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Vol.7. The Yakima. The Klickitat. Salishan tribes of the interior. The Kutenai.{view image of page i} The North American Indian {view image of page ii} Chid T EOtfit fii ixfmtttzf ta tibutr *tnlfrtF Oett ao thFTtiF tifi ti lu ItMbr..^.^.. {view image of Frontispiece} Camp in the forest - Kutenai [photogravure plate] {view image of page iii} THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN BEING A SERIES OF VOLUMES PICTURING AND DESCRIBING THE INDIANS OF THE UNITED STATES AND ALASKA WRITTEN, ILLUSTRATED, AND PUBLISHED BYEDWARD S. CURTIS EDITED BY FREDERICK WEBB HODGE FOREWORD BY THEODORE ROOSEVELT FIELD RESEARCH CONDUCTED UNDER THE PATRONAGE OF J. PIERPONT MORGAN IN TWENTY VOLUMES THIS, THE SEVENTH VOLUME, PUBLISHED IN THE YEAR NINETEEN HUNDRED AND ELEVEN {view image of page iv} MAY 15 lq924 COPYRIGHT 1911 By EDWARD S. CURTIS THE PLIMPTON *PRESS [W.D.0] NORWOOD -MASS I U' -A {view image of page v} Contents of Volume Seven PAGE ALPHABET USED IN RECORDING INDIAN TERMS.....vi ILLUSTRATIONS................... vii INTRODUCTION................... xi THE YAKIMA......... 3 THE KLICKITAT........37 SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR......43 Flatheads and Pend d'Oreilles.......43 Kalispel 51 Coeur d'Alenes.......53 Spokan..........54 Colvilles.........62 Lakes...........64 Sanpoel........64 Nespilim.........64 Okanagan..........65 Methow.........65 Sinkiuse.........66 Wenatchee.........69 Salishan Culture........69 Mythology Origin of Death............... Origin of Sun and Moon...........97 Coyote Defeats the Wolves......100 Coyote Kills a Monster. I02 Coyote Transforms Evil Creatures.......... 03 The Lazy Boy Obtains Bear-medicine......1 05 The Poor Man Obtains Hunting Medicine...1.. 07 Beaver Steals Fire........... White Owl and His Five Wives......09 Turtle Races with Frog and Eagle..... I I Crawfish and Grizzly-bear Contend..... I12 Seeking Medicine, a Boy Finds a Wife...... 13 {view image of page vi} vi CONTENTS PAGE THE KUTENAI General Description ~ ~ ~ ~ Religious Practices Kank6hohl, a Health Ceremony Khfikinam, the Bear Ceremony KhlukahaKl-iyamu, the Horned-animal Mythology The Deluge: First Version The Deluge: Second Version Origin Myth Seven Heads, a Modern Tale Komahikfnko Ceremony ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Ceremony... I I7 128 * 32 140 143 146 '47 I48 I49 152 APPENDIX TRIBAL SUMMARY The Yakima The Klickitat. Salishan Tribes of the Interior. The Kutenai. VOCABULARIES Yakima, Klickitat, Kutenai Salishan Comparative Vocabulary. INDEX TO VOLUME SEVEN * 59 i6i 162 i67 172 I79 'I9 Alphabet Used in Recording Indian Terms [The consonants are as in English, except when otherwise noted] a ai a e i I oi as in father as in cat as aw in awl as in aisle as ey in they as in net as in machine as in sit as in old as ow in how as in oil gh as in Arabic ghain h always aspirated h- fused h and / h as ch in German Bach k a non-aspirated k p a non-aspirated p q as qu in quick fh as in thin th as in thee t a non-aspirated t fs as in hits sh as in shall n nasal, as in French dans ih as z in azure a pause u as in ruin u as in nut ii as in German Hiitte u as in push dh between d and t; a lingual r {view image of page vii} Illustrations Camp in the Forest - Kutenai Frontispiece Mat Lodge - Yakima Facing page 4 Drying Piahe - Yakima 6 The Root Digger- Yakima 8 Sons of a Yakima Chief 10 A Young Yakima 12 Mnainak, a Yakima Chief 14 Lishhaiahit - Kittitas 16 A Holiday Lodge - Yakima 18 An Old Man of Waiyam 20 Camp of the Root Diggers - Yakima 22 Author's Temporary Camp 24 Deserted Lodge - Yakima 26 Yakima Boy 28 On the Move - Spokan 30 A Hill Camp - Spokan 32 Skuhun - Klickitat 34 Mitsa - Klickitat 38 Flathead Buffalo-skin Lodge 40 Flathead Young Woman 42 Nine Pipes - Flathead 44 Flathead Warrior 46 Not Indian - Flathead 48 Many Bears - Flathead 50 Red Owl - Flathead 52 Ahlahlemila - Flathead 54 Door-of-lodge Grizzly - Flathead 56 Jerking Meat - Flathead 58 Drying Meat - Flathead 60 {view image of page viii} viii Vlll ILLUSTRATIONS Flathead Type Facing page 62 On Nespilim Creek 64 A Dance in the Forest - Flathead 66 A Drink - Flathead 68 Flathead Mother 70 A Flathead Chief 72 Flathead Maiden 74 Flathead Horse Trappings 76 Flathead Baby-carrier 78 Kalispel Village 80 Touch Her Dress - Kalispel 82 Kalispel Canoes 84 Kalispel Camp 86 Masselow, Kalispel Chief 92 The Peace-officer - Kalispel 94 Chief Of The Land - Kalispel 96 The Chief's Wife - Kalispel 98 Crossing the Pend d'Oreille - Kalispel 100 Kalispel Maiden 102 Young Kalispel Girl 104 Kalispel Youth 106 Shirt - Kalispel 108 Home of the Kalispel 110 On the Pend d'Oreille - Kalispel 112 Spokan Woman 114 On Flathead Lake - Kutenai 116 Kutenai Woman 118 Not Grizzly-bear - Kutenai 120 Dressing Skins - Kutenai 122 Kutenai Type 126 Kutenai Profile 128 Kutenai Maiden 130 Komitsa - Kutenai 134 Kutenai Female Type 136 A Young Kutenai 140 A Kutenai Man 146 {view image of page ix} ILLUSTRATIONS ix Kutenai Girls at the Lake-shore Facing page 148 Kutenai Canoe 150 Evening on Flathead Lake 152 Author's Camp among the Spokan 154 Returning to Camp - Spokan 156 Spokan Matron 158 Klickitat Basketry 160 Pukimanstula - Spokan 162 Typical Spokan Woman 164 In the Mountains - Spokan 166 Photogravures by John Andrew & Son, Boston. {view image of page x} I {view image of page xi} Introduction IN this volume is treated an unusual number of tribes, associated both geographically and culturally. These tribes comprise numerous groups, the multiplicity of whose component parts is much greater than appears from the group names; such a designation as Yakima, for instance, covers many small bands. Linguistically three stocks are represented: the Shahaptian, the Salishan, and the Kitunahan. Of the last there is but one tribe, while of the large number of Salishan tribes fifteen are here treated. Included in the Shahaptian family are the numerous small units grouped under the common designation of Yakima, and the Klickitat, who were closely associated with the Yakima, but were a distinct tribe. With the Salishan and Shahaptian stocks the plan of treatment has been to give in each instance a broad survey of all the branches of each of those families coming within the scope of this volume, and sufficient specific mention of each lesser group to afford a general insight into the interrelationship and the activities of the various scattered bands. It is believed that by this method of treatment the reader will be able to gain a more comprehensive view of the Indians occupying the area covered than if a separate chapter were assigned to each. The Kutenai, the sole representatives of a linguistic stock, are accorded sufficient space to afford a general understanding of their culture. The area inhabited by the above mentioned tribes lies approximately between the eastern slopes of the Rocky mountains and the summit of the Cascades, and from south to north between the fortysixth and the forty-ninth parallels. The character of this region, broadly viewed, is rugged mountain and semi-arid plateau, forested in the main, and formerly rich in game. The meadows and dales in the mountain masses formed natural gardens, from which the inhabitants gathered the stores of roots that contributed so largely to their sustenance. The region is almost exclusively within the watershed of the Columbia; perhaps a happier designation of it would be the Columbia river basin between the parallels above {view image of page xii} Xii INTRODUCTION mentioned. This important river and its many tributaries course through the land in all directions, nearly as many of the branches flowing north as west or south. These countless streams furnished fish in unusual quantities; indeed, probably no other like area in the United States afforded so large a supply of this variety of food. The limits of the volume do not permit treatment of all the tribes within this vast domain, consequently in Volume VIII will be considered the Nez Perces, the most important branch of the Shahaptian stock, and the eastern extension of the Chinookan family, which formed a part of the aboriginal inhabitants of the Columbia basin. In gathering the material for this volume, numerous extended visits were made to the several localities and tribes. The closing work of collecting was performed during the year I909, when the entire force of the writer's party was engaged in the task of completing the research. Mr. W. E. Myers, who has been of such able assistance in the preparation of this and of other volumes, began his study of these tribes in I907. Dr. A. C. Haddon of Cambridge University accompanied the research party during the final work with the Kutenai. It is with profound sorrow that the author announces the death, in the autumn of I909, of Mr. A. B. Upshaw, his Crow interpreter and informant, whose assistance in collecting the material for Volumes III, IV, and V was of such inestimable value. Mr. A. F. Muhr rendered his usual valued aid in the photographic laboratory. EDWARD S. CURTIS. {view image of page 1} The Yakima {view image of page 2} I {view image of page 3} THE YAKIMA T the time of the earliest explorations in the Pacific Northwest the watershed of the Yakima river in south-central Washington, from its mouth to the vicinity of Kittitas creek, was held by small bands of Shahaptian stock. They were very loosely bound together, and in their speech were, and are, many dialectic differences. Yet they fell into several geographical divisions, within which there was a certain degree of cohesiveness, the component bands occupying their respective territories to the exclusion of others, but regarding themselves as closely related. These westerly extensions of the Shahaptian stock probably represented as many successive migratory movements from a former home on the Columbia river.' Below the Salishan tribes that occupied the headwaters of Yakima river were the bands known to them as the Yakima, extending as far as Union Gap, just east of the mouth of Atanum creek. If they had a collective term for themselves, it is not now known what it was. From Union Gap to the lower reaches of the river were the ThaipniNh, living principally on Toppenish creek; and about the mouth of Yakima river were 1 Dr. A. B. Lewis has attempted to show that this movement took place within the nineteenth century, basing his conclusion on the identification of the Chimnahpum of Lewis and Clark, whom these explorers found on the Columbia at the mouth of Yakima river, with the bands now called Yakima; and on the author's statement that the same explorers found Salishan tribes along the northern bank of the Columbia and its tributaries. (Memoirs, American Anthropological Association, Vol. I, Part 2, page I95.) But the Chimnahpum were not the so-called Yakima, for the Yakima bands at the present time name the Chamnapam as a former Columbia river village at the mouth of the Yakima, distinct from themselves. Furthermore, although Lewis and Clark reported Salishan bands on the right bank of the Columbia, they were only at a considerable distance above the highest point on the river reached by the explorers. "Cuts-sah-nim Nation reside on both sides of the Columbia Above the Sokulks & on the Northerly branches of the Tapteel river and also on the Wah-na-a-chee river." (Original Journals of Lewis and Clark, Thwaites ed., New York, I905, VI, II9.) The Sokulk were Shahaptians on the Columbia above Snake river; the Tapteel was the Yakima river; and the Cuts-sah-nim, whom Mooney and Farrand wrongly suppose to have been the Yakima bands, were the Salishan tribes which within very recent years still occupied the same country, that is, the banks of the Columbia from Priest rapids to, and beyond, Wenatchee river. (See page 66.) The only Salish actually seen by Lewis and Clark on the northern bank of the Columbia were eleven scattered lodges of the Methow, a few miles above the mouth of John Day river. {view image of page 4} 4 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN the Chamnapam. The application of the term Yakima was early extended to include all the bands of the Yakima valley, and it will be so used here. Each band of these divisions controlled the valley, or some particular portion of the valley, of one of the small lateral streams. This locality was regarded as their home, but was occupied, as a rule, only in winter; for during the remainder of the year they were semi-nomadic. In the early spring they repaired to the fisheries in the larger river, and fishing, hunting, and root-digging continued until midsummer, when they moved into the mountains to gather berries. As autumn approached they returned to the valleys for the late fishing, which continued until cold weather forced them into winter quarters. The construction of a winter house was begun by tying near their tops pairs of cottonwood poles, like shears, and erecting them in a row with their feet spread apart across the long axis of the house; then, while some of the workers held them in place, others bound a thatching of smaller willow poles transversely upon them. To a height of about three feet this thatch was covered with earth, then over the entire roof- sloping sides as well as perpendicular ends - excepting where the door was to be, were fastened two or three layers of rush matting. The pairs of rafter-poles were about twelve feet apart, and the feet of each pair fifteen feet, or more, apart, while the height of the house to the peak was twelve to fifteen feet. As many as ten pairs of poles were used. As a rule such a house accommodated as many families as it contained pairs of poles. The doorway was formed by two upright poles at one end of the house, and the opening was covered by a piece of matting. In gusty weather, when the long, mat-covered house was filled with smoke, the Yakima made use of another kind of structure, the frame of which consisted of a row of four crotched posts set equidistant in a row, at what was to be the front, and four similar ones at the back, in each case the two middle posts being about eight feet high and three feet apart, and the corner ones about six feet high. From front to back stout poles connected the forks of each pair of corresponding posts. The truncated roof was lashed with poles and thatched with brush, a portion of the horizontal surface being left uncovered as a smokevent, and the walls were formed by leaning poles from the ground to the eaves. For winter use also was the small underground room covered with a flat roof, an opening in which served as door, window, and chimney. Here the women sat during the day, sewing, and weaving their baskets; and in very cold weather it was occupied {view image of facing page 4} Mat lodge - Yakima [photogravure plate] {view image of page 5} THE YAKIMA 5 at night by old men destitute of blankets. The summer house was a conical framework of poles covered with a single layer of matting. The bed consisted of dry grass spread on the ground and covered with a woven rush mat, on which were spread blankets made of strips of jack-rabbit skin, plain-woven. Basketry was preeminent among the Yakima handicrafts. Their finest baskets were of coiled cedar roots stitched together with the outer shreds of the roots, and with imbricated ornamentation of bear-grass, which was left white, as in its natural state, or was dyed black by immersion in blue clay, or yellow by boiling in water with certain berries. Such baskets, flat on the bottom, flaring at the sides, and of a capacity of about two to four gallons, were used as water-vessels and for gathering berries. Larger baskets, as much as two feet in diameter, for gathering roots, were made of tule coils with stitching of shreds of willow-bark fibre. Strips of cedar bark, about a quarter of an inch wide, were used in making large, plainwoven storage baskets. Flat wallets, for the purpose of containing small personal effects, or in larger sizes, for packing on horses in much the same manner as saddle-bags, were woven out of fibre obtained from native hemp. Long, deep, cottonwood dishes were hollowed out by means of elk-horn chisels, and the bowls of cottonwood spoons were burned out. Knives and projectile points were of flint or of obsidian, but after the arrival of the Hudson's Bay Company, traders' files were beaten out into cutting edges for use as knives. The stone pestle, pecked into cylindrical shape, and the oak mortar, hollowed out by means of elk-horn chisel and stone hammer, aided by burning, were employed in reducing roots to flour, or berries to pulp. Oak was the material for bows, which were not much more than two feet in length and without a backing of sinew. The war-club was a round stone wrapped in rawhide and provided with a wooden handle. Spears were employed only in fishing. Salmon, and bread made of roots, were the principal foods. The fish were split, dried thoroughly, and wrapped, ten or twenty, according to size, in a piece of tule matting, and placed either in the house or in a dry place in the rocks. They were prepared for eating by roasting or by boiling with roots. The Yakima enjoyed an unusual variety of vegetable foods. No fewer than twenty-three kinds of roots and eighteen of berries, to say nothing of stalks and nuts, were in common use as food. Among the roots, camas and carrots were the most used. A number of tuberous roots were made into {view image of page 6} 6 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN bread by drying, pulverizing, moistening, and pressing into cakes about six inches wide, twelve to eighteen inches long, and an inch thick. These cakes, when dry, were strung on a thong to facilitate transportation. They were eaten dry, or boiled alone into a thin mush, or with salmon. Of fruits the huckleberry was the most important. Quantities were gathered on the slopes of the Cascades, particularly at Mount Adams and Mount Rainier. These two mountains, which they called respectively fHwclAlwaipami-tao6ma (Klickitat Snow-peak) and PAhwanoapami-tahoima (PShwanoapam Snow-peak), were the objective point of numberless little parties during midsummer. The berries were picked, dried, packed in bags, and brought back to the valley homes for winter consumption. Of the larger animals, deer, mountain-goats, elk, and bears filled the most important place. Taboo played no very prominent part, and was observed only in obedience to the command of one's guardian spirit. Thus no person ever ate of the flesh or substance of the animal or plant whose spirit he had seen in a vision; nor was there any way of avoiding or nullifying this prohibition. To eat of such food would cause vomiting. There are known several instances of men and women who, having had communion with the salmonspirit, never thereafter ate of that particular species of salmon. In many phases of their life the Yakima show that they have been strongly influenced by the culture of the plains area. This is nowhere more plainly to be seen than in their clothing, which in 1 The word taihma is of Salishan origin. In the Thompson River dialect skom is a mountain; in Wenatchee tkomma is a snow-peak; in Snohomish Tuko6mba is the name of Mount Baker; in Nisqualli Tko'bd, in Upper Chehalis Tkomen, and in Cowlitz Nufielhp are names for Mount Rainier. Mr. James Teit was informed by an Indian that Tkobed means "waterer," the reference being to the fact that several rivers have their sources on the slopes of this mountain. Mr. Teit, who is conversant with the Thompson River dialect and has made comparative studies of the dialects of the inland Salish both in the United States and in British Columbia, cites the following words of the Thompson River tongue in support of this translation: ko, water; okom, to water; tukumus, whence it waters; -bhd (-m7n), a common suffix denoting means, instrument, or place, as in nyfkiimYn, garden (yukzim, to plant); kummln (a hypothetical word), place, or instrument, for watering; ta, a definitive signifying "there" (or possibly tu, from); tkaimYn, a urinal. The same authority suggests three other possible etymologies for the element kom: I. KtM, a root signifying "end ": kumkunitko, source (end) of a stream; kamken, treetop (literally "end-head"); kaumfp, base of tree. 2. KOM, a root indicating a rounded protuberance: skom, mountain; komin'k, pregnant (literally "rounded belly"); koma, tumor; k6mkyn, human head. 3. KUM, a root meaning "up": "ktukuma, up country, upstream, north; kRmmih, move up, shift one's body higher; "kuma, move up country; Skokomifh (Twana dialect), Upstream People. Whatever the correct etymology, it is clear that the word tkomma, in one form and another, was used by several Salish tribes as the specific name of Mount Rainier (Mount Tacoma), but by others was applied specifically to other peaks, and by some as a common noun to any snow-peak. {view image of facing page 6} Drying piage - Yakima [photogravure plate] {view image of page 7} THE YAKIMA 7 every respect is in the style typical of the plains. An informant born about 1820 affirmed that he had heard the old people say that formerly men wore, in the summer, only breech-cloth and moccasins; and the footwear was of a single piece of skin, gathered at the ankle and sewed from toe to instep, with a tongue inserted. At the present time the moccasin is made with a seam along one side from toe to heel, the tongue being formed by two parallel slashes in the same piece. Lewis and Clark record that the Shahaptians on the Columbia at the mouth of Snake river, close kindred of the Yakima, differed but little from the Nez Perces in their dress, "except the women who dress verry different, in as much as those above ware long leather shirts which highly ornimented with beeds shells &c. &c. and those on the main Columbia river only ware a truss or pece of leather tied around them at the hips and drawn tite between their legs and fastened before." It is evident that at the beginning of the nineteenth century these tribes were culturally in a state of transition, the men having adopted the higher type of dress of the plains tribes, although the women still clung to the primitive fashion. Formerly the hair of the men was cut square in front, and left hanging loosely at the sides and the back. The custom of wrapping the braided hair with strips of fur began within the memory of men now living, probably not earlier than the middle of the century. From the ears dangled elk-teeth, or dentalium shells obtained in trade, strung on deerskin thongs, and medicine-men sometimes wore necklaces of grizzly-bear claws. It is said that no nose ornaments were used, nor was tattooing practised. In ancient times the face was not painted in preparation for war. Red paint made by burning a certain clay, or by roasting a woody fungus growing on fir trees, was mixed with tallow and applied to the face to prevent sunburn and chapping. Symbolical painting of the body by medicine-men was rare. In the early part of the last century marriage was accomplished in a manner common to many tribes of the plateau region between the Rocky mountains and the Cascades. The chief would announce a dance, which was understood to be for unmarried people only, though married persons came as spectators. A young woman coming out from the crowd and dancing thus signified willingness to be married; and any young man matrimonially inclined could follow, lay his hand on her shoulder, and, facing her, begin to dance. If she threw his hand off, he was rejected; if not, he was accepted, 1 Original Journals of Lewis and Clark, Thwaites ed., III, 125. {view image of page 8} 8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN and everybody recognized them as man and wife. They lived together without further formality. Later was adopted the custom by which the father of the young man was required to go to the family of the girl with the promise of a certain number of horses, usually about six. This was learned, they say, from the Wishham, who traded slaves for wives. The love-song following resembles in style the love-songs of other Shahaptian as well as alien tribes of the northern region west of the Rocky mountains. M. M. J.= 132 K 2I P-r 8c ir vr~ ita w - c.. Li (- - cWe^f ^ ==lq, C _ r,a: W. -f. 'l... m m14l, —ql F~i~F~f=;F~Rt~-~-~;7 L~ 3,.I " I_~~ v.!/..? - - - i!~ ~-1"~7~~. m _i t~ a Separation was a simple matter, and even if a husband opposed his wife's desire to leave him, she nevertheless could not be compelled to remain; and there was no restoration of the price paid {view image of facing page 8} The root digger - Yakima [photogravure plate] {view image of page 9} THE YAKIMA 9 for her. A recreant wife was not punished, but the guilty man might be killed by the husband with impunity. Most men had two wives at once, and men of importance had more. These sometimes lived in one house, sometimes in separate domiciles; but there was considerable quarrelling when they dwelt together. In a great many cases, at least, one wife was from some neighboring tribe or band, for there was much intermarriage with the kindred bands of Shahaptians, as well as with the more easterly Chinookans, and the Salishan bands above Priest rapids. There were no clans or gentes among the Yakima, and the only bar to marriage was known relationship. Restrictions upon communication with one's mother-in-law or father-in-law, and upon reasonable intimacy between brother and sister did not exist. Infants were called by temporary names given without formality. At the age of four or five years names were formally bestowed, when the people were invited to the house to a feast. There a man, chosen by the parents, made a speech conferring upon the child the name of some deceased ancestor or relative, and besought the beneficence of the spirits toward the infant. At about the age of two the ears were pierced by an old woman, whose special function, granted her in a vision, was to perform this act. This was done at a feast given in honor of the occasion, and the service was rewarded by the gift of a blanket, or an article of equal value. Chieftainship was largely hereditary. The son of a chief, especially the eldest son, was much more likely to become a chief than a common man, and, indeed, unless he displayed a distinct lack of ability, he was bound to succeed to his father's place. But there was nothing except incapacity that prevented any man from attaining the position of chief. When the Yakima were river people, canoe-burial was the method of disposing of the dead. A person of the same sex as the deceased was summoned to wash and clothe the body, which was done without reward. Then two persons, hired to prepare the burial place, took with them two canoes, one of which they placed in a rocky shelter, and the other broke into pieces. The body, securely wrapped in deerskin, was taken to this place, laid in the one canoe, and covered with the pieces of the other. Women in mourning cut the hair to about half-length, and entered the sweat-lodge on five successive days to cleanse themselves; while male relatives refrained for six or eight days from eating fresh salmon or fresh meat. The property of a deceased person was divided among the relatives, {view image of page 10} IO THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN each taking whatever article he desired, the remainder passing to the widow, or widower, and the children. The surviving widow returned to her people, pending another marriage. The religious practices of the Yakima bands were not numerous, nor highly developed. They were animists, and their efforts were directed toward the acquisition and use of the supernatural power of the spirits of animals or other living creatures, of springs, streams, rocks, and of the celestial bodies. To this end a young boy was sent at rather frequent intervals into the solitudes, at night, in the hope that on his way some spirit might speak to him. Usually there was imposed upon him by his father or his uncle some duty, devised for the occasion, whose fulfilment would prove that he had visited the place appointed. A favorite artifice was to leave a fishing spear at the river, in a place remote from the camp, or an arrow or a pipe somewhere among the hills a mile or two distant. After dusk it would be discovered that the object was missing, and the child would be despatched to fetch it. If the excited imagination of the boy pictured any strange creature in the darkness, he did not, on his return, reveal the fact that a spirit had appeared to him; and since the father had no means of knowing, the boy was sent out again and again, until he had reached the age of puberty. Thus several spirits might be seen by one individual, and each gave its songs and instructions, and became a separate guardian spirit; but far more commonly the creature of the first vision reappeared, giving new songs. Many failed altogether to obtain the pity of the spirits. Girls who reached the age of puberty in summer were usually sent into the mountains, there to remain five days and five nights, fasting and looking for the help of supernatural beings. If the event occurred in winter, the girl was clad in a ragged dress and was secluded for ten days and ten nights in the underground house of the women, the first three days being a period of absolute fast. Some of the supernatural creatures conferred power to heal, or rather to expel, sickness; others power to fight, or to hunt, or to acquire property, or to become chief. The guardian spirit is called tah, and so is the supernatural power which it bestows; and one who has a guardian spirit is tactitnih, which is equivalent to saying that he possesses tal. The fact that a person was taifnAh was revealed in later life, either at the midwinter medicine-chant or on some occasion of great need, when he would sing the songs given by the tai, and perhaps recite the story of his vision. An informant of about ninety years received a vision at the age of ten, but did not reveal the fact until he was well {view image of facing page 10} Sons of a Yakima chief [photogravure plate] {view image of page 11} THE YAKIMA II past fifty, when, having been severely kicked by a horse, he sang his sacred songs and told what he had seen as a boy. Pressed to relate what he then experienced, he began to tremble violently, and changed the subject. Certain diseases were recognized as disorders due to physical causes, and were treated with herb preparations administered by any person skilled in such knowledge. Medicine-men, that is, those who had supernatural power to dispel sickness, were called tuwatti. They used no natural remedies, and were summoned only when the illness was one ascribed to supernatural agencies. In such cases it was usually supposed that the difficulty was caused by some medicine-man, who had put tah into the body of the sick person. Hence a medicine-man was summoned to remove it, which he endeavored to do by singing, sucking at the skin over the supposed seat of the evil, or by pretending to scoop it out with the hollowed hands. The song that follows is typical of the kind employed by Yakima shamans. M. M. J. 84 f t#8 -I -t-g' _ _ _ mf A@, C _ rsl '"~' —~" ---'-IF dw ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -~ or no MO w'no ti',,k.ra.~;-.... I {view image of page 12} I2 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Either the patient or the man called to exorcise the evil might reveal the name of the tuwdtti who had placed his tah in the sick man's body. This, of course, gave opportunity for a great deal of trickery on the part of the consulted shaman against his rivals. In the old times supposed incantation was punishable with death by assassination, after the sufferers had obtained the permission of the chief to have the conjurer killed. As late as I890 Wailakgh was shot as he came out of the sweat-lodge for having "medicined" the son of Wainaku. A certain intelligent, middle-aged interpreter will not permit Owhi,' a son of the former Salish chief of that name, to stop at his house because he believes firmly that the old man caused the serious illness of one of his children; and the medicineman, knowing that he is regarded with suspicion, and probably flattered into believing that he has such power, makes no attempt to counteract the feeling against him. The same interpreter never attends the medicine-chants, which are still observed occasionally (one occurred in the winter of I908-I909), for the reason that there is too much tah in evidence on such occasions, and some of it might lodge in the bodies of his children, or perhaps in his own body. The Yakima had no great tribal ceremony, such as we see in the Sun Dance of the plains tribes. In fact the only indigenous ceremony, so far as can now be determined, was the medicine-chant. This was called Wanpt, which means simply a chant. It was held only in midwinter, and on the invitation of any medicine-man who first sent out a messenger with the announcement that on a certain night he would sing. All were invited, whether shamans or not. It was an occasion much enjoyed by the tadhinfh, because it afforded an opportunity to sing their tah songs; failure to do which, when the chance was presented, would result in a wasting illness due to the confinement of tah. All the tadhinh, both men and women, sat side by side in the lodge, with the spectators grouped behind and around them. The master of ceremonies stepped into the centre and sang one or two of his songs, the others assisting; then he began to dance, and the others arose and danced, but without moving from their places. Thus with only an occasional pause for breath he made use of all his songs, and sat down. Then another took his place in the centre and sang his songs, and so it continued until daylight. One person might consume as much as an hour or two hours before he felt fully relieved of the supernatural power 1 Pronounced Ohiai, but spelled Owhi because of the physical impossibility of setting the character 0 in the text. {view image of facing page 12} A young Yakima [photogravure plate] {view image of page 13} TH E YAKIMA I3 within, straining for liberation. The ceremony lasted, at the option of the master, from one night to five nights, and at the end of the last night he distributed presents among those who had sung. The following are examples of the songs used on such occasions: YELL.................. M. M. 1=I38....f I -!-' II- - M. M. 1_2 r38 _f _ __ __m v r L-~_~~~~~~,,<~,s~ il~!vibrato L —~ - I? - "' —~,-~-:~: {view image of page 14} 14 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN 17. V FiL — I ~ La mf ~ - fd vibrato.... t,,.,i^^ The most striking psychologic characteristics of the Yakima are obstinacy, arrogance, and a certain moroseness sharply contrasting with the good humor of many native tribes. Pride of birth is still noticeable, and formerly a chief's son usually married the daughter of another chief, if not of a kindred band, then of some neighboring friendly tribe. Mentally the Yakima are sluggish, and physically of good, though not of great, height, strong of body and heavy-set, evincing a tendency to corpulency, with round, full, heavy-featured faces. Within the memory of the oldest men, the Yakima have been at peace with all tribes, and, indeed, the only tradition of warfare is a doubtful one telling of ancient hostilities with their kindred, the Nez Perces, for the purpose of obtaining slaves. The bands of the lower and the middle reaches of the Yakima river were long the westernmost of those owning horses, and to them came parties from Puget sound with shells and deerskins, and from the Salish bands of the Wenatchee with blankets woven from the hair of the mountain-goat. Two such blankets and a stone pipe were exchanged for a horse, for these animals were not yet numerous. From the people of the upper Columbia river they obtained dried fish and deerskins, and occasionally slaves, the exchange value of a slave being five horses. The Yakima bands first attracted attention in I855. In the spring of that year agents of the Government went among the tribes of the upper Columbia, inviting them to a council in the Walla Walla valley. Accordingly in May two commissioners, Isaac I. * Mnainak, a very influential man among the Yakima, is the son of the former chief of the once populous Shahaptian village Skin, situated on the north bank of the Columbia at Celilo falls. Under the name Me-ni-nock the father signed the Yakima treaty of 1855. The portrait shows an extremely characteristic Shahaptian face-huge, broad, heavy. {view image of facing page 14} Mnainak - A Yakima chief [photogravure plate] {view image of page 15} THE YAKIMA i5 Stevens, first governor of Washington Territory, and General Joel Palmer, Superintendent of Indian Affairs for Oregon, were met in council by about five thousand Indians, representatives of the Yakima, Klickitat, Palus, the Salishan bands of the Columbia river below Lake Chelan and of the headwaters of Yakima river, and the Shahaptian and Chinookan villagers of the Columbia from the mouth of the Yakima to Wind river, a hundred and fifty miles below; as well as of the Nez Perces, and the Wallawalla, Umatilla, and Cayuse, who, however, were negotiated with under separate treaties. Of the first group the most influential men were Kamaiakin and Owhi. The former was a Palus, who, with his two brothers, Sh66wai, or Ais, and Shklu, had come to live among the Yakima. He married a woman of the Atanuim band; Shoowai took a ThapniLh woman, and Shklu had several wives from different bands. The three brothers became very wealthy in horses and cattle, and, as a survivor of that period expresses the situation, "after a while it seemed as though they owned this country, and the people here were their servants." Owhi was chief of the Kftitagh, whom the Yakima called Pghwanoapam, and the most important man among the group of Salish at the head of Yakima river. His elder brother, Tiaiagh, was also influential. Of them all Kamaiakin had the greatest following, and for the purposes of the treaty Governor Stevens recognized him as the head-chief of the miscellaneous aggregation of polyglot bands which he called the "Yakima nation." These bands collectively occupied and claimed - and the treaty recognized the claim as valid - about one-fourth of the area of the state of Washington, a tract of land bounded on the west by the summit of the Cascades, on the south by the Columbia and the Snake, on the east and north by, approximately, the one hundred and eighteenth meridian from Snake river to the forty-seventh parallel, thence to the one hundred and nineteenth meridian, thence to the forty-eighth parallel, thence west to the Columbia, and along the northeastern boundary of Chelan county to the Cascade mountains. Included were the whole of the counties of Chelan, Kittitas, Yakima, Klickitat, Benton, and Franklin, nearly all of Douglas, half of Adams, and a portion of Skamania - in all about eighteen thousand square miles. Of this they were asked to relinquish all except a tract of less than a thousand square miles on Yakima river, upon which they were to concentrate themselves, abandoning the homes of their fathers. In return they were to receive two hundred thousand dollars to be expended for their benefit over a period of twenty years, and in {view image of page 16} THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN addition an agency and two schools were to be maintained by the Government for the same length of time. Two hundred thousand dollars meant about thirty dollars for each person concerned, and about two cents for each acre relinquished: this, with the privilege of being managed by an agent and having their children taught something they did not wish them to know, was the sole recompense offered. Naturally the proposal did not appeal to them, and opposition developed at the outset. The Wallawalla, Cayuse, and Umatilla were most outspoken in denouncing the treaty in council. Owhi was opposed, and voiced his hostility in discussion, but Kamaiakin pondered, sulked, and refused to speak. After nearly two weeks of talking, the assent of the Wallawalla, Cayuse, and Umatilla was won by abandoning the plan to place them on the Nez Perce reservation and creating a separate one for them at the head of Umatilla river in Oregon, and at the same time Kamaiakin and the other Yakima chiefs yielded and affixed their marks. The trouble with these treaties, as well as with others negotiated by Governor Stevens, was that they arbitrarily imposed upon the Indians the demand that they should give up their homes, to which they were attached not only by the associated memories of generations past, but by a deep-seated religious conception that their native soil was their sacred mother; and that they should concentrate themselves, irrespective of their wishes, within an area too small for their subsistence, except by agriculture. And tearing up the soil was abhorrent to them, not only because it was a direct reversal of their habits, but because it was contrary to their earth-mother religion. But the primitive mind under the persistent pressure of a strong personality is as clay in the potter's hands. Stevens was a man of great force, of intense energy, of inexhaustible persistence, and withal of a remarkable degree of headstrong adherence to a course once decided upon. Day after day he called the chiefs together, repeated in detail the terms of the proposed treaties, and asked them to "show their hearts." He gave them no rest, and at length, wearying of their futile attempts to make the uncomprehending white man see why they felt it impossible to sell their land, they signed, some in good faith, but most in a spirit of sudden, reckless desire to have the business over, at any cost, and get rid of this persistent, annoying commissioner. There was, say the Indians, no premeditated plan as to what the future course should be. It was only felt that for the present the easiest way was to acquiesce. They were convinced * Lijhhaiahit is a son of Owhi and a brother of Qihlchin. {view image of facing page 16} Lishhaiahit - Kittitas [photogravure plate] {view image of page 17} THE YAKIMA I7 that the commissioners were not "speaking straight," that they were bent on obtaining possession of the country by some subterfuge. They felt certain that the Government would not keep its promises, that there was not even any intention of redeeming them. Had not Pi6pio-maksmaks of the Wallawalla seen the way treaties were kept in California? Had not the Klickitat observed the unenviable condition of the tribes in the Willamette valley, which, having given up their lands, had waited years for a sign that the Government intended to fulfil its promises? Had not the Klickitat themselves been summarily expelled from territory won in that valley by the might of their warriors? It seemed evident to many of the Indians that these white men intended to have their land, and to have it without recompense to its owners. And so, it may be imagined, while they signed there were, in the minds of some, thoughts of the proven faithlessness of the white men, and the determination to meet it with equal deceit. Their state of mind, as well as the subsequent change that came when they began to think of what they had agreed to sacrifice, is vividly portrayed by statements of the Indians. Luqaiot, a son of Owhi, and at the time of the treaty-making a young man of about twenty years, gives the following running account of the council from the Indians' point of view: "We heard that a great white man from Washington had come to the Cayuse country and was waiting for us. We were told there were many soldiers with him. The chiefs sent their young men about notifying the people and ordering them to come together and go to see this great man from Washington. The people from Lapwai, the people from the Yakima country, and the people from Nespilim all assembled. There were many thousands at the council, and others kept coming in for many days. Then Captain Stevens sent six wagon-loads of provisions to us, and announced that we would have a council the next day. When the time came, we all went to the council-place in a cottonwood grove. There I saw Captain Stevens sitting under a shade. He was not large. I remember what he said. The first word he said was: 'I was sent from Washington to talk to you people, and I am very glad to see that you have all come.' There were so many people that I was not very close. He picked up a small book, opened it, and said: 'Now, I am going to speak to you people. God is looking at me now, and I am going to speak to you. I am sent from Washington to talk to you, and this is what the Government told me to say to you.' Then he made a bow and said: 'God knows me. Right now I am going to have a council with these people. You people VOL. VII 2 {view image of page 18} i8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN must select a certain place for a reservation and you must be farmers. That is what I came to tell you. You must choose places in which to live, put fences around them, plow, and reap crops.' This is just what he said. Pi6pio-maksmaks, of the Wallawalla, then spoke,1 saying that they would have to go back to their camps and think what it meant. Captain Stevens said, 'Good!' The chiefs then went back, and we young men went about among the soldiers, having a good time. The Captain made the soldiers march about to show us what they could do, and after that they had us give a war-dance while they watched. So we were very good friends. "Kamaiakin called the other chiefs of the Yakima bands into his lodge late that night, and said, 'We must decide what we are going to do to-morrow.' I did not go with the young men who crowded around the council-lodge that night; I was having a good time. Late at night, however, I got back, and when I came in I heard my father say: 'I do not know why he wants us to build fences around a little piece of land, when we have a great country, and go as far as the land of the Blackfeet and the Crows. It will do no good.' No agreement was reached that night. At the next meeting a Nez Perce chief, Kalpsilnfile, arose, and Captain Stevens came and stood close to him. He had five soldiers guarding him with guns all the time. The chief walked out from the Indians, and toward the Captain. He also had five men with him, and they carried their guns. Captain Stevens said: 'Go ahead and talk. I am taking pity on you Indians, that is why I came and tell you to do this.' The chief said: 'This is what we do not understand. You said we must take little farms and stay on them until we die. We do not understand what you mean by that. Some of us think that may be good, but we do not understand it. We do not know much; we do not know what to do or what to say. Maybe we will take little farms, and have gardens, and raise some potatoes. That 1 The explanation of the treaties had consumed nearly four days, since it was necessary to interpret into several languages. The speech of Pi6pio-maksmaks occurred at the close of the fourth day's session, and, according to the report of the commission, was in part as follows: "It appears that Craig [agent for the Nez Perces, many of whom were friendly] knows the heart of his people; that the whole has been prearranged in the hearts of the Indians [the friendly Nez Perces]; that he wants an answer immediately, without giving them time to think... I know the value of your speech from having experienced the same in California [he had been to California at the head of a war-party of two hundred to avenge the death of a son by the hand of certain emigrants], having seen treaties there. We have not seen in a true light the object of your speeches, as if there was a post set between us, as if my heart wept for what you have said..... If you would speak straight, then I would think that you spoke well..... From what you have said, I think that you intend to win our country, or how is it to be? In one day the Americans become as numerous as the grass..... I know it is not right; you have spoken in a roundabout way. Speak straight. I have ears to hear you, and here is my heart. Suppose you show me goods, shall I run up and take them?... Goods and the earth are not equal. Goods are for using on the earth. I do not know where they have given lands for goods. We require time to think quietly, slowly. You have spoken in a manner partly tending to evil. Speak plain to us..... I do not wish a reply to-day. Think over what I have said."