, of the Lakota, 96 Sign language, 9I, 96, 102, 103 Sinew, bows backed with, 21, 176, I8i for bowstrings, 18I for hafting axes, 140 for mending moccasins, 86 Singer in Corn Ceremony, I49-15I Singing at new camp site, 138 by boys, 28 by scouts, Io6, Io8 by war-party, 167, I68 during torture rite, 198 treatment by, I80 See SONGS Sioux and Apsaroke warfare, 3, 5, 36, 39, 40, 42, 50, 9I-III, 198-208 and Arikara warfare, 141 and Hidatsa warfare, 133, 138, 210, 211 Apsaroke name for, I80 coups of the, I79 Hidatsa name for, I86 horse raiding by, 204 legendary attack by, I66 medicine purchased from, 207 staff used by, in battle, 17 See HUNKPAPA; LAKOTA; OGALALA; YANKTONAI Sits In The Middle Of The Land, sketch of, 51 Sitting Bull, Apsaroke raid against, 199 death of father of, 1oo flight of, 203 grief of brother of, 104 Sitting Elk, sketch of, 204-206 Sitting Owl, portrait of, 132, pi. sketch of, 211 Skin cap worn by Singer, 149 dead laid on, 36, 38 dead wrapped in, 35, I79 stirrups covered with, 20 Skin, strips of, worn by Reckless Dogs, 13 used as couches, 6 used for clothing, 5, 20, 22, I40, 175 used for tipis, 2I See ANTELOPE; BEAR; BUFFALO; DEER; ELK; Fox; JACK-RABBIT; MOUNTAIN-LION; MOUNTAIN-SHEEP; OTTER; RAWHIDE; ROBE; SKUNK; WEASEL; WOLF Skins Wolf, portrait of, 206, pl. sketch of, 206 Skulls, sacred, of Hidatsa, 138, I63-I65 Skunk-oil used as perfume, i8i Skunk-skin worn by Sun Dancer, 75 Sleds of Apsaroke children, 29 Small Dog society of Hidatsa, 182 Small On The Back, Apsaroke warrior, 47 Smallpox among Hidatsa, I32, I33 Small River Ceremony of Hidatsa, 185 Smoke signal of Apsaroke, 96 Smoking by deities, I56 by Sun Dance singers, 78 by the Apsaroke, 5, 11, 176 by warriors, 59, 60, 92, 93, 96 during torture rite, I98 employed in sorcery, 57 in Bowl Ceremony, 158 in Corn Ceremony, 149-I51 in Hidatsa myth, 164 in vision, 210 in war ceremony, 84, 85 on buffalo hunt, 9, 112 to seal peace, 3, 4 See PIPE; TOBACCO Snake as tutelary spirit, 178 Snake Ceremony of Hidatsa, I85 Snake Indian and Apsaroke trade, 43 See SHOSHONI Snakes, Grandmother's Child and, 17I-172 Soaking, The, a Tobacco Ceremony, 6-67, 178 Soap creek, Apsaroke on, 44 Soapstone vessels of Apsaroke, 2I Social customs, Apsaroke, 3, 23-38 Social organization of Apsaroke, 177 of Hidatsa, 18, 83 Societies of Apsaroke boys, 27 of the Apsaroke, 13-20 See MILITARY SOCIETIES Sods used in house-building, I37 Soldiers in Sun Dance rite, 69-71, 74 of the Apsaroke, 9, II, 177 of the Hidatsa, 139, I82 {view image of page 238} 238 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Soldiers on buffalo hunt, 112 Song, eagle, of Hidatsa Horse, 73 fasting, of Red Bear, 85 for returning scouts, 88 medicine, of Red Bear, 85 of creation, Apsaroke, 68, II7 of discovery of enemy, 107 of invocation to sun, 49 of Reckless Dogs, 13, 14 of Spotted Horse, Io8 victory, of Rotten Belly, 48 war, of Apsaroke, 98 Songs accompanying gifts, 62 derived through visions, 205 Hidatsa, how acquired, 144, 145 in Apsaroke myth, 123 in Bowl Ceremony, I57, I58 in Corn Ceremony, I51, 152 in Hidatsa ceremonies, i85 in praise of youth, 27 in sweat-lodge rite, 55 in Tobacco Ceremony, 64-66, 189 in vision, 56, 209, 2IO medicine, employed in healing, 60 mortuary, of Apsaroke, 36, 37 of Apsaroke societies, I5, I8 of Fox society, 32-34 of Lumpwood society, I6, 17, 20, 32, 36, 37 of Makadhfthta-hupadhi Ceremony, I84, I86-I88 of Shoshoni women, 91 of Sun Dance, 48, 70-72, 74, 76, 78, 79, 81-83, 154 of sun offering, 27, 28 of thanksgiving, Hidatsa, I34 of the Apsaroke, 24 of Thunderbird Ceremony, I88 of victory, 36, 202 on return of warriors, I I, III taught by spirits, I85 tobacco, of Apsaroke, 62, 63 used in medicine, 146-148 