-Stevens, Life of Isaac I. Stevens, Boston, 1900, II, 45-46. {view image of facing page 18} A holiday lodge - Yakima [photogravure plate] {view image of page 19} THE YAKIMA I9 is all I can understand about taking farms, just to raise potatoes. That is all I have to say.' Then the Captain called another chief, and the others told Piopio-maksmaks to speak next. He said he had nothing to say, and they told Five Crows, the Cayuse, to speak. He said: 'I will take your words. I know what you want. You want the whole country, and that is why you tell us to take little farms. Perhaps we will do that, and let you have all this country.' Then Owhi spoke: 'What you say is good, but I do not see how we are going to farm. How are we going to plow? We have nothing to plow with, and I do not see how we are going to do it. You must go back and get us things to work with. If you do that, perhaps we can farm.' Captain Stevens said, 'I will do that.' And Owhi replied: 'Good! That is all I have to say.' Then Kamaiakin got up. 'I have heard what you chiefs have said, and I am pleased,' he said [sarcastically]. 'Captain Stevens, this is what I understand you to mean: if we agree to your words, you are going to bring white people. That is why I will not agree with the words of these chiefs. That is what I want to find out, if you are going to do that. That is all I have to say.' Piopio-maksmaks had not yet spoken, but now the others urged him, and he said: 'Captain Stevens, I do not see anything with which you are going to pay me for this land. Why should I take a little farm? I will never do it, and let this land go, unless you pay for it. That is all I have to say. I will never let my country go!' Qiltninak, from the Winatgha country, said, 'I agree to your words; I would be glad to take farms.' Captain Stevens was very glad to hear that. I was away back among the young men, big strong men, and I heard them saying: 'Let us kill the soldiers! What is the use of taking farms?' There were the chiefs talking, and here were the young men ready to fight, just on account of land. Many of the Indians were angry and wanted to kill the soldiers.' "After the council had broken up for that day, a Cayuse chief, named Taahatutish, who had been educated in a school, came in from a long hunt and joined the camp for the first time. He called all the head-chiefs together, and said: 'I have heard that some of you are agreeing to the words of this man. I do not see why you should do so. If you do this, there will be thousands and thousands of white men here.' As he talked, he took up a handful of sand, and said: 'You will never count this, but the white people will be like this. You know I can read and know what the white people know. If you agree to the Captain's words, the white people will come like great waves of water, and sweep us out of our country. To tell you this I have come here and called you together.' They all believed him, and this made the young men all the more eager to fight, but the chiefs held them back. As a matter of fact, the Cayuse had actually formed a plot to overpower and kill the commissioners and their small escort, but they were foiled by the friendly Upper Nez Perces, led principally by Lawyer. {view image of page 20} 20 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN "We camped there two weeks, and nearly every day there were speeches. The people grew very angry because they did not want to give up their country, but Captain Stevens always made the same kind of speech, that he was taking pity on us by coming and trying to do good for us. Some of the chiefs said: 'Now we understand you! But we do not see how the white people own this land. We were reared here, and live here, and how are you going to take it?' All made the same kind of speech." Garry, an educated chief of the Spokan, some months later said to Governor Stevens: "When you first commenced to speak you said the Walla Wallas, Cuyuses, and Umatillas were to move on to the Nez Perce reservation, and the Spokanes were to move there also. Then I thought you spoke bad. Then I thought, when you said that, that you would strike the Indians to the heart.... If you had asked the chiefs to mark out a piece of land - a pretty large piece - to give you, it would not have struck the Indians so to the heart." On the same occasion another chief of that tribe spoke thus: "Why is the country in difficulty again? That comes on account of the smallpox brought into the country, and is all the time on the Indians' heart. They would keep thinking the whites brought sickness into the country to kill them. That is what has hurt the hearts of the Yakimas. That is what we think has brought about this difficulty between the Indians and the whites. I think, Governor, you have talked a little too hard. It is as if you had thrown away all the Indians. I heard you said at the Walla Walla council that we were children,1 and that our women and children and cattle should be for you, and then we thought we would never raise camp and move where you wished us to. We had in our hearts that if you tried to move us off we would die on our land." Big Star, another Spokan, took up the same strain: "The reason that I am talking now is that all the Indians did not like what you said at the Walla Walla council. They put all the blame on you for the trouble since. The Indians say you are the cause of the war. My heart is very small towards you." Another began: "When I heard, Governor, what you had said at the Walla Walla ground, I thought you had done well. But one thing you said was not right. You alone arranged the Indians' land. The Indians did not speak. Then you struck the Indians ' Stevens was fond of addressing the Indians in council as "my children." They did not relish the implied authority, and more than once pointedly took him to task on that score. Thus at the time above referred to a Coeur d'Alene chief reminded him: "We have not yet made friends. All the Indians are not yet your children." {view image of facing page 20} An old man of Waiyam [photogravure plate] {view image of page 21} THE YAKIMA 2I to the heart. You thought they were only Indians. That is why you did it..... That is the reason, Governor; it is all your fault the Indians are at war. It is your fault because you have said that the Cuyuses and Walla Wallas will be moved to the Yakima land. They who owned the land did not speak, and yet you divided the land." Then Garry continued: "The Indians are not satisfied with the land you gave them... now they find their reservations too small. If all those Indians had marked out their own reservations, the trouble would not have happened. If you could get their reservations made a little larger, they would be pleased. If I had the business to do, I could fix it by giving them a little more land."' These speeches accurately reflect the feeling of the Yakima and others after the signing of the treaty. No sooner had the various bands returned to their homes than trouble began, and in this wise. As quickly as possible after the signing of the treaties Stevens and Palmer caused to be published at Steilacoom, Washington, in the Puget Sound Courier of July 12, 1855, official notice that the lands for which they had negotiated were open to settlement. As usual, the treaties were regarded as binding the Indians from the moment they signed them, although ratification was delayed four years. Gold had just been discovered in the Colville district in northeastern Washington, and miners began to flock in, particularly from the coast, crossing the Cascades by Snoqualmie pass and Nachess pass, or travelling up the Columbia to The Dalles, and thence across the hills between the Columbia and the Yakima. In either case they went perforce through the heart of the Yakima country. The first acts of hostility were the killing of a miner named Mattice, and of two others, Eaton and Fanjoy. Both events occurred about the same time. A son of Owhi thus describes the circumstances leading up to the outbreak: "At the end of the council with Captain Stevens, Owhi went to him and shook his hand, saying, 'I will do as you say, and I am going home now.' He told his people to drive in their horses and make the start at once, though it was afternoon. The other Indians were angry with him and accused him of being a coward; but he told them he knew he would die some day, and he was not afraid of anything. Some said he was right. So we all came back to our home at Kititagh. My brother Qahlchuin was away hunting, but a few days after our return he came in. Qahlchun was a very strong Stevens, op. cit., II, I37-I40. {view image of page 22} 22 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN man, a good fighter. He had the power of the sta'ha, the invisible persons living in the mountains, who because of their invisibility can steal without detection. They are heard whistling or speaking when no one can be seen. Because of this power he was able to steal many horses, especially from the soldiers. "Kamaiakin sent word asking Qahlchuin to come to his camp at Mulmul [a spring close to the present Fort Simcoe]. So my brother went, and with him four other young men. My father told him to go if he wished. There Kamaiakin said to him: 'Perhaps you are tired from your ride. To-morrow I will tell you why I sent for you.' In the morning, after they had eaten, Kamalakin opened a box and took out a pair of pistols, which he gave to Qahlchun, saying, 'Take these two guns and kill white men with them.' My brother said, 'Maybe I cannot do it.' For he did not want to do it. 'My father would not wish me to do such a thing,' he went on, 'and I cannot. If my father had told me to do it, I would. You have sons; why do you not get some of them to kill white people?' 'I have picked you out because you are a good man, and a fighter,' said Kamaiakin. 'Now I give you these guns; go back, and if you meet a white man, kill him!' Qahlchiun said no more, but took the guns. Then he handed them back to Kamaiakin, telling him to keep them himself. 'No, I give you these two guns,' insisted the chief. 'Keep them!' At length Qahlchun took them. "The next morning they started homeward. On the way they met two white men, who, when they saw the Indians coming, got off their horses and stood beside them. Qahlchun and his men rode up, shot one as he stood there and the other as he ran. Both were killed. They had two saddle-horses and one pack-horse. "That day my father had been to Winatgha, and when he returned my brother was already home. I noticed that my father was sad. He did not speak to me. I did not know my brother had killed two white men. It was not until late at night that my father talked to Qahlchuin, and I heard him say: 'Why did you take Kamaiakin's words? In a few months we will all be killed.' "After this Kamaiakin spent all his time exciting the young men to kill the white people, and a few weeks later I heard that he was saying we would have a war with the soldiers. When my father, Owhi, heard that, he went to have a talk with Kamaiakin. He said: 'I love my son much. You gave him a pistol to kill white men, which he did, and I am feeling sad about it. My son has killed two white men already. It is just as if he had taken a gun and killed himself. That is where you break my heart. I know why you are angry with me, because I took the Captain's word; and that is why you got my son to kill the white men.'" Other attacks on unsuspecting prospectors followed, and as soon as the news reached The Dalles, A. J. Bolon, agent for the Yakima, {view image of facing page 22} Camp of the root diggers - Yakima [photogravure plate] {view image of page 23} THE YAKIMA 23 set out alone to obtain an interview with Kamaiakin and to win him over. The latter kept out of his way, and after a talk with Kamaiakin's brother Shklu, in which, the Indians say, he indiscreetly threatened to have soldiers sent into the valley, Bolon started back. What followed is thus described by one of the survivors of that period: "Michelle, son of Kamaiakin's brother Sh66wai, said, 'This is one of those law-making men who hanged my uncles.' He was referring to the hanging of the Cayuse chiefs concerned in the killing of Doctor Whitman at Waiilatpu, two of whom, Tilokaikt and Tamahus, were relations of Michelle. He persuaded Sukaiikt, Wapaiwapaihla, Shtahiun, and perhaps one other, to help him, and they followed the agent. They overtook him as he travelled up the high divide on his way to The Dalles. There was snow on the ground, and Michelle said, 'We are very cold now; let us build a fire.' But the agent did not agree. Perhaps he was a little afraid to get off his horse. Michelle rode ahead of him and started a fire. When the others came up, they all got off their horses, and the agent warmed himself. Michelle said to the others: 'Let us hurry and kill him. This is going to be the end of his life.' Sfikaiikt was a hard [strong] man. He said, 'I will take hold of him.' As the agent stood warming himself, Sukaiikt came behind him, grasped his legs, lifted him into the air, and threw him down. The others leaped upon him and killed him. This was planned by Michelle; his father knew nothing about it, nor did Kamaiakin. They went to The Dalles, but nobody knew of their deed." Bolon's murder occurred on September twenty-third, and it was followed by what has been dignified with the name of the Yakima war. The news was received at The Dalles at about the same time the killing of the miners became known at the territorial capital, and almost simultaneously forty men under Lieutenant W. A. Slaughter were sent from Fort Steilacoom to cross the mountains through Nachess pass, and Captain G. O. Haller, with a hundred and seven men and a howitzer, left the valley. Three days later, on October third, as Haller's command was descending the divide at the head of Toppenish creek, close to the present Fort Simcoe, a large body of Indians confronted it, and the troops after a charge took up a position on a ridge, and held it until night, when they advanced to a higher one. This they held during the following day, but as the position was without water, a retreat was begun in the night. The Indians hung on their flanks a large part of the next day, and inflicted a total loss of five killed and seventeen wounded. The howitzer was abandoned. Slaughter's detachment retreated when the {view image of page 24} 24 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN news of Haller's defeat was received, soon after crossing the summit. The Indian account of the engagement is similar. "Two priests got a writing from The Dalles. They looked at it, and told us it said that the Indians were going to have a war. The letter told them they must go away from that country at once, and they said they would have to leave us in a week. 'You are going to have a fight with the soldiers,' they said. 'If you are good fighters you can beat the soldiers, and if not, you are going to get beaten.' They said the soldiers were coming as far as The Dalles in steamboats, thousands of them. The next week the priests went away. Scouts were sent to the hills above Goldendale overlooking the Columbia at The Dalles, and about a week later they brought the report that soldiers were coming over the hills. All who wished to fight assembled near Simkoe. Kamaiakin and Owhi were the chiefs, and two of the principal fighters were Sh66wai and Shklu. We met the soldiers as they came down the hill, and prevented them from getting to water. The fighting lasted all day, and after sunset they formed in line and advanced under fire toward water. The mules stampeded to the creek, and half of them crossed and were captured. The soldiers stopped on a hill. At the end of the next day's fighting they stole away at night, leaving a braying mule to deceive us. But some of us overtook them in a meadow, and fought again. Nobody was killed there. In all we lost only two men.' "Kamaiakin was laughing and thought he was great. He said: 'You see, if we had not fought, they would have kept coming, but we have driven them away.' Owhi replied: 'I guess there will be more coming, for there are many of them. You do not need to talk that way to me now. I am going to fight, and be killed by the soldiers.' We went back home." Major G. J. Rains, commanding officer at Vancouver, Washington, headquarters of the district, left The Dalles on October 30, I855, with a force of three hundred and fifty regulars, and, including a reinforcement that joined him a few days later, five hundred and fifty-three volunteers. When they reached the Yakima river, about six hundred Indians appeared on the opposite bank. Lieutenant Philip H. Sheridan, with twenty dragoons, and Colonel Nesmith, with two companies of mounted volunteers, crossed and attempted to engage them, but the Indians made only a noisy show of resistance in order to cover the retreat of their women and children. The march was continued up the left bank of the Yakima, and at Union Gap Indians were again encountered. Everybody was eager to 1 Another survivor, who has since that period lived among the Spokan, and is believed by this informant to have been carried away by the white men after the war, makes the same statement. The troops believed that the Indians' loss exceeded theirs. {view image of facing page 24} Author's temporary camp [photogravure plate] {view image of page 25} THE YAKIMA 25 fight, except Rains and the Indians; indeed, at one time the soldiers, without orders, rushed in a disorderly mob up a hill occupied by the shouting, gesticulating Indians, who promptly ran down the other side. The affair irresistibly reminds one of a snowball battle of jeering schoolboys. In the morning Rains proceeded up Atanum creek to the abandoned Catholic mission, which the Indians had plundered, and which some unreasoning soldiers destroyed by fire because they leaped to the conclusion that some powder which they found buried in the garden had been placed there by the priests for the Indians. After striking this effective blow at the enemy, Rains retreated to The Dalles. In the meantime, about October fourteenth, Piopio-maksmaks of the Wallawalla had plundered Fort Walla Walla, which the Hudson's Bay Company trader had temporarily abandoned a day or two before, and, aided by the Cayuse and some of the Palus, Umatilla, and Deschutes, he began to drive settlers out of the valley. About five hundred Oregon volunteers, under Lieutenant-Colonel Kelly, proceeded into their country, and on December second began four days of fighting, which resulted in considerable loss to' the Indians. Pi6pio-maksmaks and several others, including White Bird,1 a Nez Perce, had before the beginning of the engagement come in under a flag of truce and had been detained. Kelly reported that the chief and his companions were given their choice either to return to their own camp and have it attacked, or to remain as hostages. Surviving members of the expedition said that Kelly and his party were accompanying them to the Indian camp, having been promised food, shelter, and fresh horses; that as they were about to enter a narrow defile the chief spoke to one of his companions in a language not hitherto used; that Kelly therefore suspected an ambuscade and ordered the Indians seized.2 In one way or the other they were held as prisoners, and in the midst of the subsequent fighting some of the volunteers shot down all of them except the Nez Perces. It has been variously said in excuse of this act that the hostages were trying to escape, that they resisted an effort to bind them, that they were shouting encouragement to their friends, that the white men were worn out by hardship and excited by the death of one of their officers. The impossibility of obtaining harmonizing accounts 1 Nez Perce informants say that this could not have been the White Bird who played an important part in the war of I877, since even at this date he was comparatively young. It is not impossible, however, that the two were one. 2 Snowden, History of Washington, New York, I909, III, 363-364. {view image of page 26} 26 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN of the affair indicates the presence of something to be concealed. Probably the only shred of excuse for those guilty of the outrage was the excitement of the moment. The reputation of the Oregon volunteers was not enhanced by the act of that one who carried back to the settlements the scalp and ears of Pi6pio-maksmaks. On the coast, too, there had been an unexpected outbreak, and families of settlers had been murdered in their cabins. There was much intercourse between the coast tribes and those of the interior, and no doubt the former were incited by the messengers of Kamaiakin, as were the Spokan, Coeur d'Alenes, Palus, and the Columbia Valley tribes south of Snake river. In midwinter a large party, principally Yakima, crossed the Cascades, joined forces with some of the coast Indians, and on January 26, 1856, attacked Seattle, then a hamlet of a few cabins, a sawmill, and a block-house. Aided by a hundred and twenty men from the sloop of war Decatur, which happened to be lying in the harbor, and by her guns, the fifty-five defenders prevented the Indians from advancing beyond the edge of the surrounding forest, and at night the siege was raised. Throughout the winter and spring operations were conducted against the hostiles west of the Cascades, but no move was made in the east, except the departure of Colonel George Wright from Vancouver to The Dalles, where he began to prepare for a campaign. He left only nine men to garrison the fort at the Cascades, a very important post because all supplies for the interior were necessarily portaged round the rapids. On March twenty-sixth the settlers at the Upper Cascades and the settlers and garrison at the Middle Cascades were simultaneously attacked by war-parties, the nucleus of which was a force of thirty Yakima. These, sent out by Kamaiakin to the Klickitat at Camas prairie, an upland meadow south of Mount Adams, had then been joined by twenty of that tribe, and the combined force moved to the Columbia and enlisted the help of the Chinookan bands living in the vicinity of the Cascades. They succeeded in killing seventeen, but the others defended themselves successfully, and on the second day following they were relieved by Lieutenant Sheridan from Vancouver and Colonel Wright from The Dalles. The Yakima and Klickitat, of course, had made their escape, but thirteen of the Cascade Indians were tried and nine of them were hanged. The aged daughter of Tamahl, the Cascade chief, thus outlines the events that culminated in his execution: "Taimatas, a Klickitat chief, married Hwaiak, a sister of my father {view image of facing page 26} Deserted lodge - Yakima [photogravure plate] {view image of page 27} THE YAKIMA 27 Tamahl; but he mistreated her, and she ran away and married a Cascade man. Just after she had borne a child, old Taimatas, her former husband, came down to the river village, beat her, and dragged her about, and both she and the baby caught cold and died. Tamahl swore vengeance, and went to the Klickitat camp. Taimatas commanded his son to conceal himself, but the chief himself did not flee, because he was a great medicine-man and thought nothing could harm him. However, Tamah- killed him, and this caused a feud that brought about the death of the Cascade chief. "After the outbreak in the Yakima country, emissaries from the Klickitat camp came to the Cascades and arranged a dance. Word was sent to Tamahl, who was in his winter camp near Vancouver, and he came up. During the night I awoke and saw seven men, including Ipia, a Klickitat noted for his cleverness, and 'Pupu-maksmaks' [presumably Piopio-maksmaks, the Wallawalla]. They told my father that they had already killed many white people, and in the morning they were going to kill those at the Cascade settlements. They were dressed for war. They said they were going to dance in the house of Wapanaha, and invited him to attend. Acceptance would signify an intention to join in the proposed attack, and refusal would mean his death at the hands of his enemies, the Klickitat. So to everything he merely said, 'Yes'; but as soon as they had left he hurried his four wives, Kisanua, Komaghin, Wabaidiui, and my mother Wadaigia, with their children to the river, and put them into canoes. Kisanua and two young slave men paddled quickly down to Fort Vancouver and warned the soldiers, while the others crossed to Bradford island. No valuables nor property of any kind, and but little food was taken. "On the following morning the chief's brother, Pfidpuh, put out to the island and warned Tamahl that his enemies were coming to kill him. We slid down an almost perpendicular bank on the south side of the island, embarked, and paddled for the mainland on the south side of the river. Round the end of the island came a canoe with several men, including Wapanaha, Ipia the Klickitat, and three hired Hood River Indians, namely, Chmnuahl, Kahlanut, and Aiataiat. The leaders were Wapanaha, who was actuated by ambition, and Chinuam, who was acting for Taimatas, son of the slain Klickitat chief. They began to shoot, and bullets splashed around our canoe filled with women and children. Tamahl ran the canoe ashore, leaped out, and pushed it back into the current; for he knew that they would cease shooting when he himself was out of range. They stopped firing. Just then a steamboat appeared downstream, and they withdrew to the Washington shore for the fighting with the soldiers that was to follow. We went down the river to the landing, and my father met us there. A half-breed interpreter named Jack (I think he was a Spokan), who was then living among our tribe, came down with another man in a small canoe. He told the soldiers that Taimahl was responsible for the massacre, that he had furnished powder. {view image of page 28} 28 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN There was color of truth in this, in that during the preceding night, before the outbreak, Wapanaha had come into our house in the absence of Tamah1 and said to one of his wives, "We need powder; give me some." Fearful of refusing, she handed him some powder. Without investigation the soldiers handcuffed Tamahl and at the Upper Cascades they hanged him." On April twenty-eighth Colonel Wright with five companies set out from The Dalles, and on May eighteenth he camped on Nachess creek, a southerly tributary of Yakima river. On the other side were the Indians. The creek was too swollen to permit a crossing in the face of an enemy, but messengers from the Indians came to them saying that the chiefs wished peace. General John E. Wool, commanding the Department of the Pacific, was for personal reasons not in sympathy with Governor Stevens and his policy of vigorously pushing the war to an end. He believed, or professed to believe, the unfounded absurdity that Stevens, and Curry of Oregon, had stirred up war for personal financial gain, and desired to make it a war of extermination. He acted throughout in a manner not creditable to the army, and, in spite of the widespread and disastrous outbreak west of the mountains, which but for the volunteer forces would have ended in the extermination of the settlers in that part of the state, declared that the volunteers were not needed. In December, 1855, Wool came up to Vancouver from his headquarters - near San Francisco and disbanded those Washington volunteers who had been mustered into the service of the United States, and at the same time ordered his subordinates to act only on the defensive. His instructions to Wright were merely "to ascertain the feelings and dispositions of the several tribes;" which the colonel in no wise exceeded. On May twenty-ninth he was reinforced by four companies under Lieutenant-Colonel E. J. Steptoe, which gave him an effective force of five hundred men, exclusive of packers and escorts of pack-trains. Eleven days later Kamaiakin, Owhi, and Tiaisah pitched camp on the opposite side of the creek, and the two latter crossed and spoke for peace. The wary Kamaiakin, as usual, preferred not to risk his liberty, but "sent assurances of friendship." Luqaiot says of this occasion: "Early in the spring we heard that soldiers were coming from The Dalles, and we prepared once more to fight. The people of Kamaiakin, Owhi, and Qultninak [a Salish chief on the upper Columbia] were together. Scouts brought word that the soldiers {view image of facing page 28} Yakima boy [photogravure plate] {view image of page 29} THE YAKIMA 29 were camped near Nahchi7h [Nachess] creek. The next morning all prepared to fight, and then advanced to meet the soldiers. From the top of a hill we saw a large camp. Already Kamaiakin's people, (the Thapnish) and other neighboring bands were near the camp, but the river was between. When we arrived, Owhi said to Kamaiakin: 'What are you waiting for? Why do you not fight?' 'It is because of this river,' replied Kamaiakin. 'he water is high, and we cannot cross.' "All day there was no fighting. Owhi called the chief men together in order to decide what to do, and he said to Kamaiakin: 'In the first place, I did not want to fight with the soldiers. You were the one.' While they were talking, the captain came to the bank on the other side at a narrow place and asked if they wanted to fight. My father told Kamaiakin: 'Now go ahead and say what you have to say.' Kamaiakin answered that he did not know what to say, and my father replied: 'Maybe you do not know what to say. I have asked you, and I have asked all your people what to say, and you do not know! A long time ago we Indians were all enemies. We used to fight among ourselves, but we have quit that. If those soldiers would make a peace now, and we would not have to fight again, it would be well. I have many people, and I do not want them killed; and I do not want to kill the soldiers. They look nice. I would like to stop this. If that captain agrees to my word, we will not fight again.' Then Quiltninak said to my father: 'I take your words. If he agrees, I shall be glad and will not fight.' Then everybody liked that word. "Owhi proposed to send a few men across to see what the captain had to say, but everybody was afraid, and besides there was no boat. After a while I told some of my friends: 'I think I will cross and take this word to them. Those soldiers will not hurt me. I will go alone.' And I got ready. I had a big bay horse with a bald face. I took no gun, but I carried my bow and arrows. My horse succeeded in swimming the river, and at the bottom of the steep bank on the other side some of the soldiers lifted me off the horse and others led him up the river to a place where he could get out. They brought him back and gave him to me, and I mounted. They took me to the captain's tent, and we shook hands. He said he was glad to see me, and asked why I had come. I said: 'I have brought words from Owhi and from Qiltninak. My father says: "I have laid my gun back. The blood of the soldiers is deep on the ground, but I am going to wipe that out. I do not want to kill these young men. But if you want to fight, it is good, we will fight." That is what my father said.' Colonel Wright stood up and shook hands again, and spoke: 'I am glad your father says that. He has shown his heart to me, and I see what his opinion is, and that he is going to quit fighting.' Then I said: 'This is what Quiltninak says: "I say the same words as Owhi. If the captain will agree, we will quit fighting." Now tell me what you have to say, and I will take {view image of page 30} 30 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN your words back.' He said: 'Your words are good. I agree to them, and it will be very good if we put our guns back behind us. We will wipe out this blood, and we will be friends. Tell them what I said. But we must come together and have a council. You must get some way to come over.' I went back, taking some flour, sugar, coffee, and tobacco on my horse. Most of it got wet. "All the chiefs were together, and I told them what the captain said. It was decided to go across to a council. Owhi got on a horse and rode through the camp shouting the order. Two young men came with the report that they had found two boats up the river, and the old men crossed in these boats, while we young men went on horses. The whole day was spent in crossing. We made camp a little below the soldiers. Next morning we went to their camp, and the captain said: 'I am glad to see you, Owhi, and you, Qiltninak, and Moses [brother of Quiltninak], and Qahlchun. You are the men I wanted to see.' Then he called on Owhi to speak. The chief said: 'When the fighting began, it was not my fault. My people called me a coward for having agreed to your words about the farms. It is good to make peace.' He gave the captain a white horse as a sign that he was speaking truthfully. After the council was over, we crossed the river and returned to our homes. Then our people, the people of Owhi, went to the country of the Lower Spokan, to visit." It had been agreed that five days should be allowed the Indians for assembling and surrendering. But nine days passed, and no Indians were to be seen. Still Wright retained his faith in their sincerity. He then crossed the stream on a bridge which he had caused to be built, and marched into the Kittitas valley, which he found unoccupied. Rather unaccountably he wrote to General Wool: "We have penetrated the most remote hiding-places of the enemy, and have forced him to ask for mercy." He was of the opinion that some "outside influence is operating to keep them from coming in." He proceeded to the Wenatchee, where at last, on July sixth, he found some Indians fishing. Tiaiath again professed abiding friendship, but Kamaiakin and Owhi had crossed the Columbia, where they were fomenting strife among the Spokan, Coeur d'Alenes, and Palus. Wright spent more than three months making a tour of the Yakima valley and "ascertaining the feelings of the tribes." The sole results were the establishment of Fort Simcoe, and the fostering of the conviction in the Indians' minds that the soldiers did not represent the same authority as the volunteers and the settlers, and were not to be feared. Those who had begun hostilities were still at large, and were inciting other tribes to war. The trouble was not only that Wright was prevented from aggression by his orders, {view image of facing page 30} On the move - Spokan [photogravure plate] {view image of page 31} THE YAKIMA 3I but he himself was in sympathy with Wool's views that the Indians were innocent of wrong-doing. Innocent they were not, yet they were not wholly in the wrong. Perhaps the conflict between the races was inevitable, but the core of this particular phase of the conflict seems to be found in the inequitable action of the two commissioners in proclaiming the ceded lands open for settlement before the Government had begun, or even agreed ever to begin, carrying out its part in the contract. With Stevens's proclamation in mind, white men had some justification in entering Indian lands; and surely the owners of the lands were acting only as men when they took steps to assert a right that had not been extinguished. True they employed savage methods of warfare, but they were savages. At least they maintained their level, which is more than white men have always done. They fought for their country with the faculties God had given them, and a just man admires patriotism wherever it is found. For a time there were no acts of violence, but soon came reports of fresh outbreaks, this time among the tribes east of the Columbia - the Sinkiuse, Spokan, Coeur d'Alenes, Palus - among whom the Yakima chiefs had been working. A small detachment under Steptoe was disastrously defeated in May, I858, by these combined tribes, and in August Wright again took the field, this time with very different orders. For General Wool had been transferred, and General Clark, the new head of the department, believed that the war should be brought to an end and the Stevens treaties ratified. Wright conducted a swift and effective campaign against the allied tribes east of the Columbia, promptly hanging any captives guilty of participation in attacks on non-combatants. At the same time Major Robert S. Garnett led a force through the Yakima valley in quest of the upper Columbia river Indians, who had attacked a party of miners. Some of them were captured in an assault by Lieutenant Jesse K. Allen (who was killed) on the camp of a minor Yakima chief. Others surrendered, and some fled across the Columbia to join Kamaiakin among the Coeur d'Alenes. The war was over. Kamaiakin, the principal instigator, remained a fugitive, and never entered the Yakima reservation, where the annual salary of five hundred dollars provided by the treaty for the head-chief of the "Yakima nation" awaited him. In I870 he was found by an agent of the Government on Rock creek, a northerly tributary of Palouse river. With him were about fifty Indians, probably Palus. He was "a large, powerful man, about fifty years old, and six feet high. In {view image of page 32} 32 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN his prime none of his people could bend his bow.... He is peaceable, but does not go much among the whites, and seems brokenhearted.... He had the reputation of being the greatest Indian orator east of the Cascades in this Territory."' The fate of Owhi and of his son Qailchun is graphically described by Luqaiot, a younger son: "Our people had gone to the country of the Lower Spokan [who were not engaged in the fighting with Wright]. This was a regular custom of ours, to get salmon from our friends there. We soon heard that there had been fighting between the soldiers, and the Coeur d'Alenes and Upper Spokan. Two days later we heard that they had stopped. One of those who had been fighting came down with the news, and he said they were going to have a council with Colonel Wright. We had not known that he was the chief of those soldiers. When we heard that it was Colonel Wright, Owhi said: 'I am going over there just to see him again.' We were good friends with Colonel Wright, and that is why they were going to see him. We took him as a brother. He had treated us well. The next day my father went; then on the following day went my brother Qahlchun and I, with his wife [who was the daughter of Polotkln, the Spokan chief]. We had been delayed looking for horses. Owhi had told the people to remain where they were until he returned, and Qahlchun repeated the order. "It was night when we came in sight of the soldiers. Qahlchun said it would not look well to go in after dark, so we camped. The next morning we went on. When we were close, we saw an Indian coming from the camp. Qahlchiun said: 'Let us ask him if they are holding a council.' So he went to meet this Indian, and they two talked together a while, and then came toward the woman and me. The Indian told my brother: 'I saw your father in the camp. He is having a good time with his friends. There are many Indians there, the Spokan, the Palus, the Coeur d'Alenes.' My brother said we were going there, and the Indian said: 'I think Colonel Wright will be glad to see you, for he has been asking for you.' The Indian went on, and we rode forward. We saw soldiers riding away, about three hundred of them. When we got into the camp, I heard some one speak - Qahlchun was riding in another part of the camp and, looking, I saw my father bound with ropes. The man was saying, 'You are a prisoner.' He told me that they had taken him as soon as he was in the camp, and tied him without any words, and that they would hang my brother. Qalichiun was ahead of me, and I saw him getting close to Colonel Wright's tent. I rode up fast and overtook him, just as he reached the tent. Colonel Wright came out and said he was very glad to see him. He told us to get off, and we 1 Winans in Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1870. {view image of facing page 32} A hill camp - Spokan [photogravure plate] {view image of page 33} THE YAKIMA 33 did. He did not tell Qailchun that our father was a prisoner. He shook hands with us and repeated that he was very glad to see us in the camp. He took a piece of paper, and wrote on it, and gave it to a soldier, who got on a horse and went over to the tents of the soldiers. Soon many soldiers were around us. I heard Colonel Wright talk to them. There were a great many of them, all with guns. They took Qah-lchun away, and I stood there watching. Our horses stood there. Qahlchuin's wife was still on her horse. Qahlchun walked a little way, then looked back and called to me, 'Take good care of our horses!' He passed round a tent, and that was the last time I ever saw my brother alive. I stood with the horses a while. The woman was back of me, and watched Qahlchun. He was taken over to where Owhi was, and my father was asked if that was Qahlchiin. He said, 'Yes.' They asked again, 'Are you sure?' and he said, 'That is Qahlchun.' They tied him, took him across the creek where they had been hanging the Palus, and hanged him. I did not see that. Then the soldiers came and tied me, hands and legs, and put a rope around my neck. I tried to get away, but they were too many. They had to throw me down three times before they could tie me, but by that time I was very tired. They were going to take the woman too, but she rode away, carrying her husband's spear. The soldiers chased her, but her horse was too fast; in her flight she threw away the spear and the soldiers got it. I did not know what they had been doing with my brother, but I thought I was going to be hanged. A half-breed Nez Perce came and talked to Colonel Wright about me, and the colonel told him they were going to let me go. They untied me, and I found my horse and left. I saw a soldier sitting beside a tree with a paper, and I saw my brother lying there dead. Owhi was taken away by the soldiers, but just after they crossed Snake river he tried to get away, and they shot him. The soldiers returned to The Dalles, taking Qahlchiin's spear and hat. After a while we heard that Colonel Wright was drowned in the ocean, and we were glad." 1 Wright, in his reports, says that Owhi came unexpectedly into his camp, and was at once bound and told that if he did not send for Qahlchiun he would be hanged. The chief then sent a messenger to his son, but the message never reached him, and he came in of his own free will, believing that he would find Colonel Wright the same friendly, credulous soldier chief of two years before on the Nachess. 1 In every essential particular this narrative is corroborated by the testimony of an officer who was present (see Kip, Army Life on the Pacific, Redfield, I859, pages I02-106), as well as by that of the widow of Qahlchtn, who, as the wife of Luqaiot, was still living in I909. Colonel (General) Wright was drowned, July 30, i865, in the wreck of the Brother Jonathan while on his way to take command of the Department of the Columbia. VOL. VII-3 {view image of page 34} 34 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN There was no further fighting on the part of the Indians in Washington. The treaties were ratified in 1859, and the bands of the Yakima valley, the Klickitat, many of the Shahaptians of the northern bank of the Columbia, and a few of the Wishham were placed on the reservation. The Salish bands of the upper Columbia remained where they were, and later were provided for on another reservation, while a considerable part of the Wishham and other Chinookan bands below them never have accepted land on any reservation. {view image of facing page 34} Skuthun - Klickitat [photogravure plate] {view image of page 35} The Klickitat {view image of page 36} {view image of page 37} THE KLICKITAT T the beginning of their historical period the Klickitat, who were first noted by Lewis and Clark, lived in southern Washington in the valleys of Klickitat river and its tributaries. This most westerly of the Shahaptian tribes, according to the ethnologist George Gibbs, who observed them in 1854 and later, had been forced out of the eastern Columbia valley by the Cayuse. In these early years what may be regarded as the centre of their territory was the vicinity of the falls of Klickitat creek near its junction with the larger stream of that name. This place they called Hwafhhwai, and themselves Hwaihlhwaipium, signifying "those at Hwahlhwai," -p'm being the locative suffix. The word has been said to refer to their occupancy of Camas prairie, but their name for this place (southwest of Glenwood, Washington) was Tak (Prairie). The name by which we know the tribe is commonly said to be a corruption of the Upper Chinook Ihlkadat, that is, "beyond (the mountains)," with reference to the Lower Chinook, by whom the term was originated; but it is more probably from the Chinookan Hladahiut, the falls of the Klickitat near the mouth of the stream, and the village of Chinookans and Klickitat at that place. Another variation is "Wah-how-puin," by which term Lewis and Clark, in the spring of I806, designated the tribe as well as one of their villages of "12 temperary mat lodges near the Rock rapids." The Klickitat soon possessed themselves of Chinookan territory, overspreading the uplands and mountain slopes from Klickitat creek westward to Lewis river, and northward to Mount St. Helens and Mount Adams, which latter became known to the Yakima bands as the Mountain of the Klickitat. They made their winter camps principally in the valleys of Klickitat, White Salmon, Little White Salmon, Wind, and Lewis rivers. At the head of the last-named stream were the Taitnapuim, a small, cognate, but distinct tribe. The Klickitat developed into hardy mountaineers, daring warriors, and excellent hunters. They never became firmly established on the Columbia to the exclusion of others, but they mingled freely with the Chinookan villagers already there, and fished in the great river. But they were {view image of page 38} 38 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN not the most skilful fishermen, and for the greater part they confined their efforts to the smaller streams named. The Klickitat made war not only against their tribal enemies but for hire. An aged informant relates that in the youth of his father (in the early years of the nineteenth century) the Washfihwal, a Chinookan band at Washougal river, Washington, came against their kinsmen at the Cascades and killed many. Seeking the aid of the Klickitat, the Cascade chief Papuskah- sent his son Sl6tia to lead a party of forty hired warriors to avenge him. Again, when men from Alashikash (the site of Vancouver, Washington) inflicted loss upon the Cascade people, an appeal was made to the Klickitat, forty of whom, led by Sl6tia, found some of the enemy in the mountains digging roots. They killed all except a woman, who clung to the knees of the narrator's grandfather and begged for her life, promising that she would lead them to those who had killed the people of the Cascades. Her life being spared, she led them to the houses of the guilty ones, all of whom they killed. The Klickitat were paid in women and beads. Parties of the Klickitat sometimes crossed the Columbia to aid the River Dwellers (as they called the Chinookan villagers) in their warfare against the Shoshoni. They began to recognize among themselves two divisions: those on Klickitat and White Salmon rivers, and those on Lewis river, the former numbering (according to an informant born about I8I5 on Lewis river) about two hundred, and the latter seven hundred. The western division about the third decade of the eighteenth century began a movement across the Columbia at the mouth of the Willamette, in Oregon, and they soon dispossessed the weak tribes in the lower portion of that valley. But in 1854 General Joel Palmer, Indian agent for Oregon Territory, called a council of their chief men and ordered them to leave this land, which they had forcibly taken from the Kalapuya, the Klackamas, and the Yamhill, and to return to Washington. The order was obeyed, but the expulsion of the Klickitat caused much discontent among them, for they had fairly won the Willamette valley by conquest. In the following year they were parties to the treaty which Governor Stevens made with the Yakima, and there can be no doubt that the report of their (to them) unjust expulsion and of the Government's failure to carry 1 John Lumley, whose name is a corruption of the native Mlamlu. Skuthuin, a man of about the same age, born near the site of Vancouver, Washington, says that of the Klickitat there were three hundred heads of families; while Lewis and Clark credit the Wah-how-pum with a population of seven hundred. {view image of facing page 38} Mitsa - Klickitat [photogravure plate] {view image of page 39} THE KLICKITAT 39 out its treaty obligations to the tribes of western Oregon played an important part in shaping the minds of the Indians and in determining their hostile stand. Their old men relate the following incidents of their connection with the war that ensued: "We were in camp at Tak [Camas prairie], south of Mount Adams, digging roots. To that place came Kamaiakin, who said: 'I will double up my legs and let the soldiers pass to Kititagh, and let Owhi fight them." Five nights he remained there in council with the old men, and saying that his people (he claimed authority as far as Cowlitz river) should not fight. Then he returned to Atanuim, and almost immediately the news came to us that Michelle, Shtahuin, and some others had killed a white man, the Indian agent, on Waihsham [the highest point on the trail from the Yakima valley to The Dalles]. At the same time word came from Kamaiakin that the Klickitat should come to help fight the soldiers, and the two messengers brought five horses and five ropes, which they distributed among the head-men. They promised that each man who would come to their help should receive five horses and five rawhide ropes. Sixty men with their families joined the Indians at Thiapnish [the place where Toppenish creek leaves the hills], and took part in the fight at that place. Nearly all of them were men who had been driven out of the Klackamas country. They remained in the Yakima country until the following year, when, dissatisfied because the promises made to them had not been kept, they surrendered to Colonel Wright." Notwithstanding the reputation of the Klickitat as a warlike people, Lewis and Clark were received hospitably by them, and traded pewter buttons, strips of metal, twisted wire, and like treasures, for dogs, firewood, and "shap-pe-lell" (Chinook tsa-po-lil), a kind of sun-dried bread made from roots. At another Klickitat (Wah-how-pum) village the explorers were entertained with a dance in which the participants stood shoulder to shoulder, with their robes drawn tightly about them, and danced in a line from side to side, several parties of four to seven persons performing within the circle at the same time, and concluding the ceremony by "passing promiscuisly throu & between each other." As in language, so in material culture and religious practices, the Klickitat did not differ appreciably from the bands of the Yakima valley. The women were expert basket-makers; indeed the best 1 It was Kamaiakln's plan to involve Owhi to such an extent that neutrality on his part would be out of the question. His first move was to induce Owhi's son Qailchtin to kill a party of miners. See page 22. {view image of page 40} 40 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN of the old baskets now to be found among the Shahaptians are of Klickitat origin, although the tribal name has been applied promiscuously to basketry of other than Klickitat manufacture. On the Yakima reservation, and scattered here and there in the valleys of their old home, a few aged Klickitat are to be found; but the identity of the tribe has been lost, merged as it is with the Yakima bands. {view image of facing page 40} Flathead buffalo-skin lodge [photogravure plate] {view image of page 41} Salishan Tribes of the Interior {view image of page 42} {view image of facing page 42} Flathead young woman [photogravure plate] {view image of page 43} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR NUMEROUS tribes of the Salishan stock inhabited the country lying between the Rocky mountains and the Cascades, and south of the Canadian border to the forty-seventh parallel (in Montana to the forty-sixth). To describe each of these tribes in detail would involve endless repetition, as the culture of the people of this area was quite uniform. They will therefore be treated in a single chapter, with special mention of the history of each tribe, and generalizations on the customs of the entire group. Flatheads and Pend d'Oreilles The Flatheads controlled that portion of Montana in which lie the valleys of Clarks fork of the Columbia and its tributaries, the Bitterroot (or St. Marys), the Hell Gate, and the Flathead. The Flatheads proper, who now sometimes call themselves by the placename Sinchiftuhtttuiqi ("red willow river" being the name applied by them to the stream on which they lived), occupied the valley of the Bitterroot; but closely related to them were two other bands which were accustomed to camp with them in the summer. One of these claimed as its own the country about the foot of Flathead lake and along the short Flathead river; the other the region on Clarks fork (Pend d'Oreille river) at Horse plains, below the mouth of St. Regis Borgia river. No native names for these two bands are now current,1 but officially they are known as Pend d'Oreilles. 1 Lewis and Clark name four bands as parts of the Flathead tribe. The "Oate-lashschute Tribe of the Tush-she-pah Nation" are the Flatheads proper, the band in the Bitterroot (St. Marys) valley, which they met on their way to the Columbia. The "Mick-suck-seal-tom Tribe of the Tushshepah reside on Clark river above the great falls of that river," and are the Kalispel, who have never been known to live elsewhere than on Clarks fork (Pend d'Oreille river) above the falls of Box canion. The "Ho-hil-pos. a tribe of do on Clarks river, above the Mick-suck-seal-toms," are probably the Colvilles (see page 62). "Tush-she-pah's Nation reside on a N. fork of Clark's river," and are the Salishan band which lived on Flathead river and around the foot of Flathead lake, the present Pend d'Oreilles. See Original Journals of Lewis and Clark, Thwaites ed., III, 54; VI, II4, 119, 120. The word Tiuhipa is said by Gatschet to be a term applied by the Shoshoni to the tribes to the north of them, not limited to the Flatheads. {view image of page 44} 44 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN There is no evidence either in history or in tradition that the Flatheads ever lived elsewhere. The tribal memory reaches back no farther than the time of the head-chief Skuti-haI, Big Hawk, near the close of the eighteenth century. He was of the Tunaha, a tribe (probably Salishan) that was all but exterminated by smallpox, and the few survivors, including the boy Big Hawk and his mother, came to live among the Flatheads. Big Hawk is said to have been treacherously killed by the Piegan, who first stole his bow in an apparently friendly meeting, then murdered him when he returned for it accompanied by only one man. This occurred in the buffalo country on the upper Missouri, and there the Flatheads remained inert for many days without a leader. Then in a council they selected for their chief CheTle-skaiytmi, Three Eagles, who held this position at the time his people first saw white men. These were the members of the Lewis and Clark expedition,1 who on September 4, 1805, at the head of Bitterroot river, found a camp of thirty-three lodges sheltering about four hundred inhabitants. The native tradition of the meeting is interesting. "The two captains advanced and shook hands with the chief, who commanded his people to refrain from any evil-doing toward them. The white men removed the pack-saddles from their horses and sat down on the ground. The chief said: 'They have no robes to sit on. Some Indians have stolen them. Bring them robes.' Buffalo-skins were brought, but, instead of sitting on them, the white men threw them about their shoulders. One of their men had a black face, and the Indians said among themselves: 'See, his face is painted black! They are going to have a scalp-dance.'" Even then, at the beginning of the historical period for the Flatheads, their horses were abundant. A herd of about five hundred belonged to this band, and the white men, after accepting the hospitable offer of a share in the Indians' berries (their sole diet at that particular moment), purchased fresh animals for the arduous crossing of the Bitterroot mountains. Like the Nez Perces, the Flatheads, because of their numerous horses, were constantly harassed by war-parties from tribes less fortunate in this respect. Shoshoni, Bannock, Apsaroke, Piegan, Sioux, Coeur d'Alenes, and Kutenai 1 The explorers, however, record the statement of one of the tribe that some of his kindred had been at the mouth of the Columbia, where they saw an old white man living alone. (Op. cit., III, 61.) *Both the father and the mother of Nine Pipes were of Flathead and Pend d'Oreille lineage, and his is therefore to be regarded as a good type of the Salish physiognomy. {view image of facing page 44} Nine Pipes - Flathead [photogravure plate] {view image of page 45} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 45 were enemies of the Flatheads. There was never war with the Pend d'Oreilles, Kalispel, Spokan, or Yakima, and the only hostility with the Nez Perces resulted when a Shoshoni living among the Flatheads with a woman of this tribe was killed by the Nez Perces. The Shoshoni from the south, and the Blackfoot tribes, especially the Piegan, from the east, were the principal aggressors, and against the latter they were for a time almost helpless, since the Piegan were the sooner armed with guns. However, a few years prior to I8IO, says the younger Alexander Henry,l the tribes west of the Rocky mountains began to acquire guns from the traders of the Northwest Company, and in the summer of that year a party of Flatheads and other Indians, travelling eastward into the buffalo country, came unexpectedly on a number of Piegan, and in a fiercely fought battle killed sixteen of their warriors. Annually in the fall practically the entire tribe, usually accompanied by some of the Pend d'Oreilles, Kalispel, Cceur d'Alenes, and, according to Lewis and Clark, sometimes even the Lemhi River Shoshoni,2 travelled overland up Hell Gate river and across the mountains to the waters of the Missouri, thence into the northern buffalo plains, where they spent the autumn hunting, preparing skin robes, and feasting on meat as a delightful change from their customary diet of berries and fish. And constant watch was maintained against a surprise, for the hunting grounds of the upper Missouri were overrun by Piegan, Atsina, Assiniboin, and Apsaroke, against whom such western tribes as entered the plains usually allied themselves. These parties returned about the end of December, except when winters of unusual severity compelled them to defer crossing the mountains until spring. The few families which remained at home during the hunting season kept their lodges well concealed from possible marauders. West of the Bitterroot mountains the Flatheads went only just beyond the summit to the heads of the creeks discharging into the Clearwater, where they constructed weirs across the streams to take salmon.3 The country of the Flatheads is a mountainous region, its valleys girt with forested ranges from which flow rushing torrent and broad clear river. Dotting the plains and hidden in the shadow of the mountains are pellucid lakes, and the pine forests are broken with sunny glades. While they spent much time in the buffalo country, 1 Henry-Thompson Journals, Coues ed., New York, 1897, page 713. 2 Lewis and Clark, III, 49. 3 Ibid., 66. {view image of page 46} 46 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN they depended for the greater part on the game of their mountains and the fish of their streams. About the year I8oo traders began to operate regularly among the Flatheads, and with them came, as hunters and trappers, a number of eastern Indians, principally Iroquois. According to Palladino,1 a party of that tribe, twenty-four in number, under the leadership of Ignace La Mousse, commonly known as Old Ignace,2 left the Caughnawaga mission near Montreal between the years 1812 and 1820, and went to live among the Flatheads. Ignace taught the Flatheads some of the forms of the Catholic service, and in 1831 a number of Flatheads and Nez Perces set out for St. Louis, to ask that priests be sent to them. At Council Bluffs, according to the missionary, Marcus Whitman, three of the party turned back, and the remaining four went on to St. Louis, where during the fall two of them died and, having been previously baptized, were buried from the cathedral. In the spring of 1832 the other two embarked on a steamer of the Missouri Fur Company, which also carried the artist Catlin. One of them died at the mouth of the Yellowstone, and only one, who seems to have been a Nez Perce, returned to his people. In 1835 Ignace La Mousse (whether Old Ignace or a son is not certain) went to St. Louis with his two sons, who were there baptized. Still no "black-robes" came, and in 1837 three Flatheads set out for St. Louis in the company of Mr. W. H. Gray, a missionary who had been with Spalding at Lapwai mission among the Nez Perces, and was now returning to the East with an escort of Indians. All the Indians were killed by the Sioux at Ash Hollow, in northwestern Nebraska. Finally, in 1839, two more messengers from the Flatheads reached St. Louis, Ignace and another of the Iroquois, and they were assured that priests would be sent.3 A native tradition of this quest for priests, confused as it is, is here repeated for what it may be worth. 1 Indian and Yfhite in the Northwest, Baltimore, I894, page 9. See also Alexander F. Chamberlain, Iroquois in Northwestern Canada, American Anthropologist, n. s., VI, 459 -463, Lancaster, Pa., I904, and Chittenden and Richardson, Life, Letters and Travels of Father Pierre-Jean De Smet, S.J., I801-I873, 4 vols., New York, I905. 2 It is quite possible that this is Ignace, the Iroquois, who appears as a Northwest Company employe at Rocky Mountain House on the North Saskatchewan in I8I0, and at Fort George (Astoria) as late as I814. See Henry-Thompson Journals, pages 647, 908. 3 Snowden, History of Washington, New York, I909, II, III-II2. *The subject of the picture entitled "Flathead Warrior" is Black-tail Hawk, commonly called Pierre Lamoose, a descendant of the Iroquois Ignace La Mousse. His mother was a Flathead, his father half Kalispel and half Iroquois. {view image of facing page 46} Flathead warrior [photogravure plate] {view image of page 47} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 47 "Tiihuspe, an uncle of Mois,' who sits there, having lost his wife by death, left the people and went alone into the high mountains. He travelled away over the main ridge of the Rocky mountains, and there he met a man who was dressed like a woman. After many days he returned to his people and told them that he had seen a man wearing the garments of a woman. Some Iroquois living among the Flatheads told him that this was a priest, and that there were many of them living in the East. 'Such people,' they said, 'never fight, nor steal, nor lie, nor gamble, nor do they ever marry.' The head-chief thought he would like to have such a man among his people, and Tuihuspe promised that if the people would congregate he would sing a song he had heard beyond the mountains. When the people were assembled, he turned to the east, placed his palms together, closed his eyes, and from the expression of his face he seemed to be suffering the greatest agony.2 Then he sang, sobbing at intervals, and at the end he raised his right hand, palm outward, and said, 'I wish that you may pity me, you who live above, that I may be free from affliction; for I am poor!' To the people he said, 'After we are done with this singing I will go away and look for a black-robe.' Then he and a brother and eight others went away with a white man. Travelling eastward, they met some Indians with horses and took them. From there all, except Tuihuspe, another Indian, and the white man, returned home. The three went on, and reached the country of the Cheyenne, where the white man had a store. He gave each of his companions white men's clothing and a horse, and Tuihuspe went on eastward, while his friend returned home. The Flatheads never heard directly of him again, but the Cheyenne told them they had killed him." In I840 Father Pierre-Jean De Smet and a party of Flatheads met at Green river on the Oregon trail in what is now southwestern Wyoming, and the priest was escorted to the Gallatin valley in southern Montana, where he remained for some weeks instructing them. In the following year he returned with five assistants and established St. Mary's mission on Bitterroot river, near the site of the town of Stevensville, Montana. The restrictions imposed by the priests were probably too severe for people accustomed to almost 1 Mois (a corruption of Mousse) says that his mother was half Iroquois. He is, of course, a descendant of Old Ignace La Mousse, as are also Pierre Lamoose and Joe Lamoose, and Tlhuspe was one of the Iroquois who migrated to the Flathead country. 2 At this point in his narrative Not Indian (Big Sam) said: "Watch my face, and you will see what Tahuspe did." He closed his eyes and raised his hands with palms together; the muscles of his face began to twitch, the movement increasing in violence, and in a few seconds tears were streaming down his face, while he began to sob brokenly, his voice rising now and then in a peculiar cadence. At the end of a brief interval, probably less than two minutes, his eyes opened and his hearty laugh pealed forth. {view image of page 48} 48 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN absolute freedom of action, for, in the words of Palladino, they became "estranged, careless, indifferent, and pretentious to a degree that all endeavors of the fathers in their behalf, and for their spiritual welfare, were unheeded." In I850 the mission was closed and remained so until I866. In July, I855, having concluded treaties with the Nez Perces, Yakima, Wallawalla, Umatilla, and Cayuse, Governor Stevens arrived at the mouth of Hell Gate river a few miles from the site of Missoula, Montana, where he found a camp of about twelve hundred Indians-Flatheads, Pend d'Oreilles, and Kutenai. He proposed to create either below Flathead lake or in the valley south of Missoula a single reservation for the three tribes, and for such other tribes as the Government might see fit to place there. Victor, whose band occupied the Bitterroot valley, claimed also authority over the country about Flathead lake and river, and he not only refused to cede his valley but objected when Alexander, of the Pend d'Oreilles, expressed a willingness to give up the Flathead river country. After eight days of speech-making by the Indians, and persistent urging by Stevens that the three chiefs come to an agreement, Victor said: "We will send this word to the Great Father. Come and look at our country. When you look at Alexander's place, and say the land is good, and say, 'Come, Victor,' I will go. If you think this above [the Bitterroot valley] is good land, then Victor will say, 'Come here, Alexander."' Hereupon Alexander and Michelle, the Kutenai chief, suddenly found themselves unalterably opposed to giving up the Flathead river land in the event that the President should choose the valley as the better place for the reservation. However, it required very little astuteness on the part of Governor Stevens to see a safe passage through the rocks that threatened his one reservation scheme with shipwreck. Said he: "Both tracts shall be surveyed. If the mission [St. Ignatius, in the Flathead river and lake region] is the best land, Victor shall live there. If the valley is the best land, Victor shall stay here. Alexander and Michelle may stay at the mission." One can hardly suppose that the Governor entertained any doubt as to which tract would be found to be the best - for the reservation. It is improbable that he was so solicitous for Victor's welfare that he hesitated to confirm the chief's title to the valley lest the land there might not prove to be quite so rich as somewhere else. Certainly no one *Not Indian is by his mother of Flathead and Nez Perce blood, and by his father of Pend d'Oreille and Shoshoni. {view image of facing page 48} Not Indian - Flathead [photogravure plate] {view image of page 49} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 49 who knows the Flathead reservation and the Bitterroot valley would hesitate to say that the negotiations with Victor's people, when it was decided they must leave the Bitterroot, were not ingenuous. The land thus secured from the three tribes under the treaty of July I6, 1855, included all of Montana west of the continental divide and a small area in the extreme northern end of Idaho. The reservation made for their use was enclosed on the east, south, and west by the Mission range and the ridge of hills extending northwestward from Evaro, Montana, and on the north by an east-and-west line through the middle of Flathead lake. To this day the Indians insist that this line should have been run through Little Bitterroot lake, fifteen to twenty miles north of the actual boundary, and there is no doubt that they really thought it was to be so drawn. The Flatheads continued to live in their valley, and some of them cultivated little farms; but white men were not slow to see the desirableness of the land, and they began to settle there in everincreasing numbers. In 187I President Grant issued an executive order setting forth that "the Bitter Root Valley... having been carefully surveyed and examined... has proved, in the judgment of the President, not to be better adapted to the wants of the Flathead tribe than the general reservation provided for,... it is therefore ordered and directed that all Indians residing in said Bitter Root Valley be removed as soon as practicable to the reservation." It is to be feared that the President was playing on the word "surveyed," for in the following year Congress passed an act directing that the Indians be removed from the valley, and further providing "that as soon as practicable after the passage of this act the surveyor-general of Montana Territory shall cause to be surveyed, as other public lands of the United States are surveyed, the lands of the Bitter Root Valley." James A. Garfield, then a member of Congress, was commissioned to obtain the consent of the Indians to removal. Victor had died in 1870 of a wound in the leg, which proved fatal, his son thought, because he had been baptized and thus lost his magic power, which had saved him in many dangerous situations. His son, Grizzlybear Claws, commonly called Charlo,' was the next chief, and he "Charlo, the Iroquois," was in I8Io and I8II an employe of the Northwest Company in the Rocky mountains and the Columbia river region. Probably the Flathead chief was a descendant. See Henry-Thompson Journals, Coues ed., page 647. Locally his name is written Charlot, and pronounced as a French word. VOL. VII-4 {view image of page 50} 50 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN it was whom Garfield met in 1872. Charlo and the other principal men unequivocally refused to consider any terms upon which they would be expected to leave the valley. They pointed out that as seventeen years had passed since the treaty was made, and the Government had not yet surveyed the lands, they had assumed this to be tacit consent to their retaining possession. But the two subchiefs, Arlee and Adolf, the former hoping thus to become head-chief, were induced to sign an agreement to move to the Jocko reservation. Charlo did not sign, but when the agreement was printed in the annual report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, there appeared below it, "Charlot, his X mark, First Chief of the Flatheads." Who was guilty of this pseudo-forgery is not known. Before leaving the reservation, Garfield had written to the Superintendent of Indian Affairs for Montana Territory: "In carrying out the terms of the contract made with the chiefs of the Flatheads for removing that tribe to this reservation, I have concluded, after full consultation with you, to proceed with the work in the same manner as though Charlot, the first chief, had signed the contract. I do this in the belief that when he sees the work actually going forward, he will conclude to come here with the other chiefs and thus keep the tribe unbroken." 1 But the process of removal was slow. The houses promised in good faith by the commissioner, and ordered to be built at once for those who would move, were not finished until a year later, and at the end of another twelvemonth the only Flatheads on the reservation were the families of the ambitious Arlee and four mixed-bloods. The following of Arlee was small indeed. The tribe stood with Charlo. In the next year, 1875, there were twenty families on the reservation, but between three hundred and four hundred Flatheads remained in the valley. In I889 a law was enacted by Congress, providing for a renewal of negotiations with Charlo, and this time success was achieved; for he agreed to give up the Bitterroot valley in consideration of remuneration for the improvements made by his people, which were appraised at more than twenty-seven thousand dollars. In 1891 the band proceeded to the reservation and established homes in the valley of Jocko river. Charlo died in January, I910. In spite of the questionable treatment accorded them, the Flatheads were never at war with the Government. The population assigned by Lewis and Clark to the Flatheads Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, 1872. * Many Bears is only one-quarter Flathead, and three-quarters Nez Perce. {view image of facing page 50} Many Bears - Flathead [photogravure plate] {view image of page 51} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 5I proper was four hundred persons in thirty-three lodges, and to the Pend d'Oreilles on Flathead river four hundred and thirty persons in thirty-five lodges. George Gibbs, in 1853, estimated the former at three hundred and twenty-five, but Governor Stevens, two years later, credited them with five hundred, and an unusually reliable informant, who was a young man at the time of the treaty council, says there were then eighty lodges of the Flatheads (which is equivalent to about seven hundred persons) and about three hundred Pend d'Oreilles. In 1875 there were reported eighty-one Flatheads on the reservation, and, as above mentioned, between three hundred and four hundred in the Bitterroot valley. More recent figures are meaningless because of the impossibility of properly classifying the children of intertribal marriages. The remnant of the Flathead tribe is probably a more heterogeneous group than any other in the Northwest. Its representatives are the offspring of marriages not only with such kindred tribes as the Pend d'Oreilles, Kalispel, Cceur d'Alenes, Spokan, Colvilles, and others, but with the Nez Perces, Shoshoni, Piegan, Tunaha, Delawares, Iroquois, and white men of various nations. Father Ravalli, who first became acquainted with the Flatheads in 1844, declared more than twentyfive years ago that there was not in the tribe a single person not known to be of mixed lineage. Kalispel The Kalispel lived in northeastern Washington, in the valley of Clarks fork (Pend d'Oreille river) of the Columbia, from about the place where the Idaho boundary crosses the stream down to Box caion. The following tribal tradition indicates a more northerly region as their earlier home. "Coming from the north, the people stopped at Priest lake, which was a good country, for there was abundance of fish and game. After a time, however, the chief said, 'Let us travel about and look for a better place.' So they did, several men. In their search they reached the top of a mountain [Mount Carlton, northeast of Spokane], and looked down into a valley, where they saw what they took for a large lake spread out before them, shining blue in the sunlight. So they came down toward it, but when they reached the valley they found that the sea of blue was not a lake at all, but an immense field of camas in bloom.1 In the valley was a large 1 "The quawmash is now in blume and from the colour of its bloom at a short distance it resembles lakes of fine clear water, so complete is this deseption that on first sight I could have swoarn it was water." -Original 7ournals of Lewis and Clark, V, I32. {view image of page 52} 52 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN river [the Pend d'Oreille], into which flowed a smaller stream [Mission creek], and they decided that this would be a good place to live, for there were fish in the streams and game in the mountains. After returning to Priest lake they described to the chief and the people what they had found, and it was decided that they would move to the new country. Since that time the Kalispel have lived in the valley of Pend d'Oreille river." Formerly the Kalispel went down the river in June to spear and trap salmon at the falls below Box canion, and in the late summer or early autumn a party started for the buffalo country, proceeding up the stream in canoes while boys, travelling overland, drove the horses. The route lay up the Pend d'Oreille and the Flathead to the mouth of Jocko river, where the canoes were cached. The journey was resumed on horses along the Jocko, across to the waters of the Big Blackfoot, up that stream into the mountains and then across to the Dearborn, and so down to the Missouri. The canoe trip occupied about eight days and the journey ahorse about nine. In the buffalo country the winter was spent, and then in the spring the hunters started homeward with as many robes and as much meat as they could carry. Like the Flatheads and the Pend d'Oreilles, the Kalispel, although not addicted to war, were reckless fighters when aroused. In the buffalo plains there were frequent encounters with Blackfeet, Apsaroke, and Sioux. Many of their horses were obtained by raids into the territory of the Coeur d'Alenes, the Nez Perces, and the Yakima, and they were at enmity also with the Kutenai, who sometimes invaded their country for horses. It was from the Flatheads that they acquired the custom of scalping. In I844 Father Hoecken (whom the Indians now speak of as Pelihzikun - Pere Hoecken) established St. Ignatius mission at the mouth of Mission creek and began to teach the Kalispel the outward forms, if not the inward meaning, of Christianity. They proved docile and tractable, but in I854, on account of the annual floods in the valley due to the obstruction at the narrow Box canion, it was deemed best to remove the mission to its present location near Ravalli, Montana. The majority of the two hundred or more Kalispel under their chief Victor (Nskalta) accompanied the priests, but after spending two years in the upper country many of them * Luison, as Red Owl is commonly called, is the son of a Flathead woman and the Nez Perce chief Kulkul-Ahnini, Red Owl, mentioned in Volume VIII. From the fact that the chief bore a Flathead name even among the Nez Perces it is probable that he was at least half Salish. {view image of facing page 52} Red Owl - Flathead [photogravure plate] {view image of page 53} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 53 returned to the valley, and it was not long ere nearly all the others had joined them. In their tiny village on the eastern bank of the Pend d'Oreille they now receive periodical visits from a priest, and on Sundays, when he is absent, the chief assembles his little band in his canvas-covered tipi, and conducts a form of service in which hymns are chanted and prayers recited in the native language. The tribe now includes not more than a hundred persons, whose cabins here and there dot the valley on the eastern side of the river for a distance of some fifteen miles southward from Mission creek. Timothy planted by the priests more than sixty years ago has taken possession of broad meadows, which now yield the hay upon which the people depend almost wholly for their support. Each summer they leave their ill-ventilated cabins and pitch small lodges in a camp at the camas meadow opposite Cusick, Washington, where some semblance of their former life may yet be observed. The smoke curls upward from a dozen tipis. Women, old and young, are scattered over the fields plying their root-diggers and filling their baskets with camas bulbs. A bark canoe slips silently through the water toward the paddler's favorite fishing ground, and on the sloping grassy bank, among other upturned canoes, another boatman bends over his craft, deftly caulking its seams with spruce-gum. Through several generations of youthful marriages and too close inbreeding the people have degenerated into a band of undersized weaklings. Their chief, Masselow (a corruption of the French name Marcellon), son of his predecessor, Victor, controls them more by the aid of tribal custom and the strong right arm of the peace officer, who at his command administers punishment with the lash, than by force of character, which he conspicuously lacks. They have never made a treaty with the Government, and have held their homes only by right of occupancy, but in I909 steps were taken to grant them in severalty lands sufficient for their maintenance. Coeur d'Alenes Directly west of the Flatheads were the Coeur d'Alenes, or, in their own language, Schiftui, occupying the territory surrounding Cceur d'Alene lake, or what is now that portion of Idaho lying between the forty-seventh and the forty-eighth parallels. On the headwaters of Spokane river they adjoined the Upper Spokan, with whom they were on intimate terms. Lexically also the two tribes were closely {view image of page 54} 54 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN akin. Lewis and Clark, who met men of this tribe among the Nez Perces on Clearwater river, give it a population of two thousand persons dwelling in a hundred and twenty lodges, but Stevens's estimate, in 1855, was four hundred and fifty. Within recent years the number has been about four hundred, although there has been so much intermarriage, and there are so many individuals of other tribes on the reservation, that accurate figures are not available. Their reservation at Lake Coeur d'Alene was established by executive order in 1867, and its boundaries were altered in 1872 to include an area of about four hundred thousand acres of excellent land. The Coeur d'Alenes received allotments in severalty in I909, and the surplus land was subsequently opened to settlement. They have for some years been a community of farmers, and afford scant material for a study of their tribal life. Historically they are noteworthy only as having participated in the war of I858, their role in which will be described later. Spokan In eastern Washington, along Spokane river below the Coeur d'Alenes, were three small tribes known collectively as the Spokan, and distinguished as Upper, Middle, and Lower Spokan, according to their respective positions on the river. The first-named held the country on both sides of Spokane river from Post Falls, in Idaho, to the mouth of Hangman creek, a little below the Spokane falls and the site of the present city of Spokane; and from Mount Carlton, on the north, to a line about thirty miles south of the river. In their own language they were Sintutuili, the Muddy (Creek) People, Ntutuuli-mitq being the name of Hangman creek. Their permanent winter camps were along this stream. Adjoining them on the west were Sltnomene, the Salmon-trout People, who claimed the country along the river from a short distance below the mouth of Hangman creek to the present Tumtum, Washington. Their more permanent camps were on Little Spokane river. The Tskaistfilhni, whose name is derived from the native appellation of the Little Falls of the Spokane, about which their camps centered, held the territory from Tumtum to the mouth of the river. These were separate tribes, not bands of the same tribe. Each exercised exclusive control over its fishing and camping grounds along the stream, *Ahlihimtlai, or Little Francois, is the son of a Flathead woman and a half-blood Flathead and Tuniha father. {view image of facing page 54} Ahlahlemila - Flathead [photogravure plate] {view image of page 55} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 55 although