See DEATH-SONG; LOVE-SONGS; LULLABY; MEDICINE-SONG; SINGING; VICTORY-SONG; WAR-SONGS Sorcery practised by Apsaroke, 57, 58, 197 Sparrow-hawk as tutelary spirit, 60, Io9, 201 Spears carried by warriors, 78 how carried in moving, 31 of the Apsaroke, 176 of the Hidatsa, I40 Spears used for mutilation, 36 used in battle, 19 See LANCE; STAFFS Spirit-power, fasting for, 36 how gained, xii how lost, 9 in Apsaroke belief, IO in Hidatsa myth, I83 in medicine practice, 56-6I Spirits acquired by medicine-men, 58-60 Apsaroke belief in, 179 enemies revealed by, 50 Hidatsa beliefs regarding, 143-145 Hidatsa omen as to, I40 medicine-men taught by, I85 names derived from, 25 offerings to, 45 of the Apsaroke, 52-54 of the Hidatsa, I43 of the weather, 134 projectile points attributed to, I40 size of tipis controlled by, 21 supplication of, in war, 141 See ANIMAL SPIRITS; FASTING; MEDICINE; OFFERINGS; PRAYERS; SUPPLICATION; TUTELARY SPIRIT; VISION Spirit Village in Hidatsa belief, I85 Split Nose, Shoshoni chief, 87, 90, 91 Spokan, Apsaroke name for the, I80 Spoons, horn, of Apsaroke, 21, 176 horn, of Hidatsa, 140, I8I Spotted Hair, Hidatsa deity, I43, 156, I57, 185 Spotted Horse, Apsaroke warrior, 87, 89, 105 -IIO, I99 Spotted Jack-rabbit, an Apsaroke, 44 portrait of, IO8, pl. sketch of, 206 Spring Boy, an Hidatsa spirit, 143 Spruce gum used in hair, 175 Squash in Hidatsa myth, 162, 164 raised by Hidatsa, I29, i8i, I82 Staffs carried by Sun Dancers, 78 carried during torture, 198 how carried in moving, 31 of Apsaroke boys, 27 of Apsaroke societies, 32, 34 of Apsaroke warriors, I5-I7 of Fox society, I98, 204, 209 of Hidatsa societies, 177 of Hidatsa warriors, I82 {view image of page 239} INDEX 239 Star as tutelary spirit, 59 in Apsaroke myth, 124 on Apsaroke leggings, 22 spirit of, 50 See MORNING STAR; SEVEN STARS Steatite pots of Apsaroke, 176 Sticks. See COUP-STICKS; STAFFS Stillwater river, 41 Stinginess, how regarded by Hidatsa, 13 Stinking Water, campaign on, 86, 9I See SHOSHONE RIVER Stirrups of the Apsaroke, 20 Stockade surrounding Hidatsa village, 138 Stone hammer of Apsaroke, 69 implements of Hidatsa, 140, I8I, 182 mythic, of Hidatsa, I84 (pl.), 185 objects of Apsaroke, 176 Storage. See CACHES Strong Falcon, Apsaroke warrior, IOO, IO1 Sucking, treatment by, I80 Suicide among Apsaroke, 8, 179, I85 Hidatsa belief regarding, I44 Sumac used as dye, 182 Sun, Apsaroke belief regarding, 52, 95, io8 as guardian spirit, 49 child of, in myth, I84 Hidatsa beliefs respecting, 138 in vision, 210 invocation to, 19, 24, 69, 74, 78, 89, 104, 152 offering to, 27, 28, 59, 8o, 89, IO8, 200 206 personated by priest, 153 symbol of, 49 See ORIENTATION Sun Ceremony of Hidatsa, I85 Sun Dance, fasting in, 210 in Hidatsa legend, I66 of Apsaroke, 67-83, 178, 209, 2IO of Hidatsa, 152-155, I84, 210 of Lakota, I04 songs of, 48 votaries, 76 (pl.), 80 (pl.) Sunflower seeds in Hidatsa myth, 164 raised by Hidatsa, I29, i8i, I82 Sun-lodge as sun offering, 80 how constructed, 68-74 of the Hidatsa, 184 Sunlodge creek, Shoshoni on, 87, 88 Sun-pole in Sun Dance, 154, I55, I67 Supernatural Person, a priestly title, 57 Supernatural power. See Mahip& Supplication before war-leader, 84 ceremonies of, among Hidatsa, I85 for success in war, 69, 141 Sun Dance a rite of, I84 to spirits by Apsaroke, 58-6I to spirits by Hidatsa, 142, 156 See FASTING; INVOCATION; OFFERINGS; PRAYERS; TORTURE; VISION Sweat, The, an Apsaroke rite, 54-56 Sweat-bath before fasting, I79 before relating vision, 208 by war-leaders, I79 of fasters, 201 See BATHING Sweat-lodge, Apsaroke, 54, pl. in Apsaroke myth, 124 in Tobacco Ceremony, 64 sacred character of, 54 See MEDICINE SWEAT-LODGE Sweet-grass as incense, 84, 89, I57 in medicine, 204 used as perfume, i8i Swimming, boys taught in, 26 Symbol, medicine, worn in hair, 54, 65 of blood, 70 of cloud, 47 of Hidatsa deities, 185 of Morning Star, 47, 50 of Old Woman Who Never Dies, 150, 157 of scouts and war-parties, I85 of sun, 49, Io8 of warriors' wives, 178 worn in scouts' hair, I66 See TOKEN Taboo of parents-in-law, 35, 183 of weapons in sacred lodge, 84 Taking Up The Bowl, an Hidatsa ceremony, 156-158 Tattooed Face, an Apsaroke, 18 and No Vitals identical, I30, I3I in Hidatsa legend, 165 Tobacco-medicine song of, I89 Tattooed Face creek, campaign on, 92, 93 Tattooing by Apsaroke, 175 by Hidatsa, 141 Teeth. See ELK-TEETH Telescope of Apsaroke warrior, 87 used by scouts, 107 used in hunting, I15 Teton Sioux, horses captured from, 207 See LAKOTA; SIOUX {view image of page 240} 240 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Thanksgiving, Hidatsa songs of, 134 Those Of The Blackbird, a Tobacco family, 63 Those Of The Otter, a Tobacco family, 63 Those Of The Prairie-dog, a Tobacco family, 63 Those Of The Real Tobacco, a Tobacco family, 63 Those Of The Weasel, a Tobacco family, 63 Those That Have No Bodies, Apsaroke spirits, 52 Those That Have No Fires, Apsaroke spirits, 52 Three Owls killed, 105 Three Thighs, Apsaroke warrior, 99 Threshing by Hidatsa, I82 Thrown To The Rear Of The Lodge, an Hidatsa spirit, 143 Thunderbird appears to faster, 47 as medicine, I97, 200 hailstones as symbol of, 8 Hidatsa belief in, 138, I39 symbol on shield, 47 Thunderbird Ceremony of Hidatsa, 159 songs of, I88 Thunder Nest, a mountain, I97 Tipi-covers. See LODGE-COVERING Tipis, burial in, by Hidatsa, I85 of the Apsaroke, 21-22, 175 traded by Apsaroke, 43 when used by Hidatsa, i8i See DWELLINGS; LODGES Tobacco as personal medicine, 44, 45 captured by Apsaroke, 90 in Apsaroke myth, 178 in Hidatsa myth, 162, I64 medicine-bag in sweat-lodge, 55 mythic creation of, I17 offered in ceremony, I85 power derived from, I17 raised by Apsaroke, 6I, 176 raised by Hidatsa, I29, I82 Real, Those Of The, a Tobacco family, 63 sacred character of, 6I used by Apsaroke chief, 9 Tobacco Ceremony of Apsaroke, 45, 61-64 (pl.), 65, 66 (pl.), 67, 178 Tobacco-medicine, song of, 189 Tobacco society of Apsaroke, 207 Toboggans of the Hidatsa, I82 Token of bountiful harvest, I34 See SYMBOL Tomahawk hung from slits in suppliant, I98 Tongue river, Apsaroke fight on, 203 buffalo hunt on, IO6 occupied by Apsaroke, 39, 40 Tops of Apsaroke boys, 27 of Hidatsa boys, I82 Torture by Hidatsa as sacrifice, 210 during mourning, 35, 36, I98 experienced by medicine-men, 60, 6I in Bowl Ceremony, 156, 158 in Okipe Ceremony, 211 in Sun Dance, 77-79, I54, I55, I84,209, 210 in Wolf Ceremony, I85 See MUTILATION; OFFERINGS; ORDEAL Trade of Apsaroke, 43 Traders among Hidatsa, 38, 133 enter Apsaroke country, 40 Traditions of the Hidatsa, 129-131 Training. See EDUCATION Transportation of buffalo product 113, Il6, '35 of infants, 181 of war supplies, 105 See BULL-BOAT; DOGS; HORSES; TRAVOIS Trappings of Apsaroke horses, 20 Travelling. See CAMP-MOVING; HORSES; TRAVOIS Travois not used by Apsaroke, 21 of the Hidatsa, I82 of the Sioux, IO8 Tray, wooden, for plum-seed game, 5 See BOWL Treaty of Knife river, 39, 41, 47, 132, I79 See FORT LARAMIE Tree, ceremonial felling of, 70 mythic, of the Hidatsa, 188, pl. Trees, names for, I96 See BIRCH; BOX-ELDER; CEDAR; COTTONWOOD; GROUND-CEDAR; WILLOW Tribal organization of the Apsaroke, 8-20 See, POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Tripe, use of, in Tobacco Ceremony, 65, 67 Tripod for cooking-vessel, 176 for head-rest, 181 for sacred pipe, 103 medicine, of the Apsaroke, 52, pl. Trophies exposed in Sun Dance, 77 