they all shared the prairies south of the river for rootdigging, and the hills on the north for gathering berries and hunting game. The language of the Lower Spokan was very slightly different from that which the other two tribes used in common. The Sintutufili and the Sinhomene were closely allied by friendship as well as by language, and in the times of which we have our first definite information, shortly before the middle of the nineteenth century, they were practically one. At that time Ilumhiu-spukani, Chief Sun, or Garry (the Indians pronounce the name as if it were Jerry), was chief of the Sinhomene. Born about 1813, at the age of about twelve years he was taken by Sir George Simpson, governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, to be educated at the company's post on Red river. After five years of schooling he returned to his people, and began to preach and to institute some of the forms of Christian worship among them. As the report of his new teaching spread, people from other tribes came to hear him, and his influence increased until he was head of his tribe. Also, in the place of Naihutumfl-ko, Erect Hair, the senile chief of the Sintutuufili, he caused to be recognized a nephew of the latter; but because of his education and knowledge of the ways of the white mien, he himself was in effect the head-chief of both tribes. All this occurred before the first mission in that part of the country was established, in I839, by the Reverend Elkanah Walker and the Reverend Cushing Eells, among the Lower Spokan at the site of Walker Prairie. This tribe was probably as fertile soil as could have been found in the Northwest for the planting of Christian teachings. The chief, Chisaiakn, Bad Head, or, as he was afterward called, Lillmuailimtdila, Chief Raven, had, in company with a man named OJhopahin, spent years in going among the neighboring tribes, urging peace; first he went to the Nespilim, then successively to the Nez Perces, the Colvilles, and the Kalispel. He was everywhere successful, and from his day to the present time the Lower Spokan have taken part in no fighting. He was succeeded by his son, Hustl-pzustmn, Walking Heart (whom the report of the Federal Census of I890 amusingly dubs " Whistlepossum"), commonly known as Lot. The latter became an ardent supporter of the mission. It is related of him that, having made a visit to Washington in the company of three chiefs from the Colville reservation who asked for annual money, he justified his request for a boardingschool on the ground that money would do the people little good, for when it was spent, it was gone; but a school they would always {view image of page 56} 56 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN have, and what their children learned there they would always know. Following the practice of some of the more westerly Salish, such as the Sanpoel, Nespilim, and Sinkiuse, who respectively called the three tribes collectively Spokenih, Spokenik, Shpokenuh, our name Spokan 1 has been applied to the group as if the three were one. The Lower Spokan have a vague tradition that they once were enemies of the other two tribes. In ancient times there was war between the Middle Spokan and the Coeur d'Alenes, the last fight taking place about the beginning of the eighteenth century; but the Upper Spokan were on friendly terms with both parties. In those days also ceased the old hostility between the Nez Perces and the Upper and Middle Spokan. Horses were obtained, judging from native tradition, in the first decade of the eighteenth century, and guns were acquired a few years later, for the traders were in their country at an early date. The Northwest Company established Spokane House on upper Spokane river early in the nineteenth century, and not long afterward, in the summer of I812, the Pacific Fur Company, commonly known as the Astoria Company, built a competing post on the same stream at the mouth of the Coeur d'Alene. Possessing horses and guns, small parties of Spokan sometimes joined the Flatheads, Nez Perces, Yakima, and Shoshoni in expeditions across the Rocky mountains into the buffalo country, and there they frequently met the Piegan and the Apsaroke in battle. But these journeys to the plains never became of periodic occurrence with the Spokan, as they did with the Flatheads, Kalispel, 1 Etymologically the word seems to be related to spoikani, sun, but the force of the reference is not apparent. It may conceivably have originated among a tribe which thus described a related people living "toward the sun"; however, in the speech of the three tribes mentioned above, spaikani does not appear as the word for sun. In explanation of the term an informant said that when Garry was taken to the Red River country to be educated, he was asked what was his name; that he replied, "Ilumihu-spzkani" (Chief Sun); that by a misconception the white men took the last part of the word to be the name of his tribe. Intrinsically this is highly improbable and chronologically impossible; for the word "Spokanes" was used by the fur-trader Alexander Henry in I8II, and Garry went to school about I825. No less impossible is the proposed derivation from a word meaning "wheat": it is hardly to be supposed that wheat was an article of such importance to the Spokan as to have given them a well-established cognomen as early as I8I. Incidentally the question whether the word is Spoken or Spokan (as it is pronounced throughout the West) is left unsettled. If the derivation is through spakani, the name of the city should, in strictness, be Spokan; if it comes to us through the Salish of Columbia river, it should be pronounced as it is written. The fact that in its earliest recorded form the name of the Indians appears as "Spokanes" is an indication that the city of Spokane is mispronouncing her own name. * The mother of Door-of-lodge Grizzly, who is commonly called Mols, was half Flathead and half Iroquois, and his father was half Flathead and half Nez Perce. {view image of facing page 56} Door-of-lodge grizzly - Flathead [photogravure plate] {view image of page 57} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 57 and Nez Perces. A man born about I834 tells of a journey made in boyhood down the Columbia to a white settlement near the mouth, probably Vancouver, Washington. The party, consisting of nearly a hundred people in seventeen canoes, visited the Indians of the lower river and worked occasionally at sawing wood for the white men, and returned after an absence of a year. On another occasion he and seven others, men and women, made the same journey on horses. From hearsay Lewis and Clark judged the population of the Spokan to be about six hundred, dwelling in thirty houses, and Gibbs, in I853, estimated it as four hundred and fifty. Two years later, however, the number was given by Governor Stevens as eleven hundred, and in i865 the Indian agent reported twelve hundred Spokan. In I9IO the agency census returned six hundred, of whom ninety-six were in Idaho and five hundred and four in Washington. Only once did the Spokan engage in hostilities against the United States. After the conclusion of the Stevens treaties with the Yakima, Nez Perces, and others in I855 the Spokan regarded with apprehension the nearer approach of the multiplying white men; for Governor Stevens had informed them that he would make a treaty with them also. His plan was thwarted by the uprising of the dissatisfied Yakima, Wallawalla, and Cayuse, as well as the numerous coast tribes, and no treaty was ever made with the Spokan. One of the immediate causes of the outbreak was connected with the discovery of gold in the Colville district in northeastern Washington, by which a sudden swarm of prospectors was attracted to that quarter. Inevitably there was friction with the Indians. The Yakima attacked and killed several of the white men, and war broke out. Active hostility ceased in I856, and Kamaiakin, who had been most tireless in arousing the war spirit, crossed the Columbia and began to spread discontent among the Coeur d'Alenes and the Palus, his own tribe. The Coeur d'Alenes and the Spokan were most anxious lest the white men, and especially the soldiers, should enter their country. After the outbreak of the Yakima, when Governor Stevens, hurrying to the coast from a treaty-making council with the Blackfeet, stopped for a conference with the Spokan chiefs, Garry said to him: "I hope that you will make peace on the other side of the Columbia, and keep the soldiers from coming here.... If there were many Frenchmen [former employes of the Hudson's Bay Company, many of whom had settled on Indian lands and made notification under the Donation Act] here, my heart would be like fighting. These French people here have talked too much. I went to the Walla Walla {view image of page 58} 58 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN council, and when I returned I found that all the Frenchmen had gotten their land written down on a paper. I ask them, Why are you in such a hurry to have writings for your lands now? Why don't you wait until a treaty is made? Governor, these troubles are on my mind all the time, and I will not hide them.... When you talk to your soldiers and tell them not to cross Snake river into our country, I shall be glad." A Cceur d'Alene chief said: "You have many soldiers, and I would not like to have them mix among my people." Another repeated the same hope and the same fear: "I would not like to have the whites cross to this side. If the whites do not cross the river, the Indians will all be pleased. We have not made friendship yet.... W.hen we see that the soldiers don't cross the Columbia, we shall believe you take us for your friends."' In the winter of I858 rumors began to be heard to the effect that the Indians in the Colville district were becoming restless, and then occurred the killing by the Palus of two white men on their way to the mines. On the sixth of May, Lieutenant-Colonel E. J. Steptoe, with about one hundred and fifty dragoons and infantry and two howitzers, left the newly established Fort Walla Walla2 to investigate conditions at Colville. He crossed Snake river and marched northward, and on the sixteenth, in the country south of Spokane, he was confronted by about six hundred Indians — Caeur d'Alenes, Spokan, and some Palus-mounted and painted. These offered no violence, but remained massed in his front, shouting and gesticulating. Steptoe moved on slowly and went into camp. The chiefs came to inquire why he had brought soldiers into their country, and although he said his purpose was only to visit Colville on a peaceful mission, they insisted that he turn back. His force was too small, and for some reason too ill-supplied with ammunition, to admit of forcing a passage, hence he agreed to withdraw. At three o'clock in the morning the retreat began, and at daylight the troops were surrounded by an excited mob of Indians, more numerous than ever. In a little while firing began, and a general attack followed. A position was taken on a hill near what is now called Steptoe butte, and the fighting continued until nightfall. Several of the soldiers, including two officers, were lost, and a num1 Stevens, Life of Isaac I. Stevens, Boston, I900, II, 136-I38. 2 Not the same as the Northwest Company post (afterward, by consolidation of the two companies, a Hudson's Bay Company post), which was built in I818 by Donald McKenzie, at the mouth of Walla Walla river, about a mile from the present Wallula, Washington. The United States military post was built by Steptoe in 1856, on ground now occupied by the city of Walla Walla, some twenty-five miles east of the trading-post. {view image of facing page 58} Jerking meat - Flathead [photogravure plate] {view image of page 59} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 59 her of others wounded, and several Nez Perce guides were killed. After a consultation among the remaining officers, the two howitzers were buried and a hurried retreat was begun. Scarcely a halt was made until they reached Snake river, where they were ferried across by some of the Alpowa band of Nez Perces. The following account of this affair by one of the Indian participants is exceptionally clear. "In May the Sintutufili, the Sinhomene, and the Coeur d'Alenes were camping in small groups on the prairie in the vicinity of what is now Spangle, a town south of Spokane. Soldiers on the way to Fort Colville were seen by a hunting party of the Coeur d'Alenes, who brought the news and proposed that we should kill the white men. The soldiers camped after we had surrounded them and had made threatening movements. The head-men were having great trouble in keeping us young men quiet. After the soldiers had camped, Garry and others went and talked with them and persuaded them to go back. In the morning the soldiers started back, but we kept thronging about them, and when the troops came to a narrow valley, we swarmed up on the flanking bluffs. All the time the head-men were trying to hold back the young men. Mountain-sheep, of the Coeur d'Alenes, was one of the elder men. He was also named Milka psi, Eagle Robe. His younger brother, Tsiftiuhsimiu, and Stelaam, another Cceur d'Alene, angry with the chief for his efforts to restrain them, rode forth and shot at the troops. The firing became general on the part of the Cceur d'Alenes, but the Spokan chiefs succeeded for a time in holding us; before long, however, all were engaged in the fighting. The soldiers alternately retreated and halted, but all the time fighting, and always pursued by us. Night came on, and the soldiers halted, while some of us surrounded them, and the others returned to their own camps. Three Caeur d'Alenes had been killed, and I saw four soldiers lying dead. In the night the soldiers went away, leaving their mules, provisions, blankets, and pack-saddles, and in the morning we took what they had left. I got one mule and one horse and three blankets, and my brother got five mules and three blankets. There was no pursuit. We returned to our camps, and at the end of the season for digging roots we moved back to the river, and the Coeur d'Alenes to their lake. Kamaiakin took no part in this fight; he was camping with his three wives and children toward the Coeur d'Alene country, and intentionally kept away. By this he lost some of his influence." Preparations were at once set under way to put an effective force in the field. The garrison at Fort Simcoe in the Yakima country was strengthened by three hundred men, and seven hundred dragoons, infantry, and artillery under Colonel George Wright set out from Fort Walla Walla early in August, 1858. On the morning of {view image of page 60} 60 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN September first, near Medical lake, southwest of the present city of Spokane, Indian scouts were seen on near-by hills, and skirmishers were thrown out to scatter them. When the troops reached the ridge overlooking the lakes, they saw the plain filled with a seething multitude of mounted and highly excited Indians, dashing hither and thither, shouting, singing, brandishing their weapons. While the artillery threw shells into the pines that fringed the lakes, the infantry in open order advanced down the slope, and the Indians, for the first time opposed by soldiers armed with rifles, were forced into the open level country, where the dragoons, charging down between the open ranks of the infantry, quickly put them to flight. At least seventeen were killed, but not a soldier was even wounded. After three days of resting his forces Wright moved northward in the direction in which, his Nez Perce scouts informed him, the enemy had fled. Some twenty miles below the site of Spokane, Indians were seen gathering on the flanks of the troops. The column entered a prairie and found that the grass had been fired, and the smoke, driven by a strong wind, made the position difficult. However, a charge was made through the blazing grass, and the Indians were driven from cover to cover. Fighting constantly, the troops marched on fourteen miles and pitched camp a few miles below the falls of the Spokane. Two days later Wright moved up the river to a point above the falls, and there Garry and others came in to talk about peace. They were told that the surrender must be absolute, and that those who had been concerned in the murder of miners must be given up. Wright detained Polotkin, a chief of the Middle Spokan, and a Palus suspected of complicity in the murder of two white men. The latter was judged guilty and was hanged, but Polotkin was released a few days later and told to assemble his people for the surrender. A few points of information not available in the official reports are furnished in the Indian account. "In the summer came news that soldiers under Colonel Wright were already camping on Snake river. A messenger was sent out among the Sintutufili and the Sinhomene, and another to the Kalispel, and all of our people and the Coeur d'Alenes gathered at Stliuputqui ("swift water" -Spokane falls). Every night war-dances were held, and every day we practised riding, especially did the Coeur d'Alenes. A few days later, about twenty young men of the Kalispel joined us, but the TskaisftiMIni took no part in the war. The next day, scouts having reported the soldiers at Medical lake, we moved {view image of facing page 60} Drying meat - Flathead [photogravure plate] {view image of page 61} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR in that direction and camped. Some of us did not wish to fight, but went to look on. But the others taunted us with being cowards. After making camp, the women went out to dig camas, and at the same time a few men on horses rode to the top of the hills and saw the soldiers approaching. They at once turned back and reported what they had seen, and at that moment the soldiers appeared on the ridge. We mounted and rode to meet them. We were driven back. Kamaiakin was in this fight, and some Nez Perces were present. We were pursued, and driven to the Spokane river. That night we danced, and on the fourth morning we started again toward the soldiers. Scouts had reported that they were advancing toward us, and we met them in a large open prairie. We fired the grass, but it did not burn well. We were driven back into the woods, and retreated up the river. Above the falls Garry and the other chiefs held a council with the soldiers, and Polotkin and a guilty Palus were given up. The chief was released when the soldiers reached St. Mary's mission near the lake, but the Palus was hanged. After the council, the Sinhomene went to the Kalispel country, and the Slntutuuli to the region between Spokane falls and Coeur d'Alene lake. The Coeur d'Alenes and the Palus, who also had been in the two battles, fled to the lake, but they were unable to get away with all their horses, and a great many were captured and killed by the soldiers." After rounding up and killing these eight hundred horses belonging to the Palus chief, Wright continued his march up the Spokane and around to the east of Coeur d'Alene lake, where on September seventeenth he met four hundred of the Coeur d'Alenes in council. They surrendered on his terms, agreeing to abstain from further hostilities, to give up those who had begun the attack on Steptoe, return the goods then captured, and furnish a chief and four men as hostages. Encircling the lake, Wright returned to the Spokane country, and on September twenty-third, at Hangman creek, met by appointment the Sintutufili and the Sinhomene. They surrendered on terms similar to those imposed on the Coeur d'Alenes. On the following morning Qahlchun, the young war-chief of the Pghwanoapam, came into camp and was at once hanged for the murder of certain miners. On the next day fifteen Palus were taken, and six of them, found guilty, were hanged. Thus originated the present name of Hangman creek, which previous to that time had been known by its Indian name as the Lahto, or Latah. There were no executions for the Spokan, because they had taken no part in the treacherous killing of the miners, but had fought openly against the troops. Wright next marched southward into the Palus country, and received their surrender, hanging one of their number and three {view image of page 62} 62 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN refugee Yakima and Wallawalla, and taking a chief and four warriors as hostages. Returning to his post he called a council of the Wallawalla and hanged four of that tribe. Altogether Colonel Wright disposed of fifteen Indians on the gallows - an amazing record for a man who only two years before had received some of these same murderers in his camp and allowed them to depart with assurances of his firm friendship.' Whatever may be thought of the harshness of Wright's methods in this campaign, it must be admitted that they were eminently successful. If in the march of civilization the Indians were to be dispossessed of their lands, conflict was perhaps unavoidable, and decisive measures were more humane for all concerned than the temporizing policy of the army in the trouble with the Yakima. In I887 an inspector of the Interior Department met the Spokan head-men in a conference on the subject of a suitable reservation. Garry, speaking for the Upper and Middle Spokan, asked that the land on both sides of the river from the city of Spokane to Tumtum be given to them, and the land between Tumtum and the Columbia to the Lower Spokan. What they were permitted to hold was much less. In I88I President Hayes reserved for their use the two hundred and forty square miles included within Spokane river, Chamokane creek, the forty-eighth parallel, and the Columbia. This was only a portion of what had belonged to the Lower Spokan alone, and nothing was said of remuneration for the lands added to the public domain at the expense of the three tribes. The Upper and Middle Spokan mostly continued to live in their usual camping places, and in 1887 they consented to removal to the Coeur d'Alene reservation, receiving in return for the relinquishment of all claims to territory outside of existing reservations the sum of ninety-five thousand dollars, payable in ten annual instalments. Fewer than one hundred went to the Coeur d'Alene reservation, the remainder, about two hundred, remaining on Spokane river. Later they were gathered on Spokane reservation, which was allotted in severalty in I909, and in the same year the surplus land was opened to settlement. Colvilles Occupying the country bounded by the divide between Clarks fork (Pend d'Oreille river) and the Columbia, the divide west of Okanagan river, the Columbia river, and Lower Arrow lake and Okanagan lake See page 30. {view image of facing page 62} Flathead female type [photogravure plate] {view image of page 63} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 63 in British Columbia, were five Salishan tribes speaking similar dialects: the Colvilles, Lakes, Sanpoel, Nespilim, and Okanagan. The Colvilles lived in the valley of Colville river and along both sides of the Columbia from Kettle falls to the mouth of the Spokane. They called themselves Sohhweihlp, and were known to the Spokan and to some others as Shuyih7pi. By Lewis and Clark they were variously styled Whe-el-po, Que-al-po, Ho-hil-po, and Se-lal-po. These explorers obtained their information about the Salishan tribes from Indians on the lower Columbia, mainly Shahaptians, and naturally it was not exact. They supposed these four names to represent as many different tribes, and located them at various places along Clarks fork (Pend d'Oreille river), from the mouth of the Flathead to the region below Box cafion. They indicate on the map that the Whe-el-po are "noumerous," and in the Statistical View credit them with a population of twenty-five hundred, in one hundred and thirty houses. Based on the statements of tribes far removed from the people in question, the estimate is worth little. Stevens, in I855, estimated their number at five hundred, and twenty years later the Indian agent reported six hundred and fifty. In I90o the population was about four hundred. The Colvilles early took kindly to agriculture, and as the families scattered and occupied their farms they years ago lost all trace of tribal organization. There is a very considerable admixture of white blood in the Colvilles of the present day. In April, 1872, President Grant established the country bounded by the Columbia river, the forty-ninth parallel, Clarks fork (Pend d'Oreille river), the one hundred and seventeenth meridian, the Little Spokane, and Spokane river, as a reservation for the Colvilles, Methow, Okanagan, Sanpoel, and Lakes, as well as for the Kalispel, Spokan, and Cceur d'Alenes. None of these had entered into treaty relations with the United States. Three months later this tract was restored to the public domain, and in its stead was substituted, as the Colville reservation, the country bounded by the Columbia, the Okanagan, and the forty-ninth parallel. There was great opposition among the Colvilles to the exchange, for it meant that they must give up their homes in the Colville valley and move into territory claimed by the Lakes, Sanpoel, Nespilim, and Okanagan. Eventually, however, they yielded and crossed the Columbia. The Kalispel and the Coeur d'Alenes, on the other hand, and most of the Spokan never settled on the Colville reservation. In I900 the northern half of the reserve, excepting such portions as had been allotted to Indians, was opened to settlement. {view image of page 64} 64 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Lakes The Lake Indians, or, as they call themselves, Slnaaifikstuk, formerly held the Kettle river valley and that of the Columbia from Kettle falls to Lower Arrow lake, in Washington and British Columbia. The fishing season, from June until autumn, was spent in the south around Kettle falls, a splendid fishery which they shared with the Colvilles. The two tribes were very closely related, and used practically the same dialect. In 1875 the Lake tribe was reported by the agent to number two hundred and forty-two on the Colville reservation, but there were probably some across the border who were not enumerated. In 191o the number was returned as two hundred and ninety-four, including some Colvilles. Sanpoel The Sanpoel occupied the valley of the stream that bears their name, and the shores of the Columbia between the Spokane and the Sanpoel, its tributaries. They have been called Sans Poils, and even Sans Puelles, in the belief that their name is corrupt French. In reality it is of native origin. They call themselves SYnpoelihuh, and to all their Salish relations from the Rocky mountains to the Cascades they are known by variants of this name. Each spring the Sanpoel crossed the Columbia to camp in the neighborhood of the present Coulee City, Washington, and dig roots; about the first of July they returned to the river to build their fish-weir at the mouth of the Sanpoel. They were few, probably never exceeding two hundred: certain estimates of agency officials, placing the number in excess of three hundred, were the result of duplicate counting by two enumerators, one on each side of the river. In I9IO the number returned was one hundred and eighty-nine. Nespilim The Nespilim occupied the valley of the river of that name, which flows into the Columbia about thirty miles west of the Sanpoel, and the adjacent portion of the lands bordering on the Columbia. They called themselves Stnspilih, and their river Nspilii, the word referring to a large, open meadow beside a stream, in particular the meadow just below the village of Nespilim. Early estimates of their number are not available, for the reason that they, like their {view image of facing page 64} On Nespilim creek [photogravure plate] {view image of page 65} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 65 neighbors and close friends, the Sanpoel, long refused to hold any communication with representatives of the Government, although they were altogether within the bounds of the Colville reservation. In I892 they were said to be sixty-two. In I9Io the number was reported as forty-five; but in 1907, and again in I909, the testimony of the natives themselves was that there were very few Nespilim living. Okanagan On both sides of the Okanagan from its confluence with the Columbia to its source north of the Canadian boundary lived the Okanagan, in the Salishan dialects known by many variants of the form Okna6ken. Strictly speaking, the Okanagan were only one of several bands residing along this stream, but because of its numerical strength its name was used to designate the entire group. About the middle of the nineteenth century, Hustais-summatiaiakn, Walking Grizzly-bear, chief of the Sinstipiftah, a band at Omak lake, was influential among all the Okanagan bands. It was he who prevented them from becoming involved in the hostilities of I855 and I856 by advising the head-men to deprive their young men of ammunition. Stevens, in I857, gave the number of the Okanagan as six hundred, and in I91O the agent reported five hundred and thirty-eight, all on the Colville reservation. Methow Speaking dialects that differed little from one another, but somewhat more from those spoken by the Indians of the Colville group, was a considerable number of tribes on the Columbia below the mouth of Okanagan river, the westernmost of the inland Salish within the United States. These fall into three groups - the Methow, the Sinkiuse, and the Wenatchee. The Methow (Met-ho), or, in their language, Mit6i, lived on the Methow river. By some informants their name is applied as well to the tribes on the western side of the Columbia as far down as Entiat creek; but others include these under the term Wenatchee, which demonstrates the lack of any real organization among these Salishan groups. Lewis and Clark, in i806, found eleven scattering lodges of the "Metcowwee" (probably a misprint for Meteowwee) on the northern side of the Columbia a few miles above John Day river, but there is no evidence that the body of the tribe ever inhabVOL. VII-5 {view image of page 66} 66 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN ited that region, or that any portion of it was permanently there. They were given rights in the Columbia reservation, established in 1879, and when this land was restored to the public domain in I886, some of them settled in the Nespilim valley on the Colville reservation, while others exercised the privilege of accepting allotments of six hundred and forty acres in their own country. In I870 they were estimated to number about three hundred. A few are still living in the Colville reservation. Sinkiuse Srnkaieus' is the name applied by the Colvilles, as is SYnkaeusi by the Kalispel, to a group of bands geographically associated in the region between the Columbia and that series of depressions in the earth's crust beginning in the Grand coulee and continuing in a number of small closed lakes, the lower course of Crab creek, Moses lake, and the sink of Crab creek. They are variously known as the Columbias, the Isle de Pierre (referring to Rock island in the Columbia below the mouth of the Wenatchee), Moses Band, and Sinkiuse (an adaptation of the Kalispel and Colville form). These tribes had their village sites along the Columbia at places where the rapids made good fisheries. Near the mouth of the sink of Crab creek were the Snkzumkunatkuh, and above them the Sinkolkoluminuh. Then came in succession the Stapisknuh, the Skukulatkuh, the Skoahchnuh, the Skihlkmntnuh, and, finally, the Skultaqchimh, a little above the mouth of Wenatchee river. The Skoahchnuh, at Rock Island rapids, opposite the mouth of Moses coulee, were at one time the most important of the group, because of their chief Suikiitalkosum, who was practically head-chief of all the bands, as well as very influential among the Salishan tribes west of the Columbia. According to his son, Qaiifta, he was a rover and a fighter. He was accustomed to lead some of his people into the Missouri River plains for buffalo, travelling in company with hunters of the Okanagan, Spokan, Coeur d'Alenes, Kalispel, and Flatheads. One year a Blackfoot chief sent a challenge to them to remain in the plains until summer, when he promised them 1 Mr. James Teit supplies an interesting bit of information. He was told by a reliable member of the tribe that the Sinkiuse, according to tradition, had migrated to the upper Columbia from a region lying south of that river, a region which was known as Kaiyus; hence the tribal designation. From this it is reasonably certain that these Salish bands formerly lived south of the Columbia, probably near Walla Walla river; and that the Cayuse, occupying the country after them, came to be known by the Salishan name of the region. {view image of facing page 66} A dance in the forest - Flathead [photogravure plate] {view image of page 67} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 67 a good fight. SuikuitShlk6sum had always been victorious in his encounters with the Blackfeet, and believed himself invulnerable to bullets. He decided to remain. In the summer he was attacked by double his number. The chief, who was left-handed, was shot in the left arm, his followers fled, and he, left alone, was surrounded and killed. This occurred, says Qaiifta, about 1840; Stevens, from information received in 1853, says, "He was killed a few years since in a fight with the Blackfeet." Besides Qaiifta he left two sons, Quiltninak, whom the Yakima called Kulteminee, or, as Stevens wrote it, Quiltomee, and his younger brother, Moses, who for a time had attended the mission school of the Spaldings at Lapwai. Qiltninak gradually grew into the place left vacant by his father. He attended the treaty council in the Walla Walla valley in 1855, and spoke favorably for the treaties, although he did not sign, at least not under this name. His people, and all other Salishan tribes as far up the Columbia as the Okanagan, were to be placed on the Yakima reservation. When the war of I855 began, Kamaiakin sent a messenger to Quiltninak and Moses, asking their help. They took as many as would go, a few men from each band, and arrived at the scene of hostilities at the close of a skirmish with the command of Major Rains at Union Gap, on Yakima river. A spent bullet struck Moses, and, failing to wound him, caused him to think himself invulnerable. A year later the two brothers and some followers were with the Yakima and the Pshwanoapam at Nachess creek when Colonel Wright's force was encamped on the opposite bank, and Quiltninak and Moses were two of those who crossed and made promises to observe peace. But, instead of gathering their people within five days to surrender, they hurried away and crossed the Columbia, and Wright saw them no more. "In the following year," says Qaiifta, "Moses began to express hatred of the white people, and said he would fight the soldiers, but his brother restrained him. One day Quiltninak crossed the Columbia to visit his wife, who was of the Wenatchee people. He saw soldiers crossing the Wenatchee river. Some one began to taunt him, saying he was a coward, and not a man like Moses, whereon Quiltninak seized a gun and shot the officer dead. The soldiers immediately wheeled, and fighting began. Quiltninak was killed. That night, Tkolukn, chief of the Wenatchee, went down from the village to see his friend's body, and the soldiers killed him." The reference here is probably to a detachment of sixty men sent by Major R. S. Garnett in August, I858, to arrest {view image of page 68} 68 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN some refugee murderers of miners. Moses became the next chief of the Skoahchnuh, and his influence among the neighboring tribes along the Columbia was almost as great as had been his father's. In 1878 friction between the pioneers and the Indians of the upper Columbia became acute. Moses was arrested, and the garrison of Fort Simcoe in the Yakima valley was strengthened. In the following spring Moses was sent to Washington, and President Hayes created for him and his people, and such other tribes as it was deemed advisable to settle thereon, the Columbia reservation, consisting of a large portion of the land bounded by the Okanagan river, the forty-ninth parallel, the Cascade mountains, and the southern shore of Lake Chelan and its principal tributary. In I880 the reserve was enlarged to include all the land within these boundaries. But certain miners and settlers claimed prior rights in parts of this area. Another source of discord was the dissatisfaction of other Indians, principally Okanagan, who had remained on the western side of their river and hence were within the limits of the Columbia reservation, that Moses, whom they characterized as a gambler, thief, liar, drunkard, and murderer, had been made chief over them, who were peaceable, law-abiding, industrious farmers. In their indictment of Moses they were probably overstating the case, notwithstanding the fact that all uncivilized Indians are gamblers, and most of them have no compunction in stealing the horses of those who have taken their land; and that Moses had participated in the war twenty years before and may possibly have killed one of the few soldiers who fell. Probably the objections of the slighted Okanagan chiefs weighed less than the protests of the interested white men in determining the course of the authorities. In I883 General Miles summoned Moses to his headquarters at Fort Vancouver, and then sent him with three other chiefs to Washington. There they signed an agreement that the Indians within the Columbia reserve should either move into the Colville reservation or else receive, within the former, allotments of six hundred and forty acres for each head of a family. This agreement was ratified in the following year, and Moses was accompanied to the new home on Nespilim creek by four bands - the Skoahchnuh, Sinkolkoluminuh, Stapisknuh, and Skukulatkuh. The total population of the tribes included under the name Sinkiuse was estimated in 1870 to be about one thousand. Those living on Colville reservation in I9Io numbered five hundred and twenty-one, but this enumeration takes no account of those who received allotments outside the reservation. {view image of facing page 68} A drink - Flathead [photogravure plate] {view image of page 69} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 69 Wenatchee The Wenatchee were a group of small tribes whose territory extended from Lake Chelan to Wenatchee river. The name by which they are commonly known is of Shahaptian origin, the Yakima words JVinatfha and aVinatfhapam designating respectively the fishery at the forks of the Wenatchee river and the band which lived at that particular place. The Wenatchee call this band Sinpisqo6soi, whence the name Pisquows, or Piscaous, which is sometimes applied to them. Individually distinct, but generally included in the term Wenatchee, are the following bands: SfSilamui, at the outlet of Tsilan, or Lake Chelan; Svntiitqkumuh, along Ntihtq, or Entiat creek; Srnialkamuh, on the Columbia between Entiat creek and Wenatchee river; Sinkamchimuh ("mouth of river"), at the mouth of the Wenatchee; STnthahamchimuh, higher up on the Wenatchee; and Spnpusq6osoh, at the forks of the Wenatchee, where the town of Leavenworth, Washington, now stands. Closely related to these bands were those of the upper Yakima river, beginning with the KititaAh, on Kittitas creek. The Wenatchee proper, through their chief Tkolukn, and possibly the other bands, were parties to the treaty of I855. It was planned to remove to the proposed Yakima reservation all of these upper Columbia tribes. The treaty meant little to them, however, and very few ever joined the Yakima. Some eventually settled on the Colville reservation, but the majority of the Wenatchee bands exercised the privilege of taking allotments within their native range. Since early days they have been on intimate terms with the Yakima bands, and are much intermarried, so that many Shahaptian words have been incorporated into their language; and indeed the remnants of the Salishan bands of the upper Yakima river have adopted the Shahaptian tongue. Salishan Culture The type of dwelling constructed in primitive times by the Salishan tribes of the interior was the framework of poles covered with tule, or cattail, mats. It was as often elliptical as circular, and the Sanpoel always used the elliptical form. In winter related families occupied an elongated lodge with an entrance at each end, and a fire and a smoke-hole for each family occupying the house. The easterly tribes to a greater or less extent used buffalo-skins for lodge {view image of page 70} 70 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN covers, and, in fact, the Flatheads have no recollection of the mat covering. Their average lodge was covered with ten skins; many were smaller, and a few required the use of twelve skins. The mat lodge of the Spokan was about fifteen feet in height. In winter an underground house with a single small opening in the roof was in general use for sleeping quarters. All of these tribes subsisted largely on salmon, such roots as camas and kouse, and berries, especially choke-cherries and huckleberries. Extensive game-drives for deer were held in the fall, and the more easterly tribes, especially the Flatheads and the Kalispel, and to a less extent the Coeur d'Alenes and the Spokan, hunted in the buffalo country.1 Two methods of driving game were practised. A wooded gully having been surrounded, the men advanced simultaneously and drove the deer before them past hunters stationed at a narrow passage. The other method was learned, according to the Spokan, in a dream. The originator collected all the old moccasins available, and hung them on trees around a fairly extensive basin. Then he sent four men in to drive the deer out to the edge. Of course the animals would not pass the man-smelling moccasins, and they were shot whenever they came into view and stopped in fright. A Spokan informant says that he himself saw a hundred and ninety-nine deer killed in the first drive of this kind used by his people. Governor Stevens describes almost the same practice. "I have heard of an ingenious method of hunting deer which is practised by the Indians. When the Coeur d'Alenes, Pend Oreilles, Spokanes, and Nez Perces meet together to fish and hunt, they form a large circle, and upon the trees, around its circumference, attach pieces of cloth made to resemble the human figure as much as possible. Then the hunters enter the area and start up the deer. Each cloth having the effect of a man, the deer, being afraid to pass them, 1 Buffalo formerly ranged in the basin between the Rocky and the Bitterroot mountains, but became extinct there at an early date. Whether these tribes began to cross the mountains to the plains of the upper Missouri before they acquired horses is a question impossible to decide. Ross Cox, in 1814, was told by the Flatheads that "their forefathers had always claimed and exercised the right of hunting" east of the mountains. It is quite probable that the custom followed as a direct result of the increasing difficulty of killing buffalo in their own country. About i869 a Flathead named Kaufhi, Broken Leg, who was commonly known as Samuel, crossed the mountains to the Sun river country. The following spring he returned driving with the pack-horses two pair of yearling buffalo. He had taken them as calves after killing the cows, and had kept them all winter. At night he tethered them. They had become quite used to the sight and scent of people. The four increased to ten or more, which were sold to Michelle Pablo, a half-breed Mexican and Piegan, for five hundred dollars. The herd grew to number approximately four hundred and fifty, and in I907 the greater portion was sold to the Canadian authorities to be placed in Banff Park, Alberta. {view image of facing page 70} Flathead mother [photogravure plate] {view image of page 71} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 7I are kept within the circle and easily killed. Last year the Pend Oreilles killed eight hundred in one hunt; the Coeur d'Alenes, more than four hundred."' In the spring roots were dug, and about June the people returned to the streams and speared salmon. As soon as the water fell below the highest