Truthfulness taught by ceremony, 184 {view image of page 241} INDEX 24I Tsakak-6tiake. See BIRD C E R E M O N Y; THUNDERBIRD CEREMONY Tsefhaddka. See YOUNG WOLF Tssfha-hadhahii/h. See LEAN WOLF TsfAh-dtiake. See WOLF CEREMONY Tsfshitaka. See OLD MAN WOLF Ts&t-dahhufYA/fh. See YOUNG HAIRY WOLF Tset-diiAhpuAz. See SKINS WOLF Tsst-hapfz. See WOLF LIES DOWN Tsetuih. See WOLF Tsidip-bafteftSfh. See BULL CHIEF Tsidap-idikya/h. See BULL GOES HUNTING Tsidup-teAhiCh. See BULL TONGUE Tsidupuwituifh. See IRON BULL TsipkadhAfhtatiisnih. See YOUNG WHITE BUFFALO TsisapuuAh. See TWISTS HIS TAIL Tsita-hiJfhsfheA. See RED SCOUT Tullock's fork, Apsaroke fight on, 205 Turnips in tobacco mixture, 65 Turtle Woods Village of Hidatsa, I3I Tutelary spirit, bear as, IoI blackbird as, 59 brant as, 146 buffalo as, 45, 46, 60, I35, I45, 154, I99, 203 crane as, 204 eagle as, 108, 202, 203 fish-hawk as, 45 fox as, I49 ghost as, 60 golden eagle as, 73, 74 goose as, 51 gopher as, 162 hawk as, I99, 203, 204, 207 jack-rabbit as, 46 lizard as, I45, 146 Morning Star as, 47, 207 otter as, 203 owl as, 201, 204 pelican as, 50 snake as, 178 sparrow-hawk as, 6o, IO9, 201 star as, 59 sun as, 49 tobacco as, 6I wolf as, 167, i68, I99, 208 Tutelary spirits of the Apsaroke, 53 of warriors, 59, 6o See MEDICINE; SPIRIT-POWER; SPIRITS Twists His Tail, Apsaroke warrior, 40 sketch of, 49 VOL. IV.-I6 Two Leggings, lodge of, I20, pi. sketch of, 207 Two Moons, an Arapaho leader, 19 Two Whistles, sketch of, 207 Umatilla, Apsaroke name for, I80 Under-world in Hidatsa myth, 162, 183, 185 Unfaithfulness, how exposed, 35 Upshaw, A. B., Apsaroke interpreter, xii Ute, Apsaroke name for, I8o Utensils of the Apsaroke, 21, 176 of the Hidatsa, 140, i8i See HANDICRAFT; IMPLEMENTS Varnum, Lieut., scouts under, 208 Vengeance, how sought, 36, 37 Verendrye, Sieur de la, cited, 138 Victory-song of Apsaroke, 202 of Piegan, 209 of Rotten Belly, 48 sung by women, 36 Villages of the Hidatsa, 130-132 of the Mandan, 131 Virgins in Sioux Sun Dance, 153 Vision, Bear Song Dance medicine in, 178 Bowl Ceremony revealed in, 156 ceremony influenced by, 185 effect of, on hunting, 45 effect of, on weapons, 89 experienced by Apsaroke, 25, 197-206, 209, 210 experienced by Hidatsa, I35, 146 fasting to produce, 36, 59, 60, I44, I85 fulfilment of, 80 game seen in, 176 in Hidatsa genesis myth, 162 invocation for, 141, 152 Lakota seen in, 80 medicine herbs revealed in, 56 mourning ended by, 35, 36 power derived from, 53, I8o represented on shield, 21 size of tipis affected by, 21-22 sought in Sun Dance, 77-79, I55, I84 spirits revealed in, 53, 54 sweat-lodge influenced by, 55 time required to produce, 79 Tobacco Ceremony originates in, 45 tobacco planting controlled by, 64 war presaged by, 48 See FASTING Vocabulary, Apsaroke and Hidatsa, I89-I96 {view image of page 242} 242 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Wailing. See MOURNING War, ceremonies for success in, I59, I84, I85 customs in Hidatsa legend, 166-171 customs of Apsaroke, II, I5-20, 23, 24, 27, 28, 36, 44, 49, 50, 54 exploits of Apsaroke, 66, I97-2IO exploits of Hidatsa, 2IO-211 presaged by visions, 48 supplication for success in, 69, I52 War-bonnet captured by Apsaroke, go in Bowl Ceremony, I57 in vision, 207 of Cheyenne, I9 of Hidatsa, 210 of Lakota, 95 of Reckless Dogs, 13 War-club of Apsaroke, 45 War-cry in Sun Dance, 76, 78, 79 of Apsaroke, 15, 17, 94, 97 of Lakota, 92 of returning scouts, Io8 War-dance of Apsaroke and Nez Perces, 96 Warfare, Apsaroke, prohibited, 44 of the Apsaroke, 3, 40, 83-I I stimulated by religious belief, I44 War-honors. See COUPS; HONORS War-leaders in sweat-lodge rite, 54-56 of the Hidatsa, 144, 145, 185 War-paint of