stage, they began to construct weirs across the smaller streams and to fish with dip-nets at the rapids of the Columbia. In July began the season of digging fresh camas, which continued indefinitely until a sufficient supply had been accumulated. After the great fall hunt the tribe disbanded, each small group of a few related families building its long lodge in a sheltered place in the valley. The fishing implements of the Spokan may be taken as typical of the region. The fish-spear consisted of a shaft and a detachable barb made of three pointed bits of bone bound together and connected with the shaft by a line. The construction of a weir was begun by erecting a tripod of stout posts in the water at each bank, and similar tripods at intervals across the stream. These were used to support two lines of six-inch poles, one at the surface, the other at the bottom of the water. The space between the two lines of poles was protected by interwoven tules, and on the down-stream side a single panel of similar fencing was constructed at an oblique angle from the shore to one of the tripods in the stream. This contained two openings large enough to admit the passage of the salmon, which, entering the quiet water thus enclosed, were speared from the shore or the top of the weir. In the fall, when the salmontrout were running down-stream, the trap was built on the upper side of the weir. At waterfalls a stout pole was thrust horizontally into the bank, and from it was suspended a very large tule basket in such a position that fish trying to ascend the falls would strike a framework above the basket and drop back into it. A conical basket-trap with a funnel-shaped opening at the larger end was made of cattails and used at the bottom of smaller streams for taking trout and salmon-trout. It was sometimes used in connection with the weir, being placed above the opening in mid-stream. The fishhook consisted of two sharp bones crossing each other at right angles. Canoes were of two kinds. The one manufactured by the Kalispel, Pend d'Oreilles, Colvilles, and Lakes consists of a single large piece of white-pine bark shaped over a framework of strips, usually cedar, and requires six days for the making. It rides low in the 1 Stevens, Life of Isaac I. Stevens, Boston, 1900, I, 390. {view image of page 72} 72 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN water, and is fourteen to sixteen feet in length. Among the Spokan and the westerly Salishan tribes dugouts, fifteen to twenty-five feet long and carrying three to eight men, were made, the Spokan using pine logs, the others cedar. The tree was felled by means of elkhorn chisel and stone maul, hollowed out by burning with hot stones, and finished with a horn-pointed adze. All these tribes used the single-bladed paddle, shifting from one side to the other after two or three strokes. Basketry was an art common to all these tribes. Vessels made of coiled cedar-roots bound together with white or dyed bear-grass were used for boiling food by means of heated stones, and also for gathering berries. The designs formed by the use of black beargrass, made so by immersion in a bed of blue clay, usually represented animals. For containing dried fish, roots, and berries, were the bags woven of twisted cedar-bark, and the flat wallet so common among the Nez Perces was made of wild hemp. The mortar, consisting of a cedar-root basket lined with rawhide, was used in reducing seeds to coarse flour, and wooden bowls were hollowed out of wood by burning and cutting. Knives were slivers of flint chipped into shape. When steel knives were first brought among the Colvilles, one of them was considered an excellent price for a wife. Among the Columbia River tribes yarn of the hair of the mountaingoat was woven into blankets of rather coarse texture, and the Nespilim and the Kalispel women also made robes of strips of fur from the muskrat, the beaver, and the otter, while the Sanpoel sometimes used a long, soft grass. Men and women bathed together in the stream, usually after a sweat-bath. Occasional baths were taken in a pit filled with water heated with stones. The clothing of both sexes was made in the common style of the plains. Much attention was bestowed on the hair. The men doubled it up behind and tied it in a knot, cut the forelock square at the level of the nose and curled it upward by first rolling it on a heated stick. This was done every morning after the bath. About I850 they began to leave the forelock uncut and to throw it back above the forehead, while at the sides the hair hung in two braids in front of the shoulders, and at the back fell loosely. As a rule the women made a braid at each side, doubled it up, and wrapped it with strings of bone beads. They now allow the braids to hang in front of the shoulders. Until about 1845 the custom of wearing a small bone spike or a dentalium shell in the nasal septum was in vogue. {view image of facing page 72} A Flathead chief [photogravure plate] {view image of page 73} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 73 Chieftainship was hereditary. The council, consisting of the elder men and the younger ones of proved ability, met to select the successor of the deceased chief, but by custom their choice was limited to the men of his family; and as a rule his eldest son was named. If more than one relative was available, there might be some discussion. Speeches were made in favor of the various candidates, and, as a Spokan informant says, "after all the speeches were made, everybody all at once came to the same opinion." The expression aptly describes the usual method of the Indian council in reaching an understanding: in most cases the minority felt itself in the minority and said nothing to oppose the general verdict. It was expected of the chief that he would preserve peace within the tribe, select the camping places, and decide when to move. As occasion arose he would summon by name the old men and the sub-chiefs either for the discussion of important questions or merely for a feast. One of the duties of a chief was to bear a present to the lodge of a dying person, and there to offer good advice and consolation. Among the Flatheads, who have adopted more of the plains culture than the others, the chief, mounted or afoot, went every morning and every evening about the camp, exhorting the people to be honest, to avoid lying and stealing and quarrelling, to be brave, hospitable, and kind. Before setting out for the buffalo hunt, he made a speech: "You know there are many widows and orphans among us. You"-here he addressed the owners of the best buffalo-horses - "are the ones to take pity on the poor." After the hunt those who had been lucky in the chase shared their meat with the needy. A visitor to the tribe went first to the lodge of the chief, who at once gave up to him the seat of honor at the back of the lodge, and called for water, of which he himself gave the guest to drink. He filled the pipe, and they smoked. Unless the visitor had friends among the people he remained there until some newly made acquaintance invited him. The chief urged the people to give presents to the guest. It is said that several generations ago, before the time of any one now living, it was the practice for the parents to send a daughter to the family of the man whom they wished for a son-in-law. This was superseded by the custom of the father, or the young man himself, or the chief, going to the parents of the girl desired, and concluding the match with them. Among the Flatheads and the Spokan there was no payment or exchange of presents, but the Kalispel and {view image of page 74} 74 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN the Colvilles required a trifling remuneration, such as a robe, or a pair of bear-skins, or a wedge and maul, to soothe the feelings of parents not too well satisfied with the prospective son-in-law. Often a desirable young man, that is, a successful hunter and fisher, was sought by parents as a husband for their daughter, even after the later mode of match-making had been adopted. A typical love-song of the Sinkiuse is here given. The air was repeated ad libitum with such improvised words as these: "I love you, I love you dearly. I am thinking of you; how I love you. When I see you, we will go far from here, where there are many people. You will ride a horse: we will go on pretty horses. I am lonesome: when I marry you, I shall be happy. Let us go travelling to different places, where there are many people. We must go. Do not think about your mother. Why do you like your mother? When you come with me, we shall be happy always." M. M. =-92 c: There were neither clans nor gentes, and recognized blood relationship was the only bar to marriage. Polygyny was practised by those who could support more than one wife, and the younger sisters of a man's first wife, on attaining the marriageable age, usually became his wives as a matter of course. When a man died, a porwas appropriated by his brothers. The wife retained her own belongings, but had no share in the husband's portion. The discrimination thus recognized was compensated by the provision that one of the deceased man's brothers was expected to marry her, as a mark of respect to the dead. She could marry another only with their permission, and a man who should take her without their consent could be killed with perfect right. There was no prescribed form of procedure in cases of adultery: the settlement was entirely in the procedure in cases of adultery:-the settlement was entirely in the {view image of facing page 74} Flathead maiden [photogravure plate] {view image of page 75} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 75 hands of the woman's husband. Whipping as a punishment for various offences, such as adultery, theft, drunkenness, murder, was introduced by the Spokan chief Garry, after his return from the Red River school. It gradually spread among many of the Salishan tribes of the interior, and is still in force among the Kalispel. Children were named a few days after birth, usually by the father or the grandfather, in the presence of the family and relations. The name chosen was that of some deceased person, either an ancestor or a well-known personage. Since a name was regarded as a part of the individual, it could not be given to a child or assumed by an adult without his permission. A "good name" -one believed to be capable of bringing its bearer good fortune- sometimes was sold for as much as a horse. Customs attendant upon the attainment of puberty by girls differed somewhat among the tribes. A Nespilim girl's hair was braided, and the two braids doubled up and bound with strips of fur; this was indicative of her womanhood. Then a circular piece of deerskin, fringed at the circumference, was placed on her head. Just after sunset she left the little wickiup in which she lived alone and went to the top of a hill, where she danced and prayed to the sun: "Give me long life, health, long hair, and good looks!" This she repeated in the morning just before sunrise, and so continued to do until her ten days of solitude were ended. The practice was abandoned soon after the arrival of white people in the country. Among the Spokan a girl just arrived at puberty was sent to a small, rude shelter erected especially for her. At sunset she painted her face with red ochre, and then after darkness had fallen she went into the hills and at various points piled up stones, and returned late at night. This was intended, by supernatural means, to give her strength of body, and to afford the spirit creatures an opportunity to speak to her and grant her their protection. During the day she gathered wood, which the old women carried from her lodge to their own. The girl remained apart from the people for ten days. The custom fell into disuse about I850. A Kalispel girl was despatched by her grandmother into the hills. As she went she offered a prayer to every conspicuous object - to an old stump, for example: "I pray that I may become as old as you are!" To a large tree she would pray: "I ask that I may become as strong as you are!" At intervals she would build cairns, usually on mountain peaks. She took no food and was expected to eat nothing during the six or eight days she remained out. At night she kindled {view image of page 76} 76 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN a fire by means of the fire-drill. When passing a fine patch of berries, she would gather a few, but would not eat them; instead she built a little platform of sticks and placed them on it while she prayed: "When I am a woman, may I have success in gathering berries like you!" After this experience she was called a woman, and was ready to be married. A corpse was deposited in a grave just large enough to receive it, or was laid at the foot of the hills and covered with stones, the place being marked with poles. When any one died, the chief announced the fact to the camp and directed that all preserve quiet and remain as much as possible within their lodges until the burial had taken place. The relations and friends assembled in the lodge, wailing, and one of the same sex as the deceased was chosen to prepare the corpse for burial. After he had washed the body from head to foot, and painted the face red, it was raised and made to assume a life-like appearance, while the relatives and friends bore, as tokens of affection, usually some article of their own personal apparel. In as many of these articles as could be used the body was then dressed, and a blanket spread over it. Thus it was carried to the grave by the chief and some assistants, and interred reclining on the back with the head toward the east. The gifts not already used in clothing the body were placed in the grave with it. Horses were sometimes killed at the grave and skinned, the hide being hung on a near-by tree and the meat left lying on the ground. It was not believed that the spirits of the horses accompanied the soul, for there was no definite conception of the future world, but the animals were killed as a mark of respect for the dead: he had liked them, hence no one else must use them. When a woman was buried, the thatching of the lodge was rolled up and tied in a tree near the grave. After the burial the people returned to the lodge, and the chief brought food, calling out, "We will waste our food for this dead person!" It was divided among the old people, who took it to their respective lodges. He then commanded all not to paint their faces for four days, nor to permit children to play noisily. In earlier times men and women in mourning cut the hair at the level of the ears and refrained from painting their faces until the hair had grown to its normal length. Men also docked the tails of their horses. Mourners frequently went alone into the mountains to fast and weep. The practice of giving away all of one's possessions when a close relation had died was sometimes observed, and on such an occasion a woman also "threw away" even her name. {view image of facing page 76} Flathead horse trappings [photogravure plate] {view image of page 77} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 77 The religious ideas and the ceremonial practices of these Salishan tribes were characterized by great simplicity. They held the common animistic conception of the universe, but none of the supernatural powers had advanced to the rank of a formally and generally worshipped deity. The Flatheads, on account of their closer association with the plains tribes, had begun to adopt their form of the sun and earth cult before the arrival of white priests among them. Whenever they filled a pipe they symbolically offered smoke to these two deities; the aid of the sun was sought in difficult and important undertakings; and before food was eaten, a prayer was uttered: "To have a good meal, and to live long and free of affliction and grief, I pray." Then, holding a piece of food up toward the sun and down to the earth, the suppliant placed it in a little hole in the ground. They never acquired the Sun Dance. Among the tribes of the Columbia the so-called dreamer cult was in evidence. It was strongest, or at least survived longest, among the Nespilim and the Sanpoel. An aged informant of the latter tribe thus described its origin among the Sanpoel: "A very old man had a dream. He called his children and his grandchildren, arranged them in a circle, and passed the pipe. He said: 'I am going to tell you of the dream I have had.' 'We shall be glad to hear this dream,' they replied. He began: 'I will tell just as it appeared to me. The dream told me that we are to assemble and stand in a circle, and dance. It is not to be a dance of merriment, but a dance of worship.' 'We will do anything you say,' they answered; 'perhaps this will be a good thing for us.' 'Then let all stand up!' commanded the old man. 'There was a song given to me in the dream, a song of worship, which I will sing to you. When I cease singing, you will sit down and hold your open hands on a level with your heads.' "So it was done, and this was the first religious worship our people had. After the dance a spirit came to each one and transformed his nature, made him without desire to do anything except to sing and dance, and to each was given the song the leader had used. This dance continued throughout the winter; men, women, and children did nothing else. When spring came, the dreamer said: 'There is another thing: we will be tempted in many ways. Some, perhaps all, will go to eat, and the food will fall suddenly to the ground. Do not take that. Let it go, it is a temptation of evil. If any are digging roots, and something drops to the ground, do not pick it up, for it is evil. Let the pickers of berries observe the same rule.' "And just so it happened. When the time came to gather roots, things would drop, apparently of their own accord, spilling in spite {view image of page 78} 78 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN of everything the people could do; and later, berry-baskets would be knocked over through unknown causes; but nobody was tempted to pick them up, for they belonged to an evil spirit. The dreamer commanded that when any one gathered food, or articles for any purpose, the things should first be placed on a robe, while a prayer of thanksgiving was offered for each article. "Before this time there had been a great famine. The people had then had no prayers, no worship, only the belief in the animal spirits which appeared in dreams and fasting. In the famine nearly all the people died; only a few were left. After the worship-dance was dreamed, just divisions of fish and game were made, and there were no more quarrels between individuals striving for leadership. People then went hunting only in regularly organized parties, and the game taken was divided equally among the people who needed meat." The belief in the efficacy of dreams and the power of prophecy was absolute, and still persists among the older Sanpoel. Some years ago the dreamer Skolaskin predicted the end of the world, and commanded the people to build an ark in which to ride the flood that was to destroy the earth. A considerable amount of timber was whip-sawed, and still remains piled up, a witness to their confidence in dreamers. The remarkable feature of the incident is that Skolaskin, although he lost some prestige with the younger members of the band, still remained the most influential person in the tribe. The Colvilles have been known to destroy their winter's supply of dried fish at the command of a prophet, in the belief that the end of the world was at hand. Simple as were their conceptions and rituals, these tribes ordered their daily life with due reference to the supernatural powers. This may be illustrated by the customs of the Spokan in fishing and hunting. About the first of June, at the beginning of the season for spearing salmon, a man known as etfihiitetqifh moved his lodge to the fishery and passed several nights there with his family. He slept alone, that dreams might come. When he had dreamed, the people moved camp to the river, and after the lodges were pitched he related his dream, which always was one of prediction, as, for example, that a certain kind of animal would be found at a certain place. If the prediction was verified, it was regarded as an omen of good luck, and the fishing season was open. Seldom did any one attempt to take fish before this formality had been observed. An informant once saw a man using his spear before the dreamer had performed ' Etfshiit means "first," but the significance of the remainder of the word is unknown. {view image of facing page 78} Flathead baby-carrier [photogravure plate] {view image of page 79} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 79 his function, but, try as he would, he could not bring out a fish. The ability to act in this capacity was believed to be obtained from the spirit creatures which appeared to boys in lonely places. When at the winter ceremony he first announced that he possessed medicine, he said that it was good for the purpose of opening the fishing season. Then, in the following summer, an old man who had been performing this function might go to him and bid him try his magic power. If the novice's dream proved true, he was regarded as a genuine dreamer, and he thenceforth had the right to act in this capacity; but if his dream proved false, it was known that his medicine was not good, and he was not allowed to act again. It was necessary then for the older man to start the season auspiciously, which he accomplished by spearing a fish before anyone else attempted it. Men who performed a similar duty at the beginning of the netfishing season were called efSchemtiwili. Occasionally one man filled both positions. When the first snow fell, the autumn hunting began, practically every person in the tribe participating, and each family taking its rush lodge. A man whom some spirit had supposedly endowed with supernatural ability particularly applicable to hunting, who, furthermore, had revealed this fact at the winter ceremony and had later proved himself, was the director of the hunt. He always led the party of hunters, and when he reached the edge of the gully or basin which he proposed to beat, he halted, sat down, and smoked. Then he directed the men to surround the area and drive the game out of cover, while he himself walked through the middle. If his medicine was potent, the deer were found to be not wild: they stood and looked at the hunters. If the hunting continued to be unsuccessful for some days, the leader would say to the others: "I have not dreamed of a deer. For many days we have hunted, and I have been lying awake, but I cannot dream of a deer. I am afraid. Perhaps some one of you has dreamed." If in the party there was anybody who as a child had been promised by some spirit animal that he should always be a good hunter, he would come forth and say that he had had a dream. He would then relate it, and predict the killing of a certain kind of animal at a certain time of day. If the prediction proved correct, he ecame the leader of the hunt, and would sing his songs in the coming winter's ceremony. An old Spokan illustrated the part religious belief plays in hunting by the following narration: {view image of page 80} 8o THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN "Before white men came, animals and people used to talk to each other. One year we were having very bad luck in the tribal hunt. Some days the whole party, which was a large one, killed one or two deer, never more. We were in the Okanagan country. I was feeling very sorry. One night, while I slept, Badger, who was my medicine, said to me: 'Look at that gully. I will appear on the other side in the form of a grizzly-bear. To-morrow go into that gully, and if you kill me you may as well turn back to your own country, for you will not kill any deer. If you do not kill me, you may stay here and hunt, and you will have good luck. When you reach that gully, do not put any one on the western side of it, but go on that side yourself. If you put any of your boys on the western side, I will kill one of them.' When, the next day, we arrived at the place Badger had shown me, the head-man told us which way to go. He sent my son and my grandson to the western side, one above and one below, and I went in the middle. I was anxious, wondering if the grizzly-bear would kill one of my boys. By and by I heard the bushes crack, and the noise of something coming. I thought it was one of my boys. Across the creek I waited on a rocky bench. I could hear my boy near by whistling. Then I heard the grizzly-bear coming behind me. He was following me. I went back a little way and saw him; I raised my gun and he still came on, so I shot, and he threw himself down, but quickly jumped up on a rock, where I shot him again. He then ran into the brush. My son came, and we chased him, but he got away. We three camped there, but all the others went on. I said: 'I think I am the headman of us three. If we kill a small buck to-morrow when the sun stands there, we will have good luck.' On the next day I said: 'If we go to a certain place, and if we kill that small buck there, we will continue to hunt, but if not, we will go back.' So we started out. Just as I approached the place I had named, I heard a shot, and when we met, my grandson told me he had killed a small buck. We three, with the family, camped in that place during the fall, and I did not have to hunt at all. One boy killed forty deer, the other thirty. Badger told me not to kill the grizzly-bear, but I did not quite believe it, so I shot to try it. I did not kill him, and we got many deer, which proved that Badger spoke the truth. Since then I have had him as chief." Since all objects, inanimate as well as animate, were believed to possess supernatural attributes, it was natural that efforts should be made to obtain their assistance. Hence children, especially boys, were sent at frequent intervals to solitary places, in order that one or another of these spirits might take pity on them. These journeys were begun early in life, among some tribes even at the age of five years. In such cases the child was sent, after sunset, to a near-by {view image of facing page 80} Kalispel village [photogravure plate] {view image of page 81} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 8i sweat-lodge, or some other place not far from the home. Usually some article was purposely left there, and the child was told to fetch it; or the father would hang his medicine-bag in some lonely place, in the hope that when his son was bringing it home, the spirit which it represented might speak to him. If he showed fear, he was admonished that failure would bring punishment; or a fur cap was placed on his head and the parent assured him that nothing could now harm him. As he grew older, the length of the trips was gradually increased, until at about ten years he was sent as much as a mile or more to the top of some hill or mountain, there to remain all night. He was permitted to sleep and to have a fire, but food and water were forbidden. When the boy reached the age of thirteen to fifteen, the father, if he had medicine, would have him carry the medicine-bag to his vigil. "Go into the mountains alone," were the instructions, "and starve for many days. Something may tell you what to do in order to be wealthy, to save the sick and those who have been wounded, to be a good fighter who cannot be shot." When such a command was laid upon the boy, he fasted either one night or many nights, as his inclination was. Luison, a Flathead, when less than fifteen years of age, remained in the mountains five days, during which time he ate nothing, although he did not abstain from water. Nevertheless he experienced no vision. In seeking visions journeys of considerable length were sometimes made - as much as forty miles, according to a Sinkiuse informant. Among this tribe also the quest for supernatural power was abandoned as soon as the boy reported that a spirit had spoken to him. Boys of other Salish tribes, however, continued their journeys up to the age of puberty, when, as they were men, it was not likely that spirits would hold communion with them. In most of the tribes the custom was that one who had seen a spirit would not reveal the fact until he had attained maturity, when at a performance of the winter ceremony he would sing his sacred songs and tell what he had seen and what the spirit had said to him. Thus it was known what his supernatural power was good for, whether for fishing, or hunting, or healing. The Flathead, however, like the plains Indian, kept his secret until there was occasion to make use of his power, as when he was wounded or in great danger, or when he wished to expel sickness. The following medicine-song is a characteristically Salishan air; it was obtained from the Skunk in a vision by Qaiifta, a son of the Sinkiuse chief Suikuitahlkosum. VOL. VII-6 {view image of page 82} 82 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN M. M..=I104 L l I!.O I. b~~F-la Pi-17 1 - - h h At- o~~~~~ 1'" L-z ~ d~ ----~" C" -w-" or rm Among all these tribes it was possible to possess the power of more than one spirit, but such power could not be purchased nor inherited. When a supernatural creature appeared to a boy, it always not only gave him songs by means of which to exercise its power, but informed him how he was to paint and what symbols of the tutelary spirit he was to wear. These symbols were, if the spirit represented an earthly creature, nearly always that creature's {view image of facing page 82} Touch Her Dress - Kalispel [photogravure plate] {view image of page 83} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 83 body or a portion of it. After reaching manhood he obtained this necessary article by killing an animal of that species, and not by purchase. A Spokan man thus describes his experience in acquiring medicine: "At ten years of age I was with a party of six men, who were hunting mountain-sheep on Stiikuqaus [the mountains at the head of Yakima river]. They left me at a large lake and went on to hunt, up among the high rocks. I was frightened, and was crying, when a finely dressed man suddenly appeared, and said: 'Young boy, what are you afraid of; what are you crying about? Your hair will be white before you die. You will be a very old man. If you are shot with a bullet or an arrow, or cut with a knife, that will not kill you, for you are going to die of sickness. Do not be afraid of being shot.' That is why I was so foolish [reckless] when I was a young man. 'When the hail comes,' he said, 'it strikes my body, but it does not go through. That is the way it will be with you when the bullets fall on your body. Look at me now. Here is the way I do.' Then he showed me how, when I was wounded, to spit out blood, and turning he walked away. I saw that it was Badger. Many times Badger has come in dreams and told me what was going to happen, and it always has happened. He promised me songs, some of which he gave me then, and others of which came to me later in dreams. He told me to wear a belt consisting of a strip cut from a badger-skin, including the nose and the tail; and a cap of badger-skin with an eagle-feather attached to it." The supernatural creatures which appeared to those seeking their aid were called, in the dialect of the Flatheads, Spokan, and Kalispel, su'maIh (Wenatchee, suma'h), which corresponds to the term "medicine" as used in this connection. Any one possessing sunmaA, or medicine, no matter for what special kind of magic it fitted him, was ephElfiut. One whose su'mTh had given him power to cure or to expel disease was tleqil/h (Wenatchee, tlaqilzuh), which corresponds to "medicine-man." Most ailments were believed to be caused by some evil influence which only the magic of the medicine-man could counteract. This evil influence emanated either from malign, unseen powers, or else from some malevolent medicineman. It was combated by a treatment consisting of singing and either blowing the disease away with the breath or sucking it out with the lips. The following song of the Pelican, like many of the sacred songs of the Salish, is a conventionalization of the voice of the creature from which it was supposedly obtained. It was used by one of three shamans (the other two having the songs of Mudhen {view image of page 84} 84 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN and Loon respectively) who were trying to relieve a patient of a spell cast upon him by another shaman jealous of his success in catching nearly all the salmon that were being taken. M. M. ^=184 RECITATIVE Qt f i s Cr I__ P S,. —,., ---- o I z - z — o,- =_(_ _ i! L.LTI' ASK 6 F=~-~~~-~-RCITATIVE L — ]Z Irh, {view image of facing page 84} Kalispel canoes [photogravure plate] {view image of page 85} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 85 A few vegetal substances likewise were employed by some of the shamans. The tleqdlRh also were the men who treated wounds. Payment was made for a cure, but failure was not punished, nor was any resentment entertained by the family of the patient. A not unusual form of the exercise of supposed supernatural power was the conveying in the naked hands of heated stones into the sweat-lodge. Like many incredible things, this feat is a simple matter. A Christianized mixed-blood Nez Perce reluctantly and with much embarrassment confessed his former adherence to "heathen practices," and in so doing explained the handling of heated stones. "When I was young and unused to the sweat-lodge (because I had been living with my father, a Frenchman), a certain boasting fellow burned me during the sweat by suddenly throwing on too much water and making too much steam. I vowed revenge, and secretly with the help of my chum began to take daily sweats, each time remaining in the lodge longer than on the preceding day. Before the stones became too hot we would each take one in our bare hands and walk as far as possible with it, shifting it from one hand to the other. Gradually we increased the heat of the stones and the distance. This we continued for many months, until I was so used to sweating that I could have lived in steam. My hands too were hardened so that I could carry red-hot stones into the sweat-lodge.1 "Then one morning the man who had disgraced me by blistering my skin entered a sweat-lodge where a number of us were preparing for a bath. When the cover was lowered, the old man who had received the water-vessel passed it to me, knowing my desire for revenge. I poured the water on the stones with scarcely a pause, and soon the men began to slip out under the cover, until only my enemy was left with me. 'You must be trying to burn me!' he said. The steam was so dense I could not see him. After a long time some one outside shouted, 'Do you mean to kill that man?' Then the cover was thrown up and they carried him out. He was unconscious, and his back was blistered. If the others had not interfered, probably I would have killed him. "In the winter came a challenge from a medicine-man at Hasotoin: anybody who could show medicine equal to his for carrying red-hot stones should have his herd of horses. My chum and I had made our preparations to go and get his horses, when two Christian Yakima arrived and began to preach. That night I threw away my old ways." 1At this point he exhibited the palms of his hands. After the lapse of more than twenty years they were still lined with incredibly thick callosities, and the tendons had become so shrunken as to stand forth prominently. {view image of page 86} 86 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN It must not be supposed that because some special power was acquired by perfectly natural means the Indians were therefore wholly insincere when they called it supernatural power. The very fact that it was a special ability furnished the basis for the belief that it was therefore enjoyed by the favor of some guardian spirit. Among all the interior tribes of the Salishan stock, excepting the Flatheads, there was observed a winter ceremony for all persons under the protection of guardian spirits. It was in general similar to the medicine-chant of the Shahaptian tribes, and even more closely resembled that of the upper Columbia Chinookans as represented by the Wishham. It was evidently derived from the coast. The Nespilim called it Siniuhwwdm, or Sinuqinim; the Kalispel, Stleqlhlchsfiu (tleqilA, medicine-man); the Spokan, Atstdlakamifh (strlakam, dance). A Spokan man's description of the ceremony as it was practised by his people will suffice. "Atstalakami;h was observed in midwinter, after the people had begun to live in the long-houses. One lodge of four fires was made for the medicine-chant. It was occupied like any ordinary lodge, one of the families being that of a medicine-man whose title was niuhwiutium'hIl. He was the one who had charge of the ceremony, and the right to do this was given him by his guardian spirit. In midwinter [January], in the middle of a night, this man would be heard singing his medicine-songs. To any one who came inquiring why he was singing (although everybody knew what it meant), he said, as he sat by the fire, 'We are going to have this Atstilakamih.' He named the day on which it was to begin. "On the appointed night those who had su'mifh, and any others who so desired, assembled in the long-house. In the centre stood a slender fir pole beside a small platform of hewn logs. The leader advanced, stepped upon the platform, grasped the pole with his hands, and began to sing one of his medicine-songs, at the same time dancing up and down, while the people joined in his song and half marched, half danced, in single file round the pole. When the leader felt that one song had been repeated a sufficient number of times, he started another, and so continued to do until all of his personal songs had been used. Then any other person, man or woman, who had a guardian spirit, took his place on the platform, and his songs were repeated. If there was present any one who, though he possessed medicine, had never revealed the fact, this was his opportunity, if the spirit so directed him, to declare himself; which he did by grasping the pole, singing the songs given by the spirit, and relating what it had told him. All night, and usually for four nights, this continued. Excitement ran high. Occasionally a man would have some one gash his scalp until the blood streamed, {view image of facing page 86} Kalispel camp [photogravure plate] {view image of page 87} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 87 believing that unless this were done he would die. Throughout the entire night, except when he stood singing his own songs, the leader sat beside the pole. "About daylight the leader opened a roll of tule matting, inside of which appeared several feathers of a kind of woodpecker. These all at once would arise and stand on end, without visible aid,' and the medicine-man would then call the name of some person present and say that a certain feather represented his soul, that he was going to be very sick and die on a certain day; but that he, the medicineman, would tie the feather on the head of the person named, and if it was allowed to remain there all the day, and if the person would eat a certain food which the medicine-man named and on the following night brought back the feather, still tied in his hair, the evil spell would be thus overcome and no harm would be done. Sometimes he would point out two feathers, and say that they represented two young persons, whom he then named, and they were to be married. Or he might say that two feathers represented a man and his wife who were separated, and promise that if the woman tied both in her hair, the husband would come back to her. On the following night the people returned to the lodge, and as each one to whom a feather had been given entered, he, or she, went to the medicineman, who took the feather out of the hair and imposed on the person some trifling commission, such as: 'Get a blanket of a certain kind in the early spring and wear it until the end of the summer, and you will have good luck.' To others he would tell what was going to happen to them, or what had already happened. After all was over, he would say: 'Now, next winter we will see how you are then. My su'mnfh will be with you all the summer.' As he took each feather, he laid it back on the tule matting, which at the end of the ceremony he rolled up. "Each dancer tied some offering to the pole, and at the conclusion of the ceremony the pole and the offerings were carried to the hills and placed among the branches of a tree in a place known only to the one appointed to perform this duty." Normally this ceremony was never given twice in one winter in the same camp, but it might be performed several times in the tribe, because the people lived in small groups in that season. Two observances, however, were never set for the same time, and the ceremony was always well attended by visitors from other bands. The Spokan, and probably others of the western Salish, performed a rite of tribal purification in the early winter, after the fall hunt and before the winter hunt. Ability to conduct Shta'iwe, as it was called, belonged to the medicine-man who had charge of 1 This may have been accomplished by the same means employed by the Menominee magicians, who operated sets of figurines by means of threads attached to the toes. {view image of page 88} 88 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN the hunt, and was the gift of his guardian spirit. His title was Ahiitus. He first ordered certain young men to make a sweat-lodge and place the stones in the fire. Then he entered the sudatory and directed a man, choosing him at random, to bring in two of the red-hot stones in his bare hands. The man, it is said, did so, and the medicine-man would call upon others each to bring two stones, until all the heated stones had been carried in. Then these men went in to sweat, as well as any others who were going to hunt, until the lodge was filled. At night the medicine-man took his place beside the fir pole in the long-house, and two assistants sat, one at each end of the lodge, on a platform raised above the floor, in order to see that the people did nothing frivolous. The singing of medicine-songs and dancing lasted all night and the following night. Then at sunrise the people in the camp stood in a row in front of their lodges, while the medicine-man with a besom of leafy twigs went along brushing out each lodge and passing his bunch of twigs over the body of each person. To the last person in the row he gave the besom, telling him to run away with it. As the man started to run, the other people pursued him, and if they caught him they were at liberty to strike him with sticks and whips. This was believed to drive sickness out of the camp. That same day the hunters set out from the village. The Kalispel before inaugurating a hunt held a dance called Sinkakia', in which at night the men gathered around a stiff rawhide, spread upon the ground, and beat upon it with sticks, their bodies swaying and their voices raised in song, while three or four women stood behind and aided in the singing. This was in supplication to the spirits for aid in the hunt. In the intervals between the songs some would tell what they were going to accomplish on the hunt, and others what the spirits of the animals and birds had told them in the mountains on their journeys of fasting. Each man sang his own medicine-song, being aided by the others, and then narrated his visions, the others repeating his words after him. Among the Flatheads this dance, which they called Stnkakac, was given for the purpose of encouraging men to join a war-party, and such songs as the following were employed. M. M = 208!-^8=^==^E^SE ESE^^ fa=E~i=E^S~^RO / {view image of page 89} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 89 M. M. = 1oo di... dim........ 