warriors, go See PAINT; PAINTING War-parties, success of, foretold, 202 symbolized by wolf, 185 Warriors, Hidatsa, how buried, I85 imitated by boys, 207 in after-world, I79 in Sun Dance rite, 70, 75, 77 in Tobacco rite, 66 mourning for, 35, 36 number of, in Apsaroke war-party, 86, 93, 97, 98, IO2, I05 number of, in Lakota war-party, 96 painting of wives by, 77 selected as chiefs, I39 See MILITARY SOCIETIES, 177 War-song in Sun Dance, 78 in vision, 209 of Sitting Elk, 205 of the Apsaroke, 98, 105, I07 Washaki, Shoshoni chief, 87, 91 Watahi-tdwidrish. See TURTLE WOODS VILLAGE Water-monsters, Apsaroke belief in, 8 home of, I86, pl. in Apsaroke myth, I 8-121 in Hidatsa myth, 159, 184, I87 Weapons, how disposed of, 185 of the Apsaroke, 176 removed from sacred lodge, 84 tested before battle, 98 See ARROWS; Bows; KNIVES; LANCE; SHIELD; SPEARS; WAR-CLUB Weasel. See THOSE OF THE WEASEL Weasel-skins worn in legend, 165 Weasel-tail as badge of honor, 23, 207 Weather, spirits of, 134 Weaving of mats by Apsaroke, 176 Wedge, elk-horn, of Apsaroke, 69 Welsh, theory of Hidatsa descent from, 134 Wet, Apsaroke warrior, 197, 200 sketch of, 207 Wheel-and-pole. See HOOP-AND-POLE Where White Man Runs Him Fasted, a mountain peak, 208 Whirlwind in Apsaroke myth, 121 in Hidatsa belief, I44 See WIND Whistle, eagle-bone, in courtship, 183 eagle-bone, in Sun Dance, 74, 75, 154, 155 eagle-bone, of Apsaroke chief, 49 eagle-bone, of warrior, I08 Whistle Water, an Apsaroke clan, 43, 83, 85, II4, I77, I78, I97, 200, 203, 204, 207 White Bird, Nez Perce chief, 96, 97 White-breasted Mice in Apsaroke myth, 119 White Duck, portrait of, 144, pl. sketch of, 211 White Man Above as medicine, 200 White Man Runs Him, sketch of, 208 White men, effect of, on Hidatsa, 133, 134 how treated by Apsaroke, 41 White Moccasin-top, an Apsaroke, 46 White On The Edge, Apsaroke medicine-man, 93 White river, Hidatsa fight on, 210 White Thigh, an Apsaroke, 197 Wild Cat, death of, 36 Wildcat-skin on cradle-board, ISI Wild Horse lake, mystic character of, 6i Willow, booths of, in sun-lodge, 76 boughs, corn poured on, I34 brooms of, in Sun Dance rite, 77 {view image of page 243} INDEX 243 Willow gathered for Sun Dance rite, 71 head-rest for bed, 18I mats woven of, 176 red, used in tattooing, 175 shoots used in game, I82 stirrups made of, 20 sun-lodge thatched with, 74 sweat-lodge made of, 54 used for bull-boat frame, 140, I82 used for fencing, 67 used for staffs, 15 used in lodge-building, 181 used in Tobacco lodge, 64 See OSIERS Willow Village of Hidatsa, I31, 132 Wind as omen, 141 food offered to, 158 Hidatsa belief respecting, 144 how controlled, 9, III, I2 invocation to, 150-152 offerings to, 154 south, effect on crops, 138 See WHIRLWIND Wind river occupied by Apsaroke, 39 Wind River mountains, Apsaroke in, 4 Shoshoni and Bannock in, 39 Winnebago, Apsaroke hostility toward, 46 Apsaroke name for, I80 Witchcraft. See SORCERY Wives presented to others in legend, 171 "thrown away" by Apsaroke, 178, 197 -201, 203, 204, 206, 208, 210 See MARRIAGE; WOMEN Wolf, a war symbol, 185 an Apsaroke, sketch of, 208 as tutelary spirit, 167, 168, 199, 208 Wolf Ceremony of Hidatsa, 185 Wolf Chief disposes of shrine, I65 Wolf-cry sounded by scouts, 87 See COYOTE-CRY Wolf-fur in invocation, 49 Wolf Head, Apsaroke warrior, 94 Wolf Lies Down, an Apsaroke, 200 sketch of, 208 Wolf Moccasin, a vision name, 147 Wolf mountains, 67, 197, 199, 208 Wolf-skin clothing in legend, 167, 168 when worn, 13, 98, 105 Wolves, meat protected from, I13 Women, Apsaroke, 22-26 (pl.) Apsaroke, capture of, 97-99, 102-104 Apsaroke, clothing of, 22, 175 Women, Apsaroke, descent traced through, 23 Apsaroke, duties of, 113 Apsaroke, games of, 177 Apsaroke, hairdressing of, 175 Apsaroke, modesty of, 6 Apsaroke, status of, 25 Apsaroke, strength of, 3 Apsaroke, treatment of, Io-II Apsaroke, work of, 5 captives, treatment of, 90,, 9, 18, Io captured by Apsaroke, 4, 5, 7, 31-35, 46, 49, 98 challenged for purity, 69, 74 clothing made by, 20 contact with, prevents visions, 79 excluded from dancer's lodge, 68 Hidatsa, 142 (pl.), 148 (pl.), 178 (pl.) Hidatsa, clothing of, 141, 142, I8I Hidatsa, games of, I82 household utensils made by, 176 in Corn Ceremony, I50, I51 in Sun Dance rite, 70, 71, 76, 154 Indian ideas on killing of, 169 invocation for, 53 killed in raid, 199 lodges erected by, 112, I5, I37 mutilation by, in mourning, 35-37 on buffalo hunt, 112 painting of, in Sun Dance, 77 part played by, in battle, 94, 95 participate in war preparations, 105 penalty for unchastity in, 69 potters among Hidatsa, 140 presented to chief, 84 prohibited from Bowl Ceremony, I58 receive returning warriors, IIo scalps borne by, 36, IIo shields cared for by, 21 skins dressed by, I53, I69 stolen by military societies, 177 victory-song sung by, 202 with war-party, 86, 93, 98 See DIVORCE; MARRIAGE; MEDICINEWOMEN; WIVES Wood-root society of Hidatsa, I82 Woodruff, Gen. C. A., on Custer battle-field, 208 Worm Face, a mythic character, II8-I22 Wounds cured by medicine-power, 145, 146 Wraps Up His Tail, Apsaroke medicine-man, 43, 44, 207 {view image of page 244} 244 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Yanktonai and Hidatsa war, 39, 141, 207-209 horse stolen from, I97 Yellow Buffalo Tooth, a Lakota, 104 Yellowstone river, a treaty boundary, 41 Al-la-ka'-we-ah on, 42 Apsaroke fight on, 93 campaign on, 96 occupied by Apsaroke, 4, 7, 19, 39, 83, 86, III, 115, 202, 206 Young Hairy Wolf, portrait of, 208, pl. sketch of, 209 Young White Buffalo, Apsaroke chief, 38, 46 Young Wolf, a warrior title, I7I, I85 roung Wolf Calf, Apsaroke warrior, I97 Youths of the Apsaroke, 5, 44 (pl.) societies for, among Hidatsa, I82 training of, among Apsaroke, I0, I79 training of, among Hidatsa, 142 See Boys Zigzag riding, a signal, 72 running, signal of enemy seen, Io8, I68 THE END OF VOLUME IV {view image of page List of Large Plates} The North American Indian List of Large Plates Supplementing Volume Four 111 Two Whistles – Apsaroke A biographical sketch of this subject is given in Volume IV, page 207. 112 Apsaroke war-chief The three fox-tails hanging from the coup-stick show the subject - Medicine Crow, whose biography appears in Volume IV, page 203 - to be possessor of three first coups, that is, in three encounters he was the first to strike one of the enemy's force. The necklace consists of beads, and the large ornaments at the shoulders are abalone shells. 113 Two Leggings – Apsaroke A biographical sketch of this warrior will be found in Volume IV, page 207. 114 On the Little Bighorn – Apsaroke This picturesque camp of the Apsaroke was on the Little Bighorn River, Montana, a short distance below where the Custer fight occurred. 115 White Man Runs Him A biographical sketch of this subject appears in Volume IV, page 208. 116 Watching for the signal - Apsaroke When there were indications that the war-party was near the enemy, a halt was made while the scouts reconnoitered the position of the hostile party. Their appearance on a distant hilltop was awaited by the main body with great anxiety, for if they were seen running in zigzag lines it meant that the enemy had been actually discovered. 117 Medicine Crow – Apsaroke The hawk fastened on the head is illustrative of the manner of wearing the symbol of one's tutelary spirit. A biographical sketch of this subject is given in Volume IV, page 203. 