'or-h L I J::ii5__..... Said by the Indians themselves to have been derived from the coast tribes was a rite called by the Nespilim Skep, and by the Spokan Skaip. Its chief feature was the dancing of a medicine-man forward and back on a hewn log, to the accompaniment of his own medicinesongs, after which others, one by one, took his place and danced while their own songs were repeated. According to the Kalispel, Skaip was a spirit who talked to people in their sleep and made them ill. If the sick person recovered, he sang and danced, and this performance also was called Skaip. The following narrative illustrates their practice. "A woman who is still living fell sick in the winter. She was very ill until spring, and then her body began to waste away. She was very thin, but she could still walk. A medicine-man, Holaiakn, and a Spokan medicine-man named Schicheiftin, came to cure her. One of them blew his breath over her, from the feet to the head; then the other did the same, and when they had finished, she was dead [in a faint]. In a little while the medicine-men returned and made her alive again. When she was better, she sang a song, which said: 'I was going to die, by the name of Skaip; but now Skaip is going to leave me, and Skaip wants to take that black horse. If we give him that black race-horse, we will receive a little bay horse in two days, and in two days more I will receive a little bay mare, each with a name.' Her husband owned a very fast race-horse. It was very valuable, but he said: 'I love you more than my racehorse. It is well; we will give away that horse.' They began to dance in their lodge, and continued throughout the day and the night, and in the morning they gave away the horse and everything else they had, until nothing was left in their lodge. "About two days after this the woman was well, and they moved to the Kalispel river [Clarks fork], where other Indians were encamped, gambling. Her husband began to play, and won a couple of blankets. A man came to him and said: 'Give me one of those blankets, and I will give you a pony. Yonder it is, a little bay horse. His name is Billy.' So they traded, and the man swam the pony across {view image of page 90} 90 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN the river and asked his wife if he had got the right bay horse, the one of which Skaip had told her, and she answered: 'That is the one. I will receive my little bay mare in two days more.' Two days later some Spokan were there, and one of the men, Schkaiufihi, was preparing to return to his tribe. Said he to the woman's husband: 'I am getting ready to go home, but I have no blanket. If you have one, give it to me, and I will give you this pony.' 'Go and ask my wife,' said the man. The Spokan tied his pony outside the lodge, went in, and said, 'If you have a blanket, give it to me and I will give you a pony, a little bay mare by the name of Lower Front.' So the exchange was made." Following is a song used among the Sinkiuse by a man dancing Skep:1 M. M. J=32 mf f rgp4? [. 1-_ar_ -.M,,. — w — F —T r- - -q - dim. A mf c_ — ___ ___ ---____ - _ -d- I ____. In ancient times a ceremony (called by the Flatheads Eshainuthwe, "they stop the cold") was performed by a medicine-man who had power to bring the warm wind. He would walk naked round the camp on the outside of the circle of lodges, singing. This was done when the snow was deep and the wind cold, and the people feared that the winter would not end. An extended description of this ancient practice cannot now be obtained, but two songs were recorded. I M.M. - = 132 L.Id'- s '5 SI i~ I L- 1- — 1 I _ ~ ' 1On this dance among the Nez Perces, see Volume VIII, pages 72, 183, and note the similarity of the Sinkiuse song above given to the Nez Perce song. {view image of page 91} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 91 In~ " ~ ' -- ~ -J. l I I', [, r fwri Ik... i,II M. M., i6 II, ' - - I s I A ~~~ i_ — IX I 1-/ 3 dJm {view image of page 92} 92 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The Flatheads show the effect of contact with plains culture in their ceremony for calling the buffalo, Eshatltstema ("they call buffalo"). If game of this sort was scarce, a medicine-man would announce to the people that it was necessary to call for the buffalo, and that a lodge should be erected. When at night all had assembled in this lodge, the medicine-man sang, and at the beginning of the third song all arose and danced. The medicine-man joined in the dancing, and after a long time he announced what he had seen with reference to the buffalo. He would say, for instance: "The buffalo are a long distance from here, and if we have cold weather here, it will be certain that the buffalo will arrive and will be found mingling with our horses." This closed the ceremony. Two of the songs are here given. I M. M. = I68 I- _-_ --- --— __-i^-i^3 "^ —, -. — r.. a -, —. --- —-— H-, — - mf D RUM Mf t,_ 3g --------- ---------- -- lm3 a e A - _mf P mf p mf " -"Ir — r'.~ _ I I Ii i 1: 1t 1 1; IC. '1 —'-11 L- 4 —. -— \ — -= -r_- _ K~z.zzzzz~. zz~zzi~x -_ mf p mf p,f r-E^ -^-^^: l A -N 1' r- 1i: i-= I r -l t Where the sign -- occurs, a kind of echo effect is produced. The notes are not only softer but of a different quality of tone from the others. {view image of facing page 92} Masselow, Kalispel chief [photogravure plate] {view image of page 93} SALISHAN H&a! Tsihiadawe! Well! Come on TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR Hai! Tsihiatiawe! Koaliwi, koaliwi! Welll Come onl Grow, grow!' 93 II M. M. =170 CHORUS i-t _ _. f it~bpbb-"' —; ll-vJ J 1 1 ' ' — lu I J',. I [J J t1e,) I, J.:_ I -. SOLO VOICE SPOKEN t t The singer here gives vent to a succession of coughing grunts, in imitation of the buffalo. The influence of the tribes of the plains accounts for the presence among the easterly Salish of the war-dance, Suwench, and the scalp-dance, Esyili ("rejoice"), which were here quite the same as among the prairie tribes; and for various war customs, such as the taking of scalps and the striking of coups. The mythological tales of these interior Salishan tribes deal mainly with the adventures and exploits of the transformer, Coyote; and a long account of his progress as he led the salmon from the sea, up the Columbia and its tributaries, closely resembles the myth 1 The reference is said to be to the grass. {view image of page 94} 94 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN recounted by the Shahaptians and Chinookans of the Columbia. It is worthy of remark that the Spokan word spilye (coyote) is the Yakima spilyai, and probably is connected with the Wishham iskolya. The songs of the Flatheads have taken on to a considerable degree the character of those of the plains, but the product of the musical faculty of the other Salishan tribes is much more in accordance with our idea of the beautiful. The following examples possess a high degree of excellence of descriptive qualities: WIND IN THE PINES M.M. J 144 4- -4 II,, l. r;!. | -- w IJ — 4-a- - - \- s. 1_ l THE LONESOME YOUTH "I am lonesome, travelling alone. There is none here. I am lonely in this land, because there is none here. My heart is to cry, because I am travelling alone. Just when the sun is sinking, I am lonely as I go." {view image of facing page 94} The peace-officer - Kalispel [photogravure plate] {view image of page 95} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 95 M. M. J=tlo n f:z:::>.. I I p mf Lf => rMW > r.: J^ >:dim. # ~._____ dim.do I] a __^ '-T --- —'-' r- — 4l ' --- o ' [ --— = ld,.. I Mythology Origin of Death Coyote's daughter fell sick and died. As he wandered about mourning, he came to a little hill, from the top of which he saw a stream below, and signs that some one was living there. Going down he saw two long lodges on the other side, and heard the sounds of a gambling game. He called out, "Take me across!" But no answer came. In lonesomeness he lay down on the shore, and becoming sleepy, he yawned, when some one, hearing him, said to the others, "Somebody is calling." Still no one paid any attention to him. He continued to lie there, and he thought, "How am I going to make them hear me and set me over?" Again he yawned, and people looked out of the lodges and said: "Some one is calling. Go and bring him over." Coyote saw one of them start from the other side, and when the person got to him he saw that it was his daughter, the one that had recently died. Said she: "Why are you here? I think you should not be here. But come into the boat." A Kalispel tale. {view image of page 96} 96 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Coyote saw that the canoe was merely a framework of bark. His daughter told him to close his eyes, and he obeyed and got in, but half-way over he thought, "I should like to know how things are going." So he opened one eye, but the boat began to fill, and his daughter told him quickly to shut his eye or they would sink. They landed, and went to the lodge, and Coyote entered. It was empty, the gamblers being in the other one. His daughter told him he must not go to look at the game, and he said, "I will not leave you, for I was very anxious about where you had gone when you died." Yet all the time in his heart he was thinking he would go to look at the game. He fell asleep, but some time later he again heard the sounds of the game, and, opening his eyes, he saw that it was now daylight. Listening, he perceived that his daughter was still sleeping, so he got up quietly and went into the other lodge, where he saw that there were two parties, and that all had their hair tied up on their heads, with some sort of weed in the knots. Seeing that one side had no good players, he decided to join them, so he sat down in the crowd; but they paid no attention to him. He wondered what was the cause of their coolness, and he decided to make himself look like them by tying a piece of weed in his hair. By and by his side was almost beaten, and Coyote began to make the guesses, choosing the correct hand each time without difficulty. Then he started the song and juggled the bones, and at last he had all the counters except one, when at that moment his daughter wakened and heard her father's voice. Just as she came in to see about it the others guessed and lost their last stick, and they all suddenly fell back dead. She entered and said: "Those are my children and your grandchildren whom you have killed. Why did you not obey me when I told you not to come here? You have killed them. If they had won, you and your side would have died, and they and I would have escaped from this place of the dead." Then she called him to her own lodge. There lay a large bag filled with something. She told him he must go home and take that bag with him; also that he must not open it before getting to the top of the hill on the other side of the stream. He promised, put the bag on his back, and started to the boat. On the other side of the stream Coyote placed the heavy bag on his back and set out, but something in it hurt his shoulder. On the way up the hill he stopped to rest, being very tired, and sweating. As he sat there he wondered what could be in the bag, so he untied it, thinking just to peep in and quickly tie it again. {view image of facing page 96} Chief of the land - Kalispel [photogravure plate] {view image of page 97} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 97 The moment a small hole was opened, a child leaped out and ran off, and Coyote followed as fast as he could. The child was not to be caught, however, and Coyote went back to the bag, only to see another child jump out. This one, too, he pursued, but he could not catch it. Returning again to the bag, he saw a third leap out, and a fourth, both of whom he let go, thinking there might be more inside, which he would tie up, but he found the bag entirely empty. He decided that he had better go back to his daughter and tell her what he had done; so, returning to the river, he looked across, but he could see nobody there, nor could he hear a sound. At the landing-place he called loudly, but he received no answer. A second shout brought his daughter from her lodge. She called: "Did I not tell you not to look into the bag? If you had waited until you got home, you would have found your grandchildren, but now you have lost them forever, and I am lost too!" Coyote turned sadly away. When the daughter died and was buried, the spirits carried her from the grave, and she became the mother of their children. The game in the lodge was to decide the question of life and death; had the children won, life would have conquered, and there would now be no death. Origin of Sun and Moon Coyote and Antelope lived together, and each had four sons. Said Coyote to Antelope, "Let our sons go out and become wise, and learn how to steal the moon." For the moon was the property and plaything of a certain tribe of animals. So the eight young men went out to fast in the mountains to obtain the aid of the spirits, and in a few days they returned. Coyote's sons had the bottom of their moccasins worn out, while the sons of Antelope had only two holes in theirs, one in the heel and another in the toe. Coyote said, "Your boys must have stayed close about here, and mine have gone far off in the mountains." They were sent out again after a short time, and again and again. And each time the moccasins were worn in the same way. At last Coyote said: "Well, we must get ready to go for the moon. Our boys should be good enough now to steal it." So the eight young men were sent to steal the moon, and, coming to the playing ground where the people were rolling the great round A Kalispel tale. VOL. VII-7 {view image of page 98} 98 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN shining moon from one end to the other of an open space, they hid themselves at one end. But the owners of the moon knew all the time that the eight were coming to try to steal it; so they rolled it toward the boys because they thought it could not be taken away, for it was heavy. The big moon came rolling near the youngest Coyote, when the eight leaped up and started to roll it away to their home. The eldest Coyote pushed it first, and the owners started after the eight. When they caught up with the thieves, the next older Coyote took the ball, and the people killed the eldest. In this way also the other three were killed, when the four Antelopes took the moon, and the people were not swift enough to catch them. When they arrived near home, one of them called loudly, "Antelope, your boys are dead!" Hearing this, Coyote got up, took a stick, struck Antelope roughly, and said: "Your boys are killed. You did not instruct them well; you let them stay near home when they fasted, and now they are dead!" A little later another of the four called out, "Coyote, your four boys are killed!" Coyote heard them plainly, and now he did not know what to think. At dark they reached home with the moon, and when Coyote found his sons missing, he began to cry loudly, and he said, "Put out the fire and hand me that moon." They put out the fire and gave him the moon, which he carried away, leaving behind him his spittle, which was his medicine-spirit, crying like himself to deceive the Antelope into thinking he was still there. Coyote thought, "The people over there must be very wise and very powerful, and if I give the moon back to them they will make my boys alive again." About daylight the people saw him coming. Said one: "There is Coyote coming back with the moon. We had better make his boys alive again." When he reached their camp, they said, "Here are your children waiting for you," and, seeing them there, he said, pretending to be ignorant that the moon had been secured by theft, "I know my boys wanted wives, and, seeing this large fine tribe, they wished to marry into it, and that is doubtless why they are here." So Coyote and his four sons left the camp of the people who owned the moon. In another place lived Sapsucker. To his grandmother he one day said, "Let me go and steal the moon." He set out. When the people saw him coming, they knew his object and began to laugh, saying, "Look at Sapsucker coming for the moon!" One said, "Roll that moon toward Sapsucker and see what he will do with it." This was done, and the moon lay right in front of him. {view image of facing page 98} The chief's wife - Kalispel [photogravure plate] {view image of page 99} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 99 He tried to raise it, and the people only looked and laughed. So Sapsucker made off with the moon, but he could scarcely walk with such a weight. The people kept on laughing, and said, "Let him go as far as that ridge, but if he passes over it, we will kill him." Sapsucker disappeared over the brow, and the people gave chase; but when they reached the top they beheld Sapsucker at the summit of the next hill, for he had rolled the heavy moon down the slope of the first one and its own momentum had carried it nearly to the top of the next one. And so the chase went on, until the people were exhausted, and Sapsucker got the moon home in safety. The people turned homeward, very sad because they had no moon, and they said: "Let us make a moon, for we have none. And let us place it in the sky." So they discussed the question, who should be the moon, and they decided upon Yellow Fox, who agreed. The moon was to shine by day as well as by night, and Fox made it so hot in the daytime that they did not like it, and they took him down out of the sky. They asked Coyote if he would be a good person for this, and he thought he would. When he came up in the morning the temperature was satisfactory, but whatever wrong was being done, he called out loudly the name of the person and what he was doing. This displeased those people who wished to do things secretly, so Coyote was taken out of the sky. There were two young men in the tribe, finely dressed fellows. Near by lived four Frogs, who wanted these two young men for their husbands, but they did not know just how to get them. One of them proposed a plan, and, following it out, she one day made everything wet while the young men were in the forest, and as there was no dry place in which to sit, except only the cedar-bark lodge of the Frogs, they entered. Immediately one of the Frogs leaped on the face of one of the men and remained sticking there in spite of all he could do. The others blinded the other man in one eye. When the people found the young men, they were not able to remove the Frog from the face of the one without cutting his flesh, nor could they help the one-eyed man. So the latter said, "I had better be the sun, for I am ashamed to go about as a man with one eye." The other said, "I would rather be the moon than go about among my people with this Frog on my face." So the two were placed up in the sky to be the sun and the moon, and the spots we see on the moon are only this Frog still sticking on his face; while every one knows that the sun has only one eye. {view image of page 100} I 00 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Coyote Defeats the Wolves Four brothers, Wolves, lived beside the river. From his home below came Salmon, who stole the wife of one of the Wolves and fled down the stream, pursued by the four brothers. Since he refused to give up the woman, a battle began, and as their arrows were unable to strike Salmon, they were compelled to retreat, followed by him. Then it was that Rattlesnake saw his relations, the Wolves, in danger of being killed, and forthwith he drew his bow and arrows, shot from across the river, and struck Salmon, who fell dead. The scar of Rattlesnake's flint arrow-point still can be seen on Salmon's head. The Wolves returned in safety to their camp. Now Snipes were related to Salmon, and, learning that he had been killed, they fared out to find his body. They discovered it, dry and still, beside the stream, and carried water and poured over it until it was quite wet, when his life returned to him. Then together Salmon and Snipes went toward the home of the Wolves, but on the way they passed the camp of Rattlesnake, who inside was singing a new war-song, how he had killed Salmon. Just then his enemy made a noise, and Rattlesnake, looking out, saw Salmon and was frightened. "He is going to kill me," thought he. He spat on his hands, rubbed them over his face to simulate tears, and began to bemoan loudly the death of Salmon. The latter then entered, and Snake looked on him in apparent surprise, saying: "Why, you are alive again! I have been crying for you four days. It is true. I am glad to see you." "It is well," answered the other. "I am going toward the camp of the Wolves." Then he went out and set fire all around Rattlesnake's lodge, and Rattlesnake was burned. This is why his skin is marked with scars. Salmon entered the lodge of the Wolves while they were absent, and there he beheld two women, Louse and Wood-tick. Said they, "You will be dead in a short time: the Wolves are very wise." He answered: "You had better hide me; I will repay you. To you," he turned to Louse, "I will give power over the heads of people, so that you will have little trouble to get food. And to you," he addressed Wood-tick, "I will give the hind quarters of every kind of animal for your food." They agreed to aid him. "We will tell lies and hide you," they promised. The eldest brother will be here in a very short time; but he is so wise, he will know you are A Kalispel tale. {view image of facing page 100} Crossing the Pend d'Oreille - Kalispel [photogravure plate] {view image of page 101} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR 10I here." Soon Salmon heard the eldest Wolf approaching. From a little distance came his voice: "I smell Salmon!" The women went out and said: "Did you not kill Salmon? How then can he be here?" Still Wolf continued to cry out, while the women kept up their denials. Then when Wolf entered the lodge, Salmon cut him in two with a long knife. In a similar way he disposed of the next two brothers. Then came the fourth, and the wisest, and from behind the mountain he began making a great outcry. When he reached the summit he called, "Salmon is in my camp, and Louse and Wood-tick have been paid to lie about it!" Then the women went out and assured him it was not true; yet, when he approached the camp warily, he suddenly leaped back to the mountain. Four times he did this, but at last Salmon rushed out and succeeded in reaching him with his knife, cutting him in two. One half flew off to the prairies, the other to the mountains. In the night that half which went into the mountains began to howl, making such a terrific noise that the people moved their camps. But still the howling filled their ears. Soon one of the people fell sick and died. He was buried at once, but on the next day the body was found to have been removed from the grave. Another died, and his body also was stolen. Wolf was putting the sickness on them; he intended to kill them all and to take their bodies for food. So a great hunting party was organized, but when they came near the top of the mountains, the howling ceased, and they could find no trace of Wolf. A great many of the people died. Then said Ashes, "I will go to look for him." He flew up into the air before Wolf knew of his plan, and at the top of the mountain he beheld Wolf, and beside him a huge pile of bones. Now it was known certainly that Wolf was killing the people for the sake of their bodies, and the people said to Coyote, "You are wise; do something before we are all dead!" Therefore Coyote set out, and first he deposited his medicine-spirits [his feces] on the ground in four places. They told him: "Wolf is very wise. If you do not kill him, he will destroy all of you." The youngest said: "I will be the wise thought. When Wolf digs for the body, I will make it sink ever deeper." The eldest said: "I will be the burned camas. When you make a grave, I will be on the top of it. Also," said he, "I will be the baby, and when Wolf comes, I will say, 'My father is buried here."' So it was, and when Wolf came to the grave that night, he saw a baby beside it picking the burnt camas and eating it. As the baby placed some burnt camas in its mouth, it said, looking at Wolf, {view image of page 102} 102 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN "Ppapa, ppa, papa." Wolf did not know that any one had died that day, and he thought about the wisdom and power of Coyote. He asked, "Where is your father?" The baby pointed to the grave and said, "Papa." Still suspicious, Wolf demanded again, "Where is your father?" But the baby only repeated its action. Then Wolf began to dig. After he had dug the usual distance and found nothing, his suspicions revived, and he said to the baby: "You must be Coyote. Where is your father?" Once more the baby pointed to the grave, and repeated, "Papa." Then Wolf dug deeper. He touched the body, but he could not get it out, and dug deeper. When the hole was very deep, the baby jumped in, took the shape of Coyote, and thrust a spear into Wolf. He cried, "You shall always be Wolf, but you shall not eat people, only animals." Coyote Kills a Monster Coyote was once coming from the buffalo country, and near Flathead lake he found a camp, whose people said: "There is a dangerous place down below, where you are likely to be killed. You had better go around it." "No," said he, "I had rather be killed. I will go through." Continuing his journey, he passed into some thick timber and plucked one of the largest tamaracks to carry with him. He bore it crosswise on his back. He entered one end of a narrow gulch, and an end of the tamarack caught, but, turning, he loosened it and went on. He soon approached some people, who told him that he had already been swallowed by the dangerous monster for whom he was searching, and that they too had been swallowed by this creature, whose form was a gulch. Some of them were dying, others dead; some were gambling. When Coyote knew he was caught, he began to cry. Said they, "Coyote, you are wise, and you should know some way for us to get out of this." "I will do something," he promised. He went on a little distance and deposited his medicine-spirits [his feces] on the ground in four places. The four sat there and said, "You are dying; you are in a dangerous place." The fourth one, the wisest, said: "Take me for a spear. I am going to be a sharp spear." The third said, "I am going to be a drum." The second said, "Take me for a large hoop." The first said, "Take me for another hoop." Coyote then went back to the people and proposed a wardance. He made the dead ones alive, and the dance began. After 1 A Kalispel tale. {view image of facing page 102} Kalispel maiden [photogravure plate] {view image of page 103} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR IO3 placing the two hoops in position, one at each end of the evil gulch, he found the monster's heart, and told the people that as soon as he thrust his spear into it they should run out as fast as they could. Coyote began to leap about, making three feints at the heart, then he pushed the spear into it, and shouted, "All run out!" All hurried out, all except Wood-tick, who was caught by the contracting jaws of the creature as the hoop in its mouth slipped; still he managed to squeeze out, though he has always since then been quite thin and flat. When the beast was dead, he was found to be a huge Whippoorwill, who had taken the form of a gulch to make killing easier. Coyote stood by, and, raising the enormous dead bird, he said: "In the future you shall not kill people. And when you sound your voice, which shall be only at night, the women will say to their children, 'Be quiet, or Whippoorwill will come for you!'" Then he threw the bird across the river upon the rocks, which began to turn yellow. Finally Coyote set the big tamarack in the ground, saying, "You will be the tamarack tree." This tree is still there, the only tamarack in that part of the country.' Coyote Transforms Evil Creatures Coyote married Gopher, and they had four sons. As he was one day travelling about, he saw a lodge pitched close beside a small lake. He heard singing. He stopped and listened more closely, and then heard speaking, the voice telling how Coyote was coming down the hill. He wondered if they were speaking about him, and in order to decide if they were, he turned and walked up the hill, and truly enough, the song now changed and the words explained that Coyote was going up the hill. Then he went forward to the lodge, and inside he saw a crowd of women, handsome women with fine ear-rings. He entered and began to dance with them. After a while one of them seized him, then another, and then all crowded around him. They raised him from the ground, bore him out of the lodge, all the time dancing, and went toward the lake. Seeing that they intended to enter the water, Coyote begged that he be permitted to remove his clothing so that it would not be wet, but they answered, "Never mind your clothing, you will get better garments." Then they walked into the water, and in the deep water they held him The scene of the myth is near Ravalli, Montana. 2 A Kalispel myth. {view image of page 104} o104 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN until he was drowned. They let his body go. It floated to the surface, and drifted away to the other shore. Coyote's friend, Yellow Fox, found the body there, and to himself he said: "Here is Coyote, my friend. You must have been doing something to the Clams, and now you are dead." He stepped over the body, and it arose, alive once more. "I must have been asleep," said Coyote. But Yellow Fox was not to be deceived, and he said, "You must have been doing something to the Clams, and they killed you." "Yes, it is true," admitted Coyote, "I will go back and destroy them." "You had better not go back," remonstrated his friend; "they may kill you again." Nevertheless Coyote returned and placed fire all around their lodge; then going to the hill above, he sat down to watch, and when the fire was well started, he called to the Clams: "There is a fire starting around your home; it will destroy every one of you! You are handsome women!" The Clams came running out, while Coyote sat and laughed at them, advising them to run to a dry place, which they in their ignorance did, but the fire still pursued them, and some of them were burned in the back. He laughed, and said: "Don't you know anything? Go toward the trees, where they have been barked, and rub your backs in the pitch, and the fire will go out." They did even that, knowing no better. "Go down into that slough, where it is dry and the grass is thick and long, and you will save yourselves," advised Coyote. They went into the slough, and all were burned. Then Coyote called out: "You do not know anything. You do not deserve to be a people. Go down to the water, and always live there!" So they went into the water and saved themselves from being completely consumed, and since that time they have been like the clams which we find in the water. Resuming his travels, Coyote encountered a lodge in which he found no people, but a great mass of utensils of every sort piled up inside. Thinking to take away as many rolls of tule matting as he could carry, he tried to open a roll, to see how large and good it was, but as soon as be started to handle it, the matting began to envelop him. Then the other rolls came and wrapped themselves closely around him, and soon he was dead, smothered by the Tule people. They cast his body outside. By and by came Yellow Fox, who saw his friend, paused, stepped over the body, and made it again alive. Coyote sat up, rubbed his eyes, and pretended that he had been sleeping; but his friend was not deceived, and said, "You had better not go back there, for you were killed by the {view image of facing page 104} Young Kalispel girl [photogravure plate] {view image of page 105} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR I05 Tules." Coyote, however, insisted on returning and destroying them by fire. Back he went and set fire all around their lodge, saying to them, "In the future you shall not have power to kill people; you shall be good only for covering lodges." Next Coyote came to a lodge which contained many beautiful women, two of whom he thought he would take for his wives. They began to brush his hair, and he lay down to enjoy the sensation, but the brushing became violent, and soon all the hair was scratched from his body, and he was thrown out of the lodge dead. Again he was restored by Yellow Fox, who told him he had been destroyed by the Brush people. Coyote went back to the lodge, and set fire around it; then as the people burned, he said: "You shall no longer be a people with power to kill others, but you shall be used only to brush hair, or to brush berries from the bushes." Many other evil creatures Coyote transformed into useful articles. The Lazy Boy Obtains Bear-medicine There was a chief a long time ago who had a son both lazy and disobedient. Furthermore, he was a thief, for when he was hungry he would go to other lodges and take food slyly. He was fat and dirty. One day the chief said to his people, "We will go to camp in another place." So on the next morning they took down their lodges and began to pack; but the chief's son continued to sleep, awaking just as the last blanket was taken off him. "I am going to leave you," the chief said, "for you are of no use to me." The people set out in their canoes across the big lake, and the boy was abandoned. Left to himself, the boy struck out across the country. It was early autumn. He wandered about in the valley, then into the mountains, where he came upon a Grizzly-bear and her two cubs. Said he, "I will let this bear kill me." As they were travelling in the same direction as he was, he made a detour, thinking to place himself in their way. So he lay down where they must pass. Now the old Bear knew he was in the trail, and she meant to pass around him, but the cubs, playing about in advance of her, found him and ran back to tell her: "There is a boy lying yonder." "Leave that boy alone," she said, "for he has been left. He is not good." When they passed by, he went around them again and placed himself in 1 A Kalispel tale. {view image of page 106} Io6 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN their way. Once more the old Bear tried to avoid him, but the cubs found him, only to be commanded to leave him, since he was an ill-looking boy. A third time he put himself in their way, and this time the Bear came to him and slapped his fat belly, when suddenly out popped several stones, such as are used in boiling meat. These he had swallowed in his greedy haste, while licking them. He was now a better-looking boy. The Bear said: "Come with us, for we are going to our den. It is nearly winter." He went with the Bears, and they entered their den for the winter. There he remained, and when he grew hungry the Bear gave him two berries, but as fast as he ate them two others appeared in their place. Once, on awaking from a sleep, he heard the old Bear singing. On the next morning she said to him, "We shall leave the den the day after to-morrow, and a little way from here, down the hill, we shall meet a young man." So they went out, and at the hill came to a large rock and sat down. Soon a young man came toward them. When he was a few steps away, the Bear seized him and killed him. Then she pointed out the way to the boy's people, saying: "In that way is your home. Go!" He looked in the direction indicated and saw the smoke of camp fires. As he approached he smelled the smoke and fell unconscious; for he was not used to human odors. After a while some boys from the camp happened upon him, and, though they noticed that he looked like the chief's son, they thought it could not be he, for he had been left behind many months, and this youth was but just dead. They hurried back to the camp and said to the chief, "We saw a man lying there, who looked like your boy, the one who was left behind last year." The chief answered: "The boy who was left had a scar on his nose. You can tell by that." Then they returned to the body, and, finding that there was such a scar, they reported this fact to the chief, who went, and recognized his son. He said: "I do not believe he is dead. Let the medicine-men make him alive." The medicine-men took many kinds of herbs and made smoke over his nose, but it did no good. Then they tried leaves of parsnips, and the smoke brought life to him. He was called a chief, for he was very handsome. His father said, "A man has been missing for two days, and we do not know what has become of him." "I know about it," answered the young man. "He was killed by a grizzly-bear in the hills. I have just come back from the time you left me. The Bear has taken care of me." Then they knew he was a great chief, for the Bear had given him power. {view image of facing page 106} Kalispel youth [photogravure plate] {view image of page 107} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR I07 The Poor Man Obtains Hunting Medicine A family were camping in a place where game was very scarce. It was autumn, and they were starving. Winter was approaching, and they were growing weak and thin. On a morning the father said, as usual: "I am going out to hunt. If I have good luck, I shall be here at sunset; if not, I shall return earlier." He went out and tramped through forests and meadows, through gulch and over hill, and at sunset he was far from home, without game. He turned and made for home, and when long after dark he approached his lodge he heard his little son crying and his wife saying, "Your father will soon be here with some meat." With those words in his ears, he had not the heart to enter without food, so he turned back to hunt further. After a while he went to the head of a gulch and lay down to rest. Soon he heard the sounds of a big gamedrive. It seemed to be coming down the hill. By daylight the drive had completely encircled him, and after a while Jay came upon him and reported to the other hunters: "I find here a person, alive, but very thin. He is starving." The others gathered around him. Now the wisest hunters of all were Cougar, Lynx, and Wolf. All stacked their arrows beside a tree and looked at the man, who was thinking to himself, "Perhaps I can frighten them, and when they run, I will take their weapons." Suddenly he leaped up with a yell, and the animals turned and ran, leaving their arrows and bows, which he seized at once. At a little distance they stopped, and counselled with each other: "If we have no arrows, we will surely starve." In those days all the animals hunted with arrows, not with tooth and claw. "Jay," said Cougar, "go to that man and get the arrows, and pay him something for them." So Jay went to the man, but the latter refused to treat with him, saying: "Let Cougar come - Cougar and Lynx and Wolf. If these three come, I will talk to them." So the three came to him and said, "You must give us those arrows, and we will pay you with one of each of our own." The man agreed to this, and said, "Tell me then how to use your arrows." "When you see a narrow draw," answered Cougar, "shoot my arrow into it, and it will strike a deer; for the draw will be the shoulder of a deer." The man took the arrow and returned the rest of the sheaf to Cougar. "When you take my arrow," explained Wolf, "and see a little bald A Kalispel tale. {view image of page 108} 1o8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN hill, shoot my arrow close to the top, and when you come to the place yourself, you will have a deer. That little bald hill will be the heart of a deer." So Wolf's arrows were returned to him, all except one. Lynx spoke: "I will tell you how to use my arrow. When you come to a great hole filled with brush, use my arrow: shoot into the thicket, and you will shoot a deer's liver." Retaining one of Lynx's arrows, the hunter gave back the others, and then set out for his home. Near his lodge he came upon a thicket in a deep hole, and he decided to try Lynx's arrow. He took aim and shot, and immediately heard the noise of a deer struggling in the undergrowth. Quickly he hurried into the brush and found a deer, shot through the liver, and he knew that what the three animals had asserted was true. He bore the deer home. His wife said, "I was right when I told our son that because you were gone so long you must have had good luck." After he had eaten, the man went out to make trial of the other arrows. Seeing a little bald hill with a narrow draw near the top, he shot at the summit of the hill, and heard the sound of the struggles of a stricken deer. Then he sent the arrow of Cougar into the draw, and another animal was brought down. Now he knew that he had three good arrows, and would never starve. Beaver Steals Fire A long time ago the sole inhabitants of the earth were the animals, who then were people, and the only fire was in a world above the sky. The animals assembled to discuss the question of how to obtain this fire, and it was decided that the leader of the expedition should be he whose war-song was the best. Muskrat sang first, but his song was not good. Others sang in their turn. A short distance away stood a little knoll, whence they heard the sound of some one whistling, and when they all hurried over they found there Coyote and his companion, Wren, who had a thick bundle of little arrows. Coyote was invited down to the council-place, and when he there began to sing his war-song it was found so good that the others immediately began to dance. He was at once given the task of obtaining the fire. The next question was how to get into the upper world. Wren said he would shoot an arrow up into the sky, then another after it, and so on until there was a line of arrows reaching from the earth 1 A Sinkiuse tale. {view image of facing page 108} Shirt - Kalispel [photogravure plate] {view image of page 109} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR IO9 to the world above. When he had done this he, being the lightest, climbed up, taking with him a rope of bark. He at length reached the land above and let down the rope, to strengthen the string of arrows, and the others all started to mount. The last one was Bear, a greedy fellow, who took two baskets of food, which were so heavy that when he was half-way up, the rope broke and Bear tumbled back to the earth. In the upper world it was found that Curlew was the keeper of the fire and the guardian of the fish-weir. Seeking to find in which house he lived, they sent Frog and Bullsnake to the village. These two crept over, and near the village stopped to listen. Frog was in the lead, and Bullsnake, becoming hungry, began to lick Frog's feet, and finally swallowed him with a gulp. He then returned to his companions, and when asked where Frog was would make no reply other than that Frog had been eaten. But he told where the fire was, and Coyote sent Beaver to steal it. The latter said that he would go to the river and float down on the water, pretending he was dead, and Curlew, watching the fish-weir, would drag him out and take him home for the sake of his soft fur. Then Eagle was to come, and, alighting on the house of Curlew, act as if he were wounded and unable to fly away, when Curlew's family would run out to capture him, and Beaver would thus be left alone in the house with the fire. This plan was carried out, and Beaver started back for the river, carrying the fire; but just as he reached the water the people saw him and started in pursuit. He dived, and Spider was sent ahead by Curlew to spread his net in the river and thus catch Beaver, but the latter had already gone by, carrying the fire under his claws. Thrice more Spider attempted to set his net ahead of Beaver, but each time he was too late. So Beaver reached the rope and climbed down, and the others quickly followed. When those above saw that the others had fire, they ordered Frog to let the rain fall and put it out. It rained for a moon, but the fire was given to Prairiechicken, who sat over it and kept it burning. White Owl and His Five Wives White Owl was a great chief. With him lived his five cousins, three Eagles and two Sparrow-hawks. Every day the five went hunting, and their fame as hunters became so widespread that Otter 1 A Kalispel tale. {view image of page 110} I IO THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN heard of it and sent his five daughters to marry them. When the girls arrived, the five were absent hunting, and when White Owl heard of their mission, he insisted that they marry him, and would not release them until they consented. He concealed them. That night, after all had eaten, there was some meat left, and White Owl laid it where his wives could reach it, saying to his cousins that he would leave it there until morning. But