118 Hoop On The Forehead – Apsaroke A biographical sketch of this subject appears in Volume IV, page 200. 120 Red Wing – Apsaroke A biographical sketch of Red Wing is given in Volume IV, page 204. 121 Bread – Apsaroke A biographical sketch of this subject will be found in Volume IV, page 197. 122 Spirit of the past – Apsaroke A particularly striking group of old-time warriors, conveying so much of the feeling of the early days of the chase and the war-path that the picture seems to reflect in an unusual degree "the spirit of the past." 123 Wolf Lies Down – Apsaroke A biographical sketch of this subject is given in Volume IV, page 208. 124 Plenty Coups – Apsaroke A biographical sketch of this noted warrior appears in Volume IV, page 203. 125 Ready for the charge – Apsaroke The picture shows well the old-time warrior with bow and arrow in position, two extra shafts in his bow-hand, and a fourth between his teeth ready for instant use. 126 Going to camp – Apsaroke This picture was made at a small winter camp on Pryor creek in the Pryor mountains, Montana. 127 Winter – Apsaroke In the thick forests along the banks of mountain streams the Apsaroke made their winter camps. 128 Bull Chief – Apsaroke A biographical sketch of this veteran is in Volume IV, page 197. 129 For a winter campaign – Apsaroke It was not uncommon for Apsaroke war-parties, mounted or afoot, to move against the enemy in the depth of winter. See Volume IV, page 105, for the narrative of such an expedition. The warrior at the left wears the hooded overcoat of heavy blanket material that was generally adopted by the Apsaroke after the arrival of traders among them. The picture was made in a narrow valley among the Pryor mountains, Montana. 130 Autumn – Apsaroke An autumn scene in the valley of Little Bighorn. 131 Scout in winter – Apsaroke The accounts of scouting and hunting parties during the severest winter weather finish many thrilling stories and show a manly indifference to bodily discomfort. The hardships of winter hunting are well shown in the narration found on page 114 of Volume IV. 132 Passing the cliff – Apsaroke A winter scene on Pryor Creek, Montana. 133 Shot In The Hand – Apsaroke A biographical sketch of this subject is given in Volume IV, page 204. 134 Swallow Bird – Apsaroke This picture illustrates the characteristic Apsaroke manner of arranging the hair. 135 Fish Shows – Apsaroke A biographical sketch of this subject appears in Volume IV, page 200. 136 In Black Cañon – Apsaroke The Apsaroke, although not exclusively mountain dwellers, were ever fond of the hills, preferring the forest shade and the clear mountain streams to the hot ill-watered, monotonous prairies. The picture illustrates the Apsaroke custom of wearing at the back of the head a band from which fall numerous strands of false hair ornamented at regular intervals with pellets of bright-colored gum. Black Cañon is in the northern portion of the Bighorn mountains, Montana. 137 Chief and his staff – Apsaroke 138 Successful raid for the horses – Apsaroke The Apsaroke were one of the most fearless tribes, and their stories of raiding parties, large and small, are almost numberless. 139 Upshaw – Apsaroke An educated Apsaroke, son of Crazy Pend d'Oreille (see Volume IV, page 18). Upshaw has assisted the author in his field-work, collecting material treating of the northern plains tribes. 140 Mountain fastness – Apsaroke The Apsaroke lived much among the mountains, and nowhere do they seem more at home than on the streams and in the cañons of their forested ranges. 