in the morning it was gone, and the five cousins, noticing this, thought it strange. In order to find out about it they told White Owl that they had left a deer in a certain place, and asked him to bring it in while they hunted. Then they left, but quickly circled about and returned just in time to see White Owl in the company of his five wives. When after a while he went out to get the deer, the five came out of hiding and asked the sisters whence they had come, and why. When they learned that the girls had come to marry them, and that White Owl had taken them, they were very angry, and said: "We will kill White Owl!" But, not knowing how to accomplish this, they decided to take the girls and flee. So they set fire to the lodge and with the five girls passed up and away on the cloud of smoke. When White Owl returned he could find no trace of their tracks, for the smoke had disappeared, leaving no trail. Then he, too, built a fire, and the smoke took the same direction as the smoke on which the others had gone, and so he followed them, turning himself into a stone. He caused the wind to be very cold. In the meantime the others had descended to the earth and were hurrying on, but it became so cold that one of the Sparrow-hawks, unable to proceed, was overtaken by White Stone and killed. Soon the same misfortune befell the other Sparrow-hawk, then two of the Eagles. But the third Eagle kept the five girls and hurried on. It became so cold they could go no farther, and stopped to build a fire; there White Stone came rolling along, resumed his other form, attacked Eagle, and killed him. Then White Owl took the five girls back to his home, and sent four of them to their father, Otter. In Otter's country Coyote was chief. After a while White Owl's wife desired to visit her father and sisters, and White Owl accompanied her in his form of White Stone. When Otter saw his son-in-law, he was displeased, especially as he was so ferocious that he was inclined to kill anybody who came in his way. So he asked Coyote to kill him, and the latter prepared a sweat-lodge for him. When White Stone entered, Coyote made it so hot that his enemy was split into pieces. {view image of facing page 110} Home of the Kalispel [photogravure plate] {view image of page 111} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR III Turtle Races with Frog and Eagle A large number of the animal-people were in camp together, competing in foot-races. Frog and Eagle had proved the best. Near by in another camp lived the Turtle brothers, sixteen of them, and they all were as like as so many berries. As the eldest looked on his fifteen brothers and noticed that they were exactly alike, he had a thought. "Let us go to the races to-morrow, and run against Frog," he proposed. Then he unfolded his plan, and the others agreed that it was good. They arrived about nightfall on the following day. The camp was on the shore of a small, clear lake, along the edge of which grew tall grass. In the darkness the eldest Turtle arranged his brothers at equal intervals around the shore of the lake, and bade them lie close in the grass. At daybreak, when the people began to assemble at the racecourse, they saw Turtle laboriously crawling about and heard him calling a challenge to race. Knowing him to be the slowest of all creatures, they thought he was only joking, and asked him if he wished to run against the champion Frog. "Yes, it is true," he answered, "I wish to race with Frog." In great glee they called to Frog: "Here is the swift Turtle, who wishes to run with you! Are you not afraid of him?" "We will run at noon," answered Frog. When the time came, there were not many wagers laid, for all were afraid to bet on Turtle; but a few backed him, regarding the whole affair as a great joke. Said Turtle to Frog, "I will bet against your tail: if you lose, I will take it and wear it." Frog agreed. The two stood ready, and at the word they started. Frog soon took the lead, but he did not hurry, for he felt confident he would win. Looking back, he could not see his opponent, but in front he heard a voice calling him, and there was Turtle ahead of him, creeping industriously around the lake. Again he passed Turtle, but again, on looking behind, he could not see him, and again the creeper appeared ahead of him. Time after time this happened, and Frog, being slow of wit, did not know he was being cheated. As he neared the end of the course, there a little in front of him was Turtle crossing the line. The winner dropped on a pile of the wagered blankets and pretended to wipe the perspiration from his body; then he took his knife and cut off Frog's tail. Frog, ashamed of his loss, sat quiet, unable to move about without exhibiting his 1 A Kalispel tale. {view image of page 112} 112 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN shame, and at last he leaped into the water, saying that he would forever remain where his disgrace might be concealed. Then said Turtle: "I will beat two good racers to-day. I will beat Eagle!" "Will you race with me?" asked Eagle, incredulously. "Yes, I am willing to race with you, and I shall beat you," said the other. Then the others began to think that Turtle must be a runner after all, and they staked wagers on him. When all the bets had been made, Eagle said, "Where shall we start, at the beginning, or half-way around?" "Half-way around," answered Turtle, "and in the air." "But how are you going to get up into the air?" asked the other. "You shall carry me into the air," said Turtle. To this Eagle agreed, thinking, "I wonder how Turtle will get down without killing himself. We will start from not very high, so that he will not be hurt." So Eagle carried Turtle up to about the height of a tall tree; but his opponent insisted that it was not high enough, so up he went still farther. When they had gone quite high, Turtle said, "Put my head down, and when I am ready, then let me go, and we will both race to the ground." Eagle was still anxious lest Turtle be killed, but when the word came, he released his hold and down shot Turtle. And after him swooped Eagle, trying to catch him, for he thought surely he would be killed in striking the ground. But he could not grasp the slippery body. Turtle struck on a heap of buffalo-chips, but Eagle was afraid to strike the ground, and glided away without alighting. As Turtle arose and began to wipe his eyes, he saw Eagle still in the air, and at once claimed the race, for he had reached the ground first. Eagle protested that he had not been fairly defeated, but the others decided in favor of Turtle. Crawfish and Grizzly-bear Contend Crawfish considered himself a great fighter, and Grizzly-bear entertained the same opinion about himself. Coyote, a cunning trouble-maker, went to tell Grizzly-bear what he had heard Crawfish say; then he reported to Crawfish what he had heard the other tell about his own power. Said Crawfish, "If Grizzly-bear says that he is the greater, he had better come and fight." Then Coyote arranged that the two were to meet at a certain place and decide which was the stronger. When the fight began, Grizzly-bear tried to seize his opponent in his teeth, but the latter caught him by the 1 A Sinkiuse tale. {view image of facing page 112} On the Pend d'Oreille - Kalispel [photogravure plate] {view image of page 113} SALISHAN TRIBES OF THE INTERIOR I 3 lip and pulled until Grizzly-bear gave way and followed, howling with pain. Crawfish held on until the other promised to go home at once and cease his boasting, but as soon as he was loose Grizzlybear tried again to bite, only to be caught again by the lip and dragged about. At last Grizzly-bear gave up and went home, but as he started away Crawfish caught hold of the hair under his belly and thus was carried along. When Grizzly-bear got home he sat down and said to himself, "I will not tell any one that Crawfish got the better of me." Crawfish reached out and pinched him by the neck, and demanded, "What was that you said?" "I did not say anything," protested Grizzly-bear. "I heard what you said," insisted the other; "I heard from where you left me and jumped all the way here!" Grizzly-bear was then convinced that Crawfish was the more powerful, and acknowledged it. Seeking Medicine, a Boy Finds a Wife The Kalispel were in camp on Tacoma creek, a tributary of Clarks fork of the Columbia. Said Suihwimiiti to his son: "You had better go off into the mountains, because you are a poor gambler, and it may be that there you will become wise. Start from the point of yonder hill to the south, and go to the top, and there make a fire at nightfall." So the boy did, and he remained in that place on the mountain-top all night. On the next day he moved to the next hill and built another fire, and so it went for two days more. Then on the fifth morning his father paddled his canoe down the stream to the place where his son was and took him across the river, and the boy went to the summit of the first hill to make his fire for the night. On the sixth day he went to the next hill, and on the seventh he moved into the mountains to the highest peak of all. He crossed the mountains and on the next day returned to the top, and when in the afternoon he began to gather sticks for his fire, he found in the highest spot of all a woman, almost dead. She was very thin, and she could scarcely speak. He went to her, and she made signs that she was thirsty. He hurried far down the hill to the creek, stripped off his deerskin shirt, soaked it in the water, and carried it back. The water trickled into her mouth, and after a while she spoke: "But for you, I should be dead. Now I am alive, and I will marry you." Said he: "My father did not send me around in the mountains to get married, nor A Kalispel tale. VOL. VII —8 {view image of page 114} II4 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN to find women, but to become wise, and to know how I can win in the games and become rich; and I think your father did not send you out to get a husband, but also to become wise." "That is true," she said; "my father did not send me to get a husband; but I was glad to see you, and that is why I asked you to marry me. I am to meet my parents at the third hill below here. I am a Colville." Just before sunset they parted, and the woman went toward her home, while the boy remained there on the mountain and built his fire. The next day he started homeward, and arrived there in the evening. He told his father what had happened to him, and the father said, "That is so; I did not send you out to get a woman, but to get wisdom, for we are poor people." When the young woman reached her parents' camp, she told her father that a young man had found her when she was nearly dead, and had saved her life; and that she had asked him to marry her, which he had refused to do. She was still very thin. Said her father, "We will go back to our country, and in a few months, when you are plump again, we will go to the Kalispel people and you shall marry that boy you met on the mountain." So they went to their own country and remained there two months, by which time the daughter was looking well and handsome, and they then prepared for their journey, packing quantities of dried salmon to use for presents. Four days' travel took them to the land of the Kalispel, and at the end of that time they camped not far from the village. In the morning they washed the girl and dressed her in her finest clothing, combed her hair, and tied it, intertwined with many strings of beads, in a knot over each ear. Before noon the Kalispel people saw some persons on the other side of the river, and one said, "Go and bring them across." So it was done, and the girl's father at once asked for the lodge of Suihwimiti. Before the one pointed out to them they put down their packs, and then entered. Suhwimuiti was there. "Ad!" said he in greeting. "I come to you, Suihwimuti," said the Colville. "My daughter was nearly dead on the mountain, and your son saved her. But for him she would have died. So I bring my daughter for your son to marry." "It is good!" said the Kalispel, and so the marriage was arranged. {view image of facing page 114} Spokan woman [photogravure plate] {view image of page 115} The Kutenai {view image of page 116} I {view image of facing page 116} On Flathead Lake - Kutenai [photogravure plate] {view image of page 117} THE KUTENAI General Description THE Kutenai are not known to be linguistically related to any other tribe. Within historic times they have occupied the southeastern portion of British Columbia between the Rocky mountains and Kootenay lake, and the valley of Kootenai river in northern Idaho and the extreme northwestern corner of Montana. On the west and south and north they were surrounded by numerous tribes of the Salishan family, while eastward across the mountains were the Algonquian Blackfeet tribes. Their traditions give no account of a migration into this region, and, indeed, the scene of action in one version of their deluge myth is on the eastern side of the lakes at the very source of the Columbia river. Nor is there traditional mention of a tribal camp-circle. It may be concluded, therefore, that in at least comparatively early times the Kutenai tribe lost its unity, and the resultant bands spread southward across the very narrow divide between the Columbia and the Kootenai and down the latter river. The testimony of Alexander Henry, the fur trader, however, indicates that the Kutenai once lived east of the Rocky mountains. In I8I1 he wrote: "Along the Clearwater [a tributary of the North Saskatchewan], and near the foot of the mountains, are still to be seen the remains of some of the dwellings of the Kootenays, built of wood, straw, and pine branches. The same are observed along Riviere de la jolie Prairie and Ram river. This gives us every reason to suppose that nation formerly dwelt along the foot of these mountains, and even as far down as our present establishment, near which the remains of some of their lodges are still to be seen. About the time the Kootenays were in possession of this part of the country, the Snare [Snake?] Indians dwelt on the Kootenay or Columbia. But the former, being driven into the mountains by the different tribes who lived E. of them, with whom they were perpetually at war, in their turn waged war upon their harmless neighbors on the W., the Snare Indians, and soon drove them off the land the Kootenays now inhabit. This is on the upper part of the Columbia [and the Kootenai]."' 1 Coues, Henry-Thompson Journals, New York, 1897, Vol. II, pages 703-705. {view image of page 118} II8 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The remains noted by Henry may have been abandoned lodges of parties which had crossed the mountains from the west for the buffalo hunting, and may have caused him to conjecture that the Kutenai had formerly occupied that region permanently. Had he possessed definite information on this point, he would hardly have written, "this gives every reason to suppose." Chamberlain says that the "legends and traditions [of the Canadian Kutenai] indicate that they originally dwelt east of the Rocky mountains, probably in Montana, whence they were driven westward by the Siksika [Blackfeet], their hereditary enemies." According to the Lower Kutenai (those within the United States) their occupancy of the country east of the mountains was not a permanent one, but was in the nature of annual incursions for buffalo. The best information obtainable from the few remaining Kutenai beyond middle age indicates that their tribal subdivisions were five in number. Akiyinnik (aklnnik, thigh) lived on Kootenai river at the present Jennings, Montana. Akanuhfinik (aknuhunuknana, creek) occupied the valley of Tobacco river in northern Montana. The name probably had reference to the river. Akamnik (akam, pine) lived on Kootenay river in the country about Fort Steele, British Columbia, a region known to the Kutenai as Akam. Akisknuiknik (akuknuk, lake; as, two; akilsmaknik, people) were north of the last-named band, around the Columbia lakes at the source of Columbia river. Akukhlahlhu (akakh7ahahl, swamp) controlled the territory between Kootenai river at Bonner's Ferry, Idaho, and the northern end of Pend d'Oreille lake, the name referring to the swampy character of the borders of the lake.1 The Kutenai, according to their traditions, early began to make excursions to the eastward, crossing the Rocky mountains through Crow Nest pass, fifty miles north of the international boundary. Like so many other tribes, they were probably attracted by the herds of buffalo, for the buffalo west of the mountains were comparatively not numerous. Emerging from the pass, their parties turned southward, keeping fairly close to the foothills. The Piegan were not yet on the plains, and the only people they encountered were the Shoshoni, whom they met at the sources of Beaver Head river in southwestern Montana, and from whom they captured their first horses. Before the close of the eighteenth century they had acquired so many horses that they were able to barter a few to the Piegan, who then met them for the first time.2 It is quite possible that some 1 For the present distribution of the Canadian Kutenai, see the Appendix, page I67. 2 Volume VI, page 5. {view image of facing page 118} Kutenai woman [photogravure plate] {view image of page 119} THE KUTENAI II9 of the Kutenai bands were beginning to make permanent residence east of the divide, but if so they were not long suffered to remain, for the swarming Piegan soon filled the eastern country; and the friendliness of the first meeting between the two tribes was soon interrupted by thefts of Kutenai horses. About this period a small tribe called Tunaha, camping east of the Rocky mountains, was nearly exterminated by smallpox. Fleeing from the strange evil, the remnant hurried eastward, but before they had gone far, eight young men left the party and turned their faces to the south. The larger party was never heard from, but the smaller found refuge among the Flatheads in a valley near the site of Butte, Montana.1 Seven took wives among the Flatheads, but one, whose name was Bad Road, married a Kutenai woman at a time when the two tribes met peacefully in the Bitterroot valley. It was through him that permanent peace was effected. Accompanying a war-party bent on capturing horses from the band at Akam, he alone survived, his life being spared by the victorious Kutenai because he called for quarter in their language. He lived among them for a year, then returned to the Flatheads to prepare them for a messenger of peace. He was soon followed by a Kutenai bringing tobacco from his chief, and its acceptance instituted a peace that was never interrupted. So far as is known, smallpox first attacked the tribes of this region in I780-I78I, when it appeared among the Blackfeet. This was about the time the latter appeared on the Montana prairies, and it is altogether likely that from them the disease was communicated to the Tunaha, from whom it passed to the Akiyinnik, and possibly to other bands. Two generations ago, probably about the year 1840, the Akiyfnnik, bereft of their young chief, Red Sky, who had been killed by the Blackfeet, joined the Akanuhfinik at Tobacco Plains under Not Grizzly-bear.* This chief was succeeded by Kisklamahl, Shot Head, 1 This was probably a Salishan tribe, as is indicated by the following words remembered by old Flathead men to have been used by the Tunaha: matlchf, grizzly-bear; nktschtnhAin, dog; ichdaiteAhi, naked; chlrYlefiunftutfh, to run; tOmttmqelfh, hear a sound approaching;?snfkutiqW, gulch; kokftYnopimftlsi, let us eat; kokshaliiumi, I travel along a hillside. According to an aged descendant of one of the survivors of the epidemic they lived in the region where now is the railway station of Pleasant Valley, Montana. From traditions of the Flatheads it is learned that the predecessor of the chief in power when the Lewis and Clark expedition passed through the country was a member of the Tunaha tribe - doubtless one of the eight refugees. It is from Tunaha that our word Kutenai is formed; the proper name of the tribe is Ksanka, although Kitunaha is heard among the northern bands. * The portrait facing page I20 shows the son of that Not Grizzly-bear here mentioned. The features are strongly Salish. {view image of page 120} I20 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN who, under the name Michelle, signed the treaty at Hellgate, in the Bitterroot valley, in 1855. He was accompanied to the council by a portion of his followers, members of both bands of which he was head; the remainder crossed the border and took up permanent residence with the northern bands. In 1857 Michelle relinquished his position to Ko6hua, Rose-hips, known to the white people as Baptiste, and himself joined the Kutenai in Canada. In accordance with the terms of the treaty, a part of the Akiyinnik and the Akanuhlinik settled on the reservation at the foot of Flathead lake in northwestern Montana. The Kutenai in Idaho have never been placed on a reservation. Nothing whatever is known as to the early population of the Kutenai. The belief of the better-informed among them, based on tradition, is that at the beginning of the historical period they numbered seven hundred lodges, or about five thousand persons. In I890 the census reported a total of four hundred to five hundred in Idaho and Montana. Recent estimates of the officials at the Flathead agency, placing the number under their jurisdiction at more than five hundred, are greatly exaggerated; there are few, if any, more than a hundred Kutenai on the reservation. Those in Idaho number about the same, while in Canada there are five hundred and fifteen. The reservation Kutenai in the United States have profited even less than most tribes by association with civilization. A more ragged, filthy, idle, and altogether hopeless-looking community of ophthalmic and crippled gamblers it would be difficult to find on a reservation. Their degradation is the more regrettable since the Kutenai physiognomy seems to promise much. It is far less heavy and gross than the plains type or the types of the surrounding plateau area. It is such as one associates with intelligence and character, and one cannot escape the feeling that an opportunity was lost when the Kutenai were permitted to sink to their present level. In stature they are shorter and in build lighter and more delicate than their neighbors. In the various phases of their culture the influence of the plains, reaching them doubtless through the Blackfoot tribes, can be readily discerned. Yet the foundations are distinctive, and show the Kutenai to possess a culture in many respects peculiar to themselves. Chiefship was hereditary. The chief as a rule directed the movements of the band; but community laws were few and weak, and obedience could not be enforced. There were always some who did {view image of facing page 120} Not Grizzly-bear - Kutenai [photogravure plate] {view image of page 121} THE KUTENAI 121 not care to follow the majority. About I860 the Catholic priests introduced whipping and binding with ropes in a solitary lodge as a punishment for evil-doers. Formerly the relatives of a murdered person either exercised the right to kill the murderer or demanded blood-money. A wronged husband either killed the woman and her paramour, or he cut off her nose or crippled her by shooting her in the leg, and then sent her to her lover to become his wife. An indiscretion on the part of a girl was punished by a severe beating at the hands of her father; but in his absence the punishment devolved upon the mother, and then it was merciless indeed. The partner to her folly went free, but long ago it was the custom to compel marriage. An illegitimate child was a mark of shame both to its mother and to her family. To obtain a wife, a young man in person took presents to the father of the girl he desired to marry. If the gifts were accepted, the girl belonged to the giver, and no presents in return from the father were necessary. An unusual form was that in which at the Victory Dance a young man might dance in front of an unmarried woman and thrust a stick about twenty inches long past one of her cheeks and then the other, repeating the movements as he danced. If she pushed the stick away, he was rejected; if not, when the last beat of the drum sounded, he touched her on the shoulder with the stick, and everybody shouted. They were then regarded as married, and at the end of the festivities the woman followed him to his lodge. Any man dancing in the circle with a stick was known to have the intention of obtaining a wife, and any unmarried woman by dancing avowed her willingness to accept a husband, if the one of her choice proposed. The wooing songs of many Indian tribes are plaintive, mournful, but among the Kutenai they become positively lugubrious. LOVE SONG M.M. M= 176 FW~t, I I IoI I. rml~ r CBc- rJ t^t~s {view image of page 122} 122 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN LF J AJr J I [J J IJ J|J J 6J:% m K VG d ME V d L f ~,: except when the man was well-to-do and had a lodge of his own. There is no system of clans or gentes. At the present time boys of fifteen and girls of twelve or thirteen marry, but formerly the age was twenty to twenty-five for the man and fifteen or more for the girl. Polygyny was the custom, and men usually took the younger sisters of their first wives. Two men are known to have had at one time five wives said that some had even more. Husband and wife owned their property in severalty. The property left by a deceased woman was divided in great part among the children; a small portion was given to her relations, but the husband received nothing. A similar rule applied to the possessions of a man, except that, as a rule, an inconsiderable bequest was left to his widow; even then his relatives sometimes appropriated her share. As to restrictions and privileges attendant upon relationship of various degrees, the customs common to the plains culture were practised. The primitive type of dwelling was a tipi-frame covered with rush matting, the rushes being strung together on willow-bark thread used with a needle made of a piece of deer-bone. The number of layers of matting decreased gradually from the bottom to the top. The lodges of the very poor were covered with bark or with spruce boughs, while well-to-do men sometimes had elk-skin structures. Later, when buffalo-skins began to be plentiful, they replaced other materials to a great extent. Low, permanent lodges were made of willowsh m at, b and earth. The Akukslatihu now construct their lodges, it is said, in an oblong form like those of the Nez Perces, from whom possibly they copied this style. The largest lodge {view image of facing page 122} Dressing skins - Kutenai [photogravure plate] {view image of page 123} THE KUTENAI 123 required the use of twenty-two poles and twelve buffalo-cow skins, and the average dwelling eighteen poles and nine skins. The door always faced eastward, even when the camp was in a circle, but at the present time when lodges are pitched in a circle they open toward the centre. The sweat-lodge was a framework of willows covered with skins or matting, and men and women together employed the sweat for curative purposes; some sweated daily, others on alternate days, and others only occasionally. A few had the custom of plunging into the stream before entering the sudatory. A typical sweatlodge song follows: M. M. = i68 n _ _____ ________________rit. Ad~.o, ',,-!r_.. ----. -. C=^N =F _ I4 ~ i1 4 i. Organized no doubt in imitation of a warrior society of the Blackfeet, the Kupukahalchin-nintik, or Reckless Dog Society, possessed a very distinctive feature in that membership therein depended upon a vision. A boy, rarely a girl, who, fasting, saw the spirit of the dog in his visions, or in later life dreamed at home of this spirit, became a member of the organization. When the chief of the society announced that the Reckless Dogs would dance, all the male members stripped to the loin-cloth, took their rawhide rattles, placed their bands of dog-skin around wrists and ankles, and assembled at the appointed {view image of page 124} 124 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN lodge. At such a time any one who had never before danced, but had seen the dog-spirit in a vision or a dream, would dance with the members if he were old enough, and thus make known the fact that he had seen the dog-spirit and was a Reckless Dog. The ceremony was held at irregular intervals, usually in war-time, to incite its members to brave deeds. Each fought with that weapon which his vision had directed him to use, and in many cases this was only a club or an axe. They were expected to be more daring than other men, but there was no prohibition against retreating if necessity arose. Whenever food for the society was needed, the members danced around the camp and took meat wherever they could find it. Men and women brought food out of the lodges and gave it to them; and if anybody refused to feed them, they would cut up his lodge. The Reckless Dogs played an active part in constructing the lodge for the annual tribal ceremony. One of their songs was the following: f YELL............................................. DRUM P6. I. W or II V -5- _ i L - - 1fi t~~ btL -C -C -b by- r,~ m - {view image of page 125} THE KUTENAI 125 I n 4- e i ct th Ke-if i f -r -e l of the plains. When a war-party was being organized, the leader called into his lodge in the evening those who desired to accompany him. There assembled, they beat with switches on a dry rawhide and sang such songs as the following: 0. fhi. L. =120 t = YELL. ff f M. M. J= i20 f M.. '{-UFLL -- I r - frU I! I tii. a,. — J~m-_izzz zfz - - E O 41 7;i, {view image of page 126} I26 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN dim........ dP PI~ f A. YELL. Then they marched around the camp, pausing in front of various lodges, where they sang the war-songs, kicked against the pole at the doorway, and cried, "May I come back safe, so that I may enter your lodge as heretofore!" This dance was called KtdJladiol. Occasionally another dance, known as KtamoAioh ("beat the drum") was engaged in by all the people for the purpose of "making their hearts strong," so that the approach of an enemy would not frighten them. If scalps were brought by the returned warriors, the Victory Dance (Kpiyam, "rejoice") was celebrated, the women wearing the captured war-bonnets, as well as those belonging to their own warriors, and dancing with the scalps elevated on poles. The creative instinct of the Kutenai women found expression chiefly in cedar-root basketry. A form of basket called ytchki, having its bottom flat, but with rounded edge, its sds ssflaring, and its rim a stout willow hoop for the attachment of the pack-string, served the purpose of a water-vessel. A larger basket of the same form was used for the boiling of meat by means of heated stones dropped into the water. The n'heik also was flat-bottomed, but otherwise nearly spherical, with a very small opening in the top; it was used principally in berry-picking. The same name was applied to a quiver-shaped berry-basket, consisting of a single large piece of bark from the cedar, spruce, or large cottonwood, which was doubled over to formt oom and en aon the anatwo sides. Plates and dishes were made of cedar-root basketry, and large vessels for the storage o rts eithe of b barots eithe of deerskin. Ornamentation with elk-teeth and with dyed porcupine-quills was much in evidence about their clothing, which was of the typical plains style. Instead, {view image of facing page 126} Kutenai type [photogravure plate] {view image of page 127} THE KUTENAI 127 however, of buffalo-robes, their mantles and blankets were usually of elk-skin, or for colder weather fur skins of the mountain-goat. Inhabiting a mountainous country dotted with lakes and traversed by long winding rivers, the Kutenai very naturally became expert boatmen. The commoner form of craft was a canoe made of pine-bark or spruce-bark laid over a framework of split fir. It was sharp at bow and stern, of the form still seen among the Kalispel.1 Another type consisted of a skeleton framework and a covering of fresh elk-hides sewn together and well stretched, which dried stiff and hard. This formed a remarkably seaworthy craft, very wide of beam and so bulging amidships as to be, in effect, rather more than half-decked. Both ends were noticeably rounded and upcurving, the canoe giving the impression of being closely patterned on the lines of a water-fowl. In the summer of I909 a canvascovered specimen of the rounded-end type was discovered on the shore of Flathead lake, and was used in making a number of Kutenai pictures. It was seventeen feet in length, forty-seven inches in extreme width, twenty-three inches in depth, forty-two inches in height at the bow and thirty-seven inches at the stern. The Kutenai made dugouts of cottonwood logs only after steel axes were acquired. Although horses were obtained very early, the travois was never adopted. Snow-shoes seem to have been aboriginal with the Kutenai. The best native information indicates that prior to the era of missionaries the Kutenai had only the vaguest conception of the human soul. The priests taught them that inside this body of flesh is another body exactly like the human form, hence the word now used to describe the soul, ktukh-luh7uh7aknam, which is formed of akuh-laknam, human flesh, and tukhluhi6omk, twofold. The dead were painted, dressed, and wrapped in skins, and deposited in earthen graves, on the back and with the head toward the west, "because they were going to where the sun sets." This custom seems to indicate an aboriginal conception of a future life, but what form that conception assumed is so little known that the Kutenai deny its very existence. In mourning the hair was cut short and left uncombed, the face remained unwashed, and ornaments were removed from the clothing, which was not changed during the term of mourning, a period sometimes covering more than two years. Medical treatment was administered by men and women occupying a position quite distinct from that of the medicine-men, whose power was ascribed to supernatural sources and whose practices 1 See illustrations facing pages IOO, 112. {view image of page 128} I28 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN were altogether magical. In former times remedies were not frequently employed, but now they are much in evidence. A decoction of roots of the Oregon grape, of red-osier sticks stripped of the outer bark, or of red-osier roots, is used as a wash for ophthalmia, a very prevalent affection among the Kutenai. A decoction of buck-brush roots or of Equisetum is administered when the action of the kidneys requires excitation. To cure a cold in the head, an opening formerly was made in the scalp and a quantity of blood permitted to escape. If the cold had settled in the lungs, blood was let at the elbow and at the ankle, the upper arm and the knee being bound with a tourniquet. A person suffering from a shock sustained in a severe fall was treated in the same manner. Broken bones were set and held in place with a bandage of rawhide or with cedar splints. Snow-blindness was treated by permitting the smoke of a burning, old moccasin to envelop the face. Religious Practices The religious practices of the Kutenai had to do with the acquisition of supernatural power through the aid of supernatural beings. To them all things were the abode of spirits, one or another of which, if rightly approached, would take pity on a suppliant and become his life-long guardian and helper. The effort to gain this muchdesired power was begun early in life. At the age of six to ten years a child of either sex was compelled to go apart from the camp and spend the night in solitude, waiting for a spirit to appear while he slept. In the morning the child returned. At rare intervals throughout childhood he was sent to the solitary places to await the coming of a spirit, but seldom was the period extended beyond a single night. Boys were usually told to go into the hills or the mountains, but girls seldom went far from the camp. More than one spirit might take pity on a child; but usually the same one appeared at various times and gave the same songs, the mind of the sleeper no doubt being unconsciously predisposed, by much contemplation of the previous experience, to a repetition of the former vision. After marriage the Kutenai did not undertake to commune with the spirits, but occasionally supernatural beings appeared to them while they slept at home. Not until years of maturity had been attained was the secret of the vision disclosed, and then only when an occasion of need justified calling on the spirit for aid. When such an occasion arrived, the songs given by the spirit were sung, the story {view image of facing page 128} Kutenai profile [photogravure plate] {view image of page 129} THE KUTENAI 129 of what had been told by it was repeated, and its instructions as to procedure were observed. In general the spirit appeared to the suppliant in the guise of a human being, but after singing, and imparting its wisdom, it melted into the form of the animal whose spirit it really was, and vanished. A considerable part of the lore given by the dream-spirit consisted of directions governing the suppliant's individual manner of painting and dressing. In later life all the articles necessary to fulfil the requirements of the dream were obtained, either by purchase or by killing the animals whose bodies furnished the desired objects, and were kept in a cylindrical, rawhide case, which was carried by its owner to war. When the enemy was sighted, these sacred things were taken out, the paint was applied in the manner prescribed by the vision, and the feathers, bits of fur, claws, or other symbol of the guardian spirit were fastened in the hair, likewise in accordance with the vision. At the same time the sacred songs were chanted, and the words of the spirit repeated. Illustrating the custom of sending young children into solitary places in the hope that they would receive help from the spiritcreatures, Akasik, a woman of sixty-five, related her first experience of this kind: "It was winter, and snow was on the ground to more than ankle depth. I was about eight years of age. We were living on Crow creek at the foot of the Mission range. I had done some mischief, and my mother told me to go out and camp alone, to see if I could not get some help. She took my moccasins and sent me away. It was nearly dark. She did not tell me where to go, so I turned into the undergrowth and about two hundred yards from home I crept under a log into some tall dry grass. During the night a certain person appeared to me in human form, and talked to me, and sang. He told me to wear a grizzly-bear's claw for him. In the songs he said that whenever any person was angry with me, I should know it; that if any one wished to do me wrong, that same wrong would happen to him; and that I should live to have gray hair. He kept me from freezing that night. In the morning when I went home, my mother only said, 'Take some meat and eat.' After a while she asked, 'Where did you sleep last night?' But I did not tell her, and she inquired no further. I have never told anybody what my dream was. I did not use the song until I was grown and a mother, when, in an attack by the Piegan, I sang my song, and, though the enemy were many, I was not injured. While I sang, my father said: 'I, too, know that song. Since you have the song, you may as well take all,' and he handed me a bear's claw. He had been unaware that a spirit had talked to me. Thereafter I VOL. VII-9 {view image of page 130} I30 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN always wore the claw on a string around my neck, but underneath my dress, so that nobody could see it. This was my own secret, and I told nobody." The spirits were called nYpika, and one to whom a spirit had appeared in a vision was ntpikaka. If from the spirit the suppliant received power to expel disease, he became wamu, or what is commonly called a medicine-man. Ordinarily such power came from the grizzly-bear or from a large bird of prey. Any one requiring the services of a wamu gave him presents or promised them. The medicine-man then went to the home of the sick person, passed his hands over the body, or blew on it, or, by sucking the flesh over the part supposedly affected, caused blood to exude from the skin. Singing, drumming, and dancing formed a part of the treatment, which was repeated daily as long as it appeared necessary. If a patient died, it was assumed that it was his time to die, and the wdmu was not held responsible; only, he received no payment, and if there had been an advance payment, this was returned by him. Only the wamu could cure wounds, and only those who had dreamed of a snake could treat a snake-bite, which they did by painting the wound yellow and binding an otter-skin about it. The wamu had power to inflict sickness on others, and even on one another. Bearing malice toward a person, one of them would tell him that in so many days he would die. Or the illness could be sent without warning, and in such a case the patient might be informed by his guardian spirit as to the identity of the wamru responsible for it. Another medicine-man would then be summoned to exorcise the evil, and if his medicine were more powerful than that of the one causing the disease, he would be able to restore health to the patient. After examining him, the wamu would allege that a certain man whom he named was responsible, and in most cases the sick man would reply, "I know it; I knew it before you told me." In his efforts to save the stricken man the wamu would pretend to remove something from the body of the patient, - a small stick, perhaps, - saying that this was the sickness; and he would then burn it. There was no provision for the punishment of a medicine-man who exerted evil power, for there could be no proof of his guilt. In this respect the Kutenai were rather more just and reasonable than those tribes among whom it was customary to take the life of any medicine-man suspected of having caused a death. Formerly a ceremony was observed whenever a man dreamed that sickness was coming upon the people. He at once called the people {view image of facing page 130} Kutenai maiden [photogravure plate] {view image of page 131} THE KUTENAI I3I into his lodge, and sang his medicine-songs while they stood in a circle, but without any prescribed order, and danced in their places. When the songs were ended, they departed. Sometimes he would recall them and repeat the songs, and if the danger appeared to him unusually great, he might summon them for the third time. This might occur day or night, at any time of the year. When game was scarce a medicine-man might dream that at a certain time a certain animal would be killed and that thenceforth game would be plentiful. He would then arise and tell some one to bid all the old men to bring their "stems" (pipes) and smoke. So they would assemble in his lodge, to smoke and sing all the night, and at intervals to listen to the prophecies of the dreamer. There is a tradition that long ago a Frenchman, not a priest, came to the Kutenai country and took away to an island on the Pacific coast two Kutenai youths, one Pend d'Oreille, and one Flathead. A year later the Kutenai returned and instituted a Sunday ceremony in which the people stood in a circle in a lodge and danced around shoulder to shoulder, singing songs which have much the same sound as those used in Shahaptian ceremonies. At the end of a song all extended their arms upward and with open palms to the front. This dance was abolished by the missionaries. Two old women once were seen by an informant to light a pipe, hold the stem to the east, then blow two puffs of smoke in that direction and say, "Help me, Old Man Coyote!" They then blew smoke to the ground, praying, "Help me always, and let my children not die, Earth!" In the same way the sun was supplicated, especially by warriors about to depart for an enemy's country, the prayer being that the enemy might not be permitted to see them. Supplications of this nature were probably the effect of foreign influence, inasmuch as Old Man Coyote is not a character of Kutenai mythology, and the sun does not appear to have been mentioned in any ritual. It is said that on the walls of the pass by which the Canadian Pacific railroad crosses the Rocky mountains are the rude outlines of three figures. Two have the form of human beings, but of the third the lower portion of the body is not divided into two legs. Red Sky, a middle-aged Canadian Kutenai, declares that when he was a child he used to hear the old people, travelling past this place, say: "There are the three: KaWlokailmiyit, Kukhlfikinam, and Kfikisak." They explained the petroglyphs to mean that Kukilukinam was looking for Kahlokahlmiyit, who was the principal one of the spirits. When he found him, he knew that he himself was of equal power. {view image of page 132} 132 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Kukisak, who was not of great power, killed a man, and in fright he ran in between the other two for protection. The word kahlokahlmiyit is said to mean "both morning and night alike," the significance being that to this most powerful of the spirits there is no night. Kukh7ukianam means "weariness," and kuzktsak means "one leg." Little definite information about these three spirits can now be gained, beyond what is said of the two of them in the description of the ceremony that follows. Kankohohl, a Health Ceremony Annually at the season when the snow began finally to disappear, that is, about March, the Kutenai observed a ceremony the purpose of which was to keep disease away from their camp and to promote the health and prosperity of the tribe. It had its origin in a vision, tradition says, in which the spirit Kukhlukinam appeared to a certain man and commanded him to perform the ceremony, which the spirit then revealed to him. Each year thereafter it was repeated at the direct command of the spirit, and by that man or woman to whom he first appeared in the interval following the last previous performance. When such a dream was had, the dreamer as soon as he awoke began to sing the song of Kukhlukinam: M.M.,J. = I04 M. M. J= 56 DRUM LI> ~ ~ ~ ~ L. 1 _ _8__ -I ti -.. -, Uf |* -Ti | 5 m m -m i - i o: {view image of page 133} THE KUTENAI I33,.