141 Apsaroke medicine tipi The Apsaroke medicine-men usually painted their lodges according to the visions received while fasting and supplicating their spirits. This tipi was painted dark red, with various symbols on the covering. No man would dare so to decorate a tipi without having received his instructions in revelation from the spirits. 142 Wolf – Apsaroke A biographical sketch of Wolf is given in Volume IV, page 208. 143 Lone Tree – Apsaroke A biographical sketch of this chief and medicine-man appears in Volume IV, page 202. 144 Coups Well-Known – Apsaroke A biographical sketch of this subject will be found in Volume IV, Page 199. 145 Wet - Apsaroke For a biographical sketch of this noted leader, see Volume IV, page 207. 146 Sitting Elk – Apsaroke A biographical sketch of this subject is given in Volume IV, page 204. 147 Apsaroke war group The warrior at the right holds the curved staff of one of the tribal military organizations, which, at the crisis of a fight, was planted in the ground as a standard behind which the bearer was pledged not to retreat. See Volume IV, pages 15-17. {view image of plate no. 111} Two Whistles - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 112} Apsaroke war-chief [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 113} Two Leggings - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 114} On the Little Bighorn - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 115} White Man Runs Him - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 116} Watching for the signal - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 117} Medicine Crow - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 118} Hoop On The Forehead - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 120} Red Wing - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 121} Bread - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 122} Spirit of the past - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 123} Wolf Lies Down - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 124} Plenty Coups - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 125} Ready for the charge - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 126} Going to camp - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 127} Winter - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 128} Bull Chief - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 129} For a winter campaign - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 130} Autumn - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 131} Scout in winter - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 132} Passing the cliff - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 133} Shot In The Hand - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 134} Swallow Bird - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 135} Fish Shows - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 136} In Black Cañon - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 137} Chief and his staff - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 138} Successful raid for the horses - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 139} Upshaw - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 140} Mountain fastness - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 141} Apsaroke medicine tipi [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 142} Wolf - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 143} Lone Tree - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 144} Coups Well-Known - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 145} Wet - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 146} Sitting Elk - Apsaroke [photogravure plate] {view image of plate no. 147} Apsaroke war group [photogravure plate] |
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