~ - ~-, 4_ —w ' ----.,,_,..__ ____-__ -_ '"' After the second repetition are spoken the words: "This is Kukhlukinam. It is I singing. I have seen him. This is why I am singing this Kukhlukinam song. He lives far away on the high peaks of these mountains." At the end of the song are the spoken words, "Kukhlfiknam is helping me!" Hearing this, the people knew what had occurred, and two or three men would come to his lodge, while it was yet night, to hear the story of his dream. The next day they sent word to the other camps, so that all the people would know who was to make the ceremony in the spring. After this, from time to time the spirit would appear to the man, then ceased coming, until at the approach of spring, that is, about February, it appeared once more. Then the dreamer sang the song in the night and continued until daylight, when he arose and sent somebody from his lodge about the camp to cry: "Go over to the lodge of [naming the dreamer] and burn juniper leaves! He has been told to make Kanko6ioIl!" In the meantime he had kindled a small fire in the back of the lodge and now sat behind it, still singing the song of Kukhlfikinam, and burning incense of juniper leaves. Each person entering passed round on the northern side of the central fire, and coming to the incense fire in the rear placed on it some juniper leaves from a large bag beside the fire. He then inhaled the smoke, rubbed his hands over his body, held his feet in the smoke, and passed on round the lodge and out. As the people incensed themselves, the dreamer (he was called Kanrk6io-nihlka) directed a few of the young men to return after this portion of the ceremony was over, and drum. When all had made themselves pure with incense, these young men entered, gathered around the drum, and practised the songs of the ceremony, all day and all night. On each succeeding night the singing was taken up by a new set of singers, and those who chose to attend entered, purified their persons with incense, and seated themselves. After a few nights of singing (there was no number prescribed), at the beginning of one of the meetings the dreamer commenced the preparation of the effigy of Kukhflukinam, which sometimes was a {view image of page 134} I34 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN stick rudely marked at the top to represent human features and clad in small deerskin garments, and sometimes a figure of deerskin stuffed with deer hair and fastened to a stick.' It was about thirty inches in height. In the meantime, at the dreamer's command, men outside the lodge were making several drums, varying in size so as to produce tones of different pitch, and in the lodge a man was preparing an elliptical space of about fourteen by twenty inches (the longer axis extending toward the door, that is, to the eastward) by removing the sod and spreading over the exposed earth powdered white clay on which were placed the embers for burning incense. This altar was called kokhliflmi ("tracked ground"), because after smoothing it perfectly the participants would sing a while and "find the white clay marked with the tracks of game." Behind the altar space the stick supporting the image was planted upright, and the men with the drums, of which sometimes there were as many as six, entered, incensed their bodies and drums, and sat down. Then, as the singing began, all the people in the camp, men, women, and children, came in, passed round to the right, and, after purifying themselves (mothers even putting a bit of juniper leaves into their infants' fingers and then dropping it on the coals), they sat down around the lodge, if they chose to remain and join in the singing; but most of them went to their homes. As before, the singing lasted all night and every night for about a month. Each morning those hunters who had slept during the night, and any others who felt able, went out to hunt. Any one who killed a deer, an elk, or an antelope brought to the lodge the right ribs, the right kidney, the flesh of the lower joint of each leg, and the tail. The tail he passed through the sacred smoke, then he removed all the parts to another lodge, usually one occupied by some relative of the dreamer. The occupants of this lodge dried the meat, but not in a ceremonial manner. When a sufficient quantity had been obtained and similarly treated, the final act of the ceremony commenced. From the time he dreamed that it was time to begin the ceremony, the Kankotio-nahlka was not permitted to leave his lodge. He had a servant, who sat beside the image, on its left, during these preliminary ceremonies, while the dreamer himself sat at the right. Occasionally the Kankohiol ceremony was performed with the especial purpose of preventing death in battle. The image then was an unmarked stick with a pair of eagle feathers at the top, and it represented the spirit Kuklsak, which had appeared in a dream to the maker of the ceremony. For the song used by a dreamer of Kuiksak, see the Appendix, page 17I. {view image of facing page 134} Komitsa - Kutenai [photogravure plate] {view image of page 135} THE KUTENAI I35 It was the servant's duty to keep the incense fire burning, a forked stick being employed in conveying embers from the central fire, and to fill the pipe of any visitor to the lodge. When a pipe was produced, he filled it, held it in the incense, lighted it, drew in a whiff while holding the stem to the image, and blew the smoke out as if the image itself were smoking. He then passed the pipe back to the owner, who shared it with whomsoever he chose. To those who visited his lodge the dreamer sometimes confided the messages he had received from Kukhlufkinam, especially such as regarded the whereabouts of game. Whenever the hunters reported that game was becoming scarce, the dreamer announced that the camp was to be removed to a certain place. Before daylight the man whom he had appointed to carry the effigy went twice round the camp, outside the circle, blowing on his eagle-bone whistle as a warning to all to remain within their lodges and to speak in low voices. Then he took the image, unwrapped, and started out for the appointed camping place. After daylight the people moved. When the bearer of the effigy arrived at his destination, he concealed himself among the trees, and only after dark when the people were once more in camp did he come out, again blowing on his whistle and passing twice round the camp, thus sending everybody within doors. Then the effigybearer entered the lodge of the dreamer, which always stood in the centre of the circle, and planted the stick in the usual place behind the ellipse of whitened earth. Silence was observed while the image was being carried out of and into the camp, because noise, or the sight of any one, would frighten the spirit away. This sometimes happened, and in such event, when the image was carried back into the lodge, the dreamer would say, "You have only the shell, the spirit (ntpika) is gone!" The singers would be called in haste, and after drumming, and singing the song of Kukhluikinam several times, the dreamer would suddenly say, "He is back!" After the making of the image the family of the dreamer continued to occupy the lodge. He himself slept with his head beside the image, lying to the south of it, with his feet to the eastward. Continence was enjoined upon him, and disobedience to this rule would have resulted in the death of the dreamer and the flight of the spirit. Any one failing to observe the rules of the lodge, such as that which compelled one entering to pass round at the north, would find that his luck in hunting was gone, and it could be restored only by bringing his weapons and passing them through the incense. {view image of page 136} I36 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN After this had been done the dreamer would assure the hunter: "The deer's tail is at the end of your gun." Occasionally, when the dreamer sat in the lodge with his visitors, he would suddenly place juniper leaves on the embers, saying, "Kukhlufkinam tells me that a deer has already been killed by the hunters!" He ate and drank as he pleased, but he did not take purifying sweats, as he could not leave his lodge. When the proper time had come, the dreamer sent out the announcement that the lodge-poles were to be cut. At the head of a party consisting of all who would accompany him, he set out, carrying a stick about three feet in length, along which at close intervals were fastened short thongs, each passing through one or two deer dew-claws. He appointed a man and a woman to cut the centre-pole, and they took their places on opposite sides of the tree which he selected. This was preferably a spruce, but if that could not be found, a fir, a tamarack, or almost any other kind of tree, about six inches thick at the base, was chosen. The dreamer began to dance round it, and the man and the woman raised their axes. At intervals the dreamer leaned with his back against the tree, then turned and faced it, and struck it with his stick, whereupon the man and the woman dealt it simultaneous blows with their axes. This continued until the tree began to lean, when members of the Reckless Dog Society stood under it and supported it with their hands as it slowly fell: for it must not be permitted to touch the ground. They carried it to the camp untrimmed and laid it on two supports, each of which consisted of four short poles set up in the manner of a tripod. Branches and bark were then removed. In the meantime the other poles, usually about fifty in number, were being cut by the other men and women who had been in the party of the dreamer. When these were brought in the Reckless Dogs bound four of them together near one end with osiers, and set them in such a way that the bases were at the semi-cardinal points of the compass, and the point of intersection was elevated a few feet above the ground. Juniper branches were piled and intertwined at the angles formed by the poles, and offerings of robes and garments, usually torn into strips so that nobody could be tempted to take them, were piled in the same place for Kukhfiknam, to whom the lodge belonged. The dreamer then stood on the juniper boughs, and the feet of the poles were brought inward toward the centre, thus raising him into the air. A hole had been dug for the centre-pole while it was being procured, and now by means of forked lifting-sticks the pole {view image of facing page 136} Kutenai female type [photogravure plate] {view image of page 137} THE KUTENAI I37 was raised until its base dropped into the hole, and the dreamer bound it at the top to the other four, and descended along one of the four. Then the Reckless Dogs threw up the other lodge-poles, which were placed with intervals of about thirty inches between the bases, thus forming a lodge about a hundred and twenty-five feet in circumference and fifteen feet high. Next the builders went about the camp looking for lodge-covers, about ten of which were required. Stripped to the loin-cloth, with knife in hand, and followed by certain drummers, they hurried hither and thither. They were privileged to appropriate the cover of any lodge, unless some one appeared and appeased them with meat. If any one attempted to prevent them from removing a lodge-cover, they proceeded to take it by force, and if he still resisted, they cut it to pieces. On their progress round the camp they continually fought among themselves, and snarled, and in every way acted as much like dogs as possible; and this applied also to those occasions when a woman was among their number.1 When the covers were placed on the lodge, the servant of the dreamer entered and prepared the ellipse of whitened earth. After darkness had settled, the carrier of the image went twice about the camp, blowing his whistle in warning. Then he entered the dreamer's lodge, and the dreamer himself went into the ceremonial lodge, while at the same time the carrier took up the image and marched twice more round the camp, whistling. Arriving the second time at the point opposite the entrance of the ceremonial structure, he entered the camp-circle and proceeded to the lodge, where he found the dreamer with his wife and family. The incense fire had already been kindled, and incense smoke was rising. The carrier passed the image through the incense, purified himself in a similar manner, and placed the end of the stick into the hole that had been prepared for it. Then the people began to assemble in obedience to the call of the whistle, and as they entered, the dreamer selected two young men, who, stripping to the loin-cloth, placed themselves behind a rope stretched between two of the poles at the back of the lodge. There they stood with their hands on the rope and with whistles in their mouths, whistling the whole night. Still the people came, and each one purified himself in the incense. Some 1 At the performance in I888 a certain man appeared before his lodge and announced that he also was a reckless dog and would fight the whole number. They took him at his word, and a real fight ensued, with the biting, barking, scratching, and snarling that should accompany canine hostilities. {view image of page 138} 138 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN of the young men sat beside the various drums, and sang, first the Kukhlukinam song, then the other songs of this ceremony. Two typical dance-songs are the following: I MM. M.=I52 4-n ' ^r! 1 1- r ^ r l DRUM -. '- -l - - 4 - 7 _ _ _-rA _ DRUM....~~~~~a r -a rdP.- r ar DRUM~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ n~_~~~~~~~~~~~! on~ Ld ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ laa l {view image of page 139} THE KUTENAI I39 A _.. q. D. on, -. - /. -- lt'v 1 I. - - _ -_ - F -;, _ _- __ ___ - - ~ * ' ~ 1~ _ O ~ ^ -^ m — ^ - i..-. Some of the people arose and danced in their places, the men with hands on hips and swaying from side to side with a slightly rotary motion at the waist, and the women in a similar manner, except that the hands were clenched and held in front on a level with the waist. When a song was at an end, they all sat down, and when the next began, any who felt impelled to do so arose and {view image of page 140} I40 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN danced. As the night wore on, the people grew excited, and many danced continuously, not pausing even when the drums ceased. When daylight was almost at hand, they crowded around the image, holding their outstretched palms toward it, praying with much emotion: " Kukhliukinam, give me good luck! Let no sickness be in my family! Give me abundance of food! Give me horses and clothing! I wish that I may see you again in this lodge, Kukilfikinam!" The principal prayer was always for good health and long life, and was expressed in the wish, "May I live to see you again." When daylight broke, the effigy-bearer, who had been dancing with the others, came forward, raised the image, and turned about so that he faced the people. Some of them cried out and fell down, others went close to it and stretched out their hands, weeping and repeating, "I wish to see you again next year!" All wept, in sorrow because Kukh-lukinam was leaving them. The carrier stood only a brief moment, then moved toward the entrance. The people began to wail more loudly than ever, for the spirit was now really going. Nevertheless they opened a lane, and the carrier marched out, blowing his whistle, and walked slowly eastward, constantly sounding his whistle. At some distance from the camp he hung the image on the eastern side of a tree, tying it with a string. As soon as the sound of the whistle was heard no more, the people in the lodge sat down, and the meat which the hunters had been providing, and which at the beginning of the preceding evening had been carried into the ceremonial lodge, was distributed among them. After the feast the people went home, and the men caught their horses and painted them, and donned their war-garments. Then all returned to the lodge, from which the cover had meanwhile been removed, and the war-dance was held and coups were recounted. Khlukinam, the Bear Ceremony The Kutenai observed a ceremony each spring for the purpose of securing immunity from attack by the grizzly-bear, who soon would be coming out of his winter quarters. Each participant wished him good luck during the summer and requested the same for himself. At the same time the hope was expressed that the ' Chamberlain says: "This word is probably composed of the root LUK, seen in ailukine, 'makes the noise proper to it' (i.e., sings, neighs, chirps, bleats, calls, talks, etc.), the word of widest extension of meaning in Kutenai." The ceremony could therefore be called The Growling. {view image of facing page 140} A young Kutenai [photogravure plate] {view image of page 141} THE KUTENAI I4l grizzly-bear would not send sickness upon the people, and especially not upon the children of the suppliant. The ceremony was under the direction of the man who first in the course of the year dreamed of the grizzly-bear. Immediately after his dream he went about the camp announcing that he would "make Kh-7ktnam" in the spring. When that season arrived, he prepared the whitened-earth ellipse in his lodge, and just behind it laid a bear-skull, with the nose pointing toward the entrance. On each side of the skull he placed the skeletonized fore paw of a bear, the claws directed toward the front. The whole arrangement was designed to resemble the appearance of a bear lying at the mouth of a den with its head between its fore paws. Late in the day he went about the camp kicking the lodge-pole at the door of each lodge, and crying, "Have you anything to give?" Whoever had a medicine-bundle then gave it to him, saying where he wished to have it placed, as, for instance, on a certain lodge-pole or in a certain position near the bear-skull. The dreamer carried all the medicinebundles to his lodge and arranged them in the desired positions. Then at nightfall the people came into his lodge, and each one, beginning with the one sitting at the left of the bear-skull, filled his pipe and gave smoke to the bear, praying: "You are coming out in a few days, and I want you not to bite me, or my children, or my people. Do not make us sick. I want you to have a good summer, with good food, and may we have the same." After each person had voiced his supplication, the dreamer, sitting behind the skull, started the songs of the bear, which were equal in number to the claws on the altar, and the women arose to dance, making motions and uttering cries imitative of the bear. Two of these songs, representing respectively the male and the female bear, are here given: SONG OF THE MALE BEAR Hunihlini, Khl6hila; tahinonnini, Khl6la. It is my voice, Grizzly-bear; it is I, Grizzly-bear. M. M. J=i57 DRfM — f -- i DRUM mf {view image of page 142} 142 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN SONG OF THE FEMALE BEAR' _ -_ m I musica notatiml m r. ron ' I Q I.,c —I I r —, '_._ f_ -— ~,i -4~- —.. --- — r - ri - I. ~lr i:,i: Jr - tl4 - I I Suig in a very dragging and slurring manner with constant contraction and relaxation of the throat muscles. This produces a constant variation in tone-quality; also certain variations in pitch which, however, are too minute to be recorded in the usual musical notation. usual musical notation. {view image of page 143} THE KUTENAI I43 t Produced by a peculiar contraction of the throat and intended for an imitation of the whoof cf a bear. Then, beginning with the man at the left of the skull, each person sang his individual medicine-songs, the others assisting. At daybreak each departed with his medicine-bundle. Khlukahahl-iyamu, the Horned-animal Ceremony The ceremony of the horned animals was performed either in the late autumn or in the late winter, about February, at times when game was difficult to find and food was scarce. On such occasions some man, who in his fasting had seen one of the horned animals, especially the deer, would say, "We must have Khlukaihahl-iyamu." He would then summon all the people to his lodge, men, women, and children, and each as he came in would purify himself in incense of juniper leaves at the whitened-earth ellipse in the rear of the lodge. Then the maker of the ceremony would sing his medicinesongs, continuing about half the night. Early in the morning an elongated structure, formed of the poles and coverings of three of the ordinary, conical lodges, was erected. The lodge was provided with three fires, and its single entrance was at the easterly end. When darkness came the priest kindled a fire, and burned incense on the altar, which had been prepared in the extreme back. Then he began to sing, and the people assembled. When all were present, he despatched two brave men to procure a small fir tree at the place designated by him in the mountains. Regardless of the depth of the snow, the two stripped to the loin-cloth. During their absence the priest sat behind the altar, constantly singing and shaking his rattle, which consisted of a staff about four feet in length, covered with deerskin and wound spirally with a thong from which dangled deer dew-claws set close together but with an open space left for the hand at the middle of the stick. The people danced without moving from their places. Usually the men returned with the tree in about an hour and brought it at once into the lodge. The priest in charge said, "Already some deer have come with that tree into this lodge." 1 According to Chamberlain, kflukaiafil contains the root HLUK, "makes the noise proper to it," with verbal k- and terminal -ahial, also probably verbal in meaning. He suggests as a translation of the name, Making the Deer Song. {view image of page 144} 144 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The two men bore the sacred tree around on the northern side of the three fires, held it in the incense at the altar and purified themselves, and planted it in a hole already prepared near the middle fire. A number of men and women, as many as wished, now arose, and the men stripped off all their clothing except the loin-cloth, while the women rolled up their dresses to their knees and removed leggings and moccasins. In single file they passed out of the lodge and round the camp-circle, on the outside, in the direction of the sun's course, then reentered the lodge, stepping like deer and coughing like deer, while a few snorted as does a deer that has scented the hunter. The maker of the ceremony still sat shaking his stickrattle, and singing with the assistance of those who had remained in the lodge. As an example of the songs here used, the following is given: SONG OF THE DEER HunYhlkini, Iyamu-nana; oniniakukhilum. It is my voice, Deer-child; I am a little fawn. Tahatnanskakinin hinifkii-lahwatap. This you will say when you call for me. M. M. "%=I68 I_ - -ru:;,___W — l — -r-"..7 -DRUM - - ~ '- ~ ' I ~ ~ ' ' ' 1. ' J 1- -- ---- _dO-AO ' _: b-~.. -A-D n~v {view image of page 145} THE KUTENAI 145 g, H t I ' aI ' ' [ aF11LN m I~L....~y J on' lrr on on s- ~I ~ 1 *I.-M ^ -1I- t - So -' tj ^^ t ^ ^ ^ *, ^ a^ - *i-i-<~~Fe d t ^ - g o d- r: z: *i: *1 * -- ~-I L/ - I -_- i- - rr The impersonators of the deer passed around on the southern side of the lodge, following the direction taken by the sun, always dancing, and simulating deer. Some danced up near the fir, which was about eight feet high, and placed their hands on a branch, then drew them away as if taking something from it and fell in a faint, real or simulated. Men whose medicine was known to be strong went to such as had fallen, and, placing the clenched hands of the dancers in the incense, forced them open, revealing a fresh deerVOL. VII-IO {view image of page 146} 146 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN tail, with the blood-stains still evident. Others, when assisted by the medicine-man, vomited pieces of deer-meat. The tails and the meat were believed by the spectators to have been taken from the sacred tree. The performance continued through the night, and in the morning the hunters, obeying the priest, made a game-drive down a single gulch to which he directed them, and killed two deer, and two only. The dance was resumed on the two succeeding nights, but without the progress round the camp-circle. Permission was given on the second and the third night to kill but one deer. On the last night, just before daybreak, the two men removed the tree to the place where they had cut it, while the people wept, and prayed, "May we see you again next year!" On the following day the restriction as to the number of deer to be killed was removed. So far as the Lower Kutenai are aware, this ceremony was last performed in I875. Mythology The Deluge: First Version In the days when the people all lived on the eastern side of Columbia lake they used to cross the water for huckleberries. One day, as they were returning, Duck and his wife were swallowed by a great monster, ra-woo-nik, Deep Water Dweller. Duck's brother, Red-headed Woodpecker, having decided to summon all the fish in order to find out where this monster could be found, sent Dipper up every stream, inviting all the fish to come; and Snipe he despatched around the lake. Each messenger, whenever he stopped, called: "You fish are all invited to come! If you do not, we will dry this lake, and you will die!" So the fish gathered at the appointed place. When they arrived, Woodpecker said to them: "I have lost my brother in this water. Ya-woo-nik has swallowed him. Now you fish must know where this Ya-woo-nik is. I want you to tell me where he is." Sucker responded, "I like to stay in the deep water on the bottom, and there I have seen him." Woodpecker immediately sent Long Legs, a kind of duck, to find Ya-woo-nik, but the water was too deep, and he had to turn back. At that moment there appeared in the council a very tall person, so tall that had he stood upright his head would have touched the sky. He was Nahlm6kchi, and he was a person, not an animal. He had been travelling from the north to the south, stopping at {view image of facing page 146} A Kutenai man [photogravure plate] {view image of page 147} THE KUTENAI I47 each place to give it a name.' Woodpecker requested him to drive the monster out of the depths, and the stranger waded into the lake. He kicked at Ya-woo-nik, but missed him, and the monster fled into the river, up a small creek, and into the very source of the stream under the mountains. After him crawled Nahlmokchi, and built a dam at the place where the monster had gone under the mountain. Woodpecker now placed his brother, Sapsucker, beside the dam, and instructed him carefully: "When he comes out, say that Woodpecker is going to spear him. Then he will stop, and I will come round and kill him." Woodpecker himself then went to the other side of the mountain and kicked, and the monster started to come out. When he encountered the dam, Sapsucker, excited and confused, cried, "Sapsucker is going to spear you!" Ya-woo-nik broke through the dam, grunting: "Sapsucker! I am not afraid of your spear; I am going to swallow you!" Sapsucker turned and ran, but just at that moment Woodpecker appeared, and thrust with his bill at the monster, who, however, had started to enter the stream below the dam, so that he was only wounded in a foot. He hurried down the stream, leaving a trail of blood. Woodpecker sent Beaver ahead to build a dam and stop him, and when Ya-woo-nik came to the obstruction he could go no farther, and Woodpecker came up and killed him. He ripped the monster's belly open, and released Duck and his wife. Water began to flow from Ya-woo-nik's wounds. His blood was water. It gradually spread over the earth until the people were forced to flee to the mountains. Still the water kept rising, and at last only one peak was left above the water. Chicken-hawk pulled out one of his spotted tail-feathers and stuck it into the ground at the edge of the rising water. "Watch!" said he. "If the water goes above that last stripe, we shall die!" The water stopped at the last stripe, then began to subside. After the water was gone, not all the people descended to the earth: the mountain birds began their life in the mountains at that time. The Deluge: Second Version One day Chicken-hawk's wife, Pheasant, went to pick berries. About mid-day, tired and hot, she went down to the lake for a bath. No sooner was she in the water than she saw Ya-woo-nik, a watermonster, and she was frightened. As she hurriedly swam to the 1 In this particular Nahlm6kchi resembles the culture-hero Coyote of certain other tribes. {view image of page 148} I48 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN shore, he called to her not to be frightened, for he was not going to harm her. Then she stopped, and he made love to her. She gave him all her berries, and remained with him until it was late. Afraid to go home without berries, she went to the mountains and hurriedly gathered some fruit, breaking off leaves and twigs in her haste. When she reached home, her husband asked at once why she had brought such berries, and she replied that she had had a headache and had not been able to gather clean fruit. Chicken-hawk was suspicious, and on the next day he followed her. While she picked berries, she sang happily, and gathered clean fruit. About noon she had a great quantity and went to the lake, still gayly singing, and at the shore she threw the berries into the water. Chicken-hawk, keeping close in order to see what she was doing, beheld the monster coming through the water. Ya-woo-nik ate the berries, and Pheasant stood on the shore singing. Then she went into the water. Chicken-hawk hastened home, to mend his arrows and to look after his bow. In the evening his wife returned again with trashy berries, and with her head bandaged, feigning headache. Chickenhawk made no complaint. On the next day he followed her again; saw her quickly gather berries and carry them to the lake; saw the monster eat them and then come ashore to caress her. At that moment Chicken-hawk put an arrow through his body. Water began to stream forth from the wound, and it spread and rose higher and higher. All creatures fled to the mountains, and Chicken-hawk put one of his tail-feathers into the ground to mark the rise of the water. When it reached the last stripe, it stopped and receded. Had it passed that mark, it would have destroyed them all. Origin Myth A snake was first made, and told to walk; it crawled away. As it was not just what its creator had intended to make, another creature was formed, a frog. It tried to walk, in obedience to its maker's command, but it could only hop. Then a cricket was made, and it started to rise on its feet and walk, but its long tail threw it down. A grasshopper was next created, but instead of walking it flew. Then the work was stopped.1 1 This apparently is but a fragment of an almost forgotten myth. {view image of facing page 148} Kutenai girls at the lake-shore [photogravure plate] {view image of page 149} THE KUTENAI 149 Seven Heads, a Modern Tale In a solitary lodge the father and the mother died, leaving their only child, a young boy, without a companion. They had named him Kafltakka, Sleeps Long, because of his laziness. His clothing became ragged, and his food scarce, and one day he decided to go travelling to see if he could not improve his condition. After a while he reached a large camp, and went to the chief's lodge for food. The chief fed him and then said, "You shall herd my horses." The boy noticed that the horses were very thin. He drove them to the hill which the chief pointed out, but there it was like all the country below it, bare and dry. On the other side, however, was excellent grass, and he pastured the herd there. Toward evening he returned to the camp. The chief asked him, "Did you leave a horse there?" "No, I brought them all back," said the boy. The next morning the chief said, "Take the horses back there, and to-night, when you return, leave two on that side of the hill." Once more the boy took the herd to the good grazing, and at night drove them all homeward. The chief inquired, "Did you leave two there?" "No, I brought all back," was the answer. "I saw nobody there to care for them, so I brought them all." On the third day the chief warned him to leave three horses, but once more the boy drove all home. "Did you leave three?" asked the chief. "No, I brought them all." Then said the chief: "To-morrow go to this other hill and not to the one to which you have been going. That grass does not belong to me, but to Seven Heads. Everybody here fears him. Three days you have used his pasture without paying him." On the fourth day the boy set out with his herd, but again he drove them to the same place. Soon after he arrived there he saw a man with seven heads approaching him. It was Kustalafilam. Said he: "You are the person who has been starving me. Every man who herds horses here leaves one for the use of this ground. Now you are the herder that is starving.me. I am going to kill you!" The boy said, "Well, perhaps you wish to be killed!" Seven Heads replied: "To-day you must leave four horses. If you do not, I suppose you will come here at noon to-morrow, and we will fight." "These horses do not belong to me," said the boy. "I have no right to leave four of them here. I am only the herder." Seven Heads disappeared around the base of the hill. Said the boy to himself, "I believe I can kill all those heads." {view image of page 150} I50 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN At sunset he drove all the horses back, and when the chief asked if he had herded in the new pasture, he replied, "No, I went there over the hill, because in the place you spoke of there is no grass." " Did you see anything there?" "No, I did not see anything." "Did you not see something that was very dangerous, that would frighten you?" "No, I saw nothing." "To-morrow," then said the chief, "we shall all be killed. The man who owns that place will kill us." "Wait," said Sleeps Long; "I am going over there alone to-morrow." On the next day he prepared a heavy club with teeth of flint and of bone set in on both sides. To the chief he said, "I think I will quit herding your horses." "Why do you say that?" asked the chief. "You said we are all going to die," responded the boy, "and I might as well quit. To-day I am going to see that man." He took his club and went across the hill. There was Seven Heads, who asked roughly, "Where are those horses you were going to leave here?" "I have quit herding horses," said Sleeps Long. "I had no right to leave them here. You said we were going to fight, and that is why I came: I am looking for a fight. I am no horseherder." Seven Heads said, "Come this way to the place where I always fight." So the boy followed him. At the foot of the mountain there was a cave in the side of the rocky wall, and in front of it the grass was worn off and the ground was smooth. They began to fight. Seven Heads threw the boy, who, however, succeeded at that moment in cutting off one of his heads. Again and again the fight was renewed, until the giant had lost four of his heads. Then he said, "We must stop for to-day, and to-morrow we will fight again." The boy was weary and very glad to hear these words. The four bloody heads lay scattered on the ground, and only three remained on the shoulders of Seven Heads. When the boy returned to the camp, everybody was in a great fright, expecting that the monster would destroy them. The next morning he was surprised to find that the seven heads were once more on his enemy's shoulders. He began to think: "Perhaps he is going to kill me! But the best thing to do is to keep fighting." Seven Heads told him: "When we grow tired, we will stop, and start again to-morrow. We will fight four days." Again the contest began. Now when Sleeps Long had left his former home to find an opportunity to do something for himself, he had met Eagle, who had said to him: "You can be just as great as I am. If you see anything in the air and have no way of getting it, think of me and {view image of facing page 150} Kutenai canoe [photogravure plate] {view image of page 151} THE KUTENAI 151 you will turn into an eagle." Later he had met Jack-rabbit, who had told him that when there was anything on the ground he desired to overtake, he had only to think of a jack-rabbit and he would have all of that animal's swiftness. Before noon Seven Heads had but one head left, and then he proposed, "We had better stop for a while, to rest and eat." "No," objected the boy, "I would not eat with you; and, besides, this is not the place for me to eat." They continued the contest during the afternoon, and toward evening the last head was severed. As it struck the ground a large bird flew up out of it. This was the life of Seven Heads. Instantly Sleeps Long thought of the eagle, and said, "I wish I were an eagle, so that I might kill that bird!" Forthwith he became an eagle and flew after the bird. Straight up into the air they soared until they could go no higher, and the bird began to descend, with the eagle close after it. Near the ground they began to fight, at the same time flying upward again. At length the eagle began to overpower the other bird, which fell, the eagle still pursuing. On striking the ground the bird turned into a kit-fox, and the eagle at once became a jack-rabbit. After a long chase the rabbit killed the fox, and the boy resumed his natural form. Carefully cutting open the fox, he took out the heart, wrapped it up, still beating, and placed it inside his shirt. Then he went directly to the camp and reported to the chief: "Your people are now safe. I have killed Seven Heads!" Sleeps Long decided now to search for his own people. On his journey he approached a lodge, wherein he saw an old woman, who looked at him in surprise, and said: "What are you doing here, my grandson? You are going to die to-day!" "Why am I going to die?" he asked. "Seven Heads is going to kill you. He is after you at this moment!" she warned him. "Seven Heads! You had better go behind that hill and see the seven heads. I have killed them all." "No," insisted the old woman, "you did not kill them. You have his heart with you. Follow me. I am going to try to help you in this." They went outside, and behind the lodge there was a vessel of fat boiling without any fire under it. She said: "Give me that heart. I am going to put it into this fat, and if that kills him it is well. If it does not, there is no way to kill him. Go back toward the place where you saw Seven Heads, and if on the way you hear an explosion, you will know that his heart has burst, and all will be well. Go back to the place where you cut off the seven heads, take one ear from each head, and bring them to me; I {view image of page 152} I52 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN want to eat them. If you do not hear the explosion, there is no hope. You will be killed." She put the heart into the fat and it floated on the top, still beating. Now the woman was a cannibal like Seven Heads; but she knew that the boy was powerful, and she was desirous of conciliating him. For that reason she called him grandson and tried to help him kill the heart of Seven Heads. Sleeps Long set out for the place where he had fought, and on his way he heard a sound like rock bursting behind him, and he knew it was the heart of his enemy. He found that the heads, which had been scattered here and there over the ground, were arranged in a row at the end of the body, just as if they were about to reunite with it. He cut off one ear from each and hacked the heads and the body to pieces. Then he returned to the old woman, who said, "Did you kill Seven Heads?" "Yes, here are the ears," he answered. "I have something here," she said; "do you know what it is?" She showed him a piece of flint in the shape of a spearhead, which had flown out of the heart when it exploded. Here, at last, was the real heart, the life, of Seven Heads. The boy took it and returned to his own people, where he became their chief. Komahlkanko Komarlkfnko was lame, and his nose was cut off like that of an adulterous Piegan woman. He was very poor and was looked down upon by nearly every one. Yet he had a few friends, to one of whom he said that if he ever were killed, he could be brought back to life by placing the pieces of his body together, hanging up a small baby-carrier with the image of a baby in it, and shooting at it with a small bow. He showed to his friend the baby-carrier and the bow. Then the friend was to sing: "Get up! Get up! Your father is coming; your father is coming! Komahlkanko, Komahlkanko!" The people were living on Tobacco river, near the place now called Eureka. One morning the chief announced: "We are going to move this morning. We must go to plant tobacco seeds." The people began to prepare for the march to Tobacco Plains, near what is now Gateway, where they always planted their tobacco. KomaFlkanko and his friend sat apart from the camp on a hill, watching the people prepare. The, chief had two women. He said to them: "Go and get me a horn of water; I am thirsty." So they went to the creek for water. The two young men watched them. Said {view image of facing page 152} Evening on Flathead Lake [photogravure plate] {view image of page 153} THE KUTENAI I53 Komahlkanko, "Let us go and take the chief's wives: you one and I one." "No, the chief would kill us," replied his companion. "Well, if you are afraid, I will go alone and take one of them," said Komahlkanko. He went down to the stream. The women were just turning away from the water, and he caught each by an arm. They said: "You had better let us go! Our husband is not a boy, he is the chief! He will come down and kill you!" He answered, "He is not the chief; I am the chief." Then he laughed. He was one of the lowest of people. The woman who carried the horn said, "You had better let me go, and I will take this water to him. He is thirsty." Said he: "Let this other woman go back. If the chief is thirsty, let him come down here and drink." So he released the other woman and told her to say to the chief that he must come to the water. She carried the news: "Komahlkanko has your wife down there." The chief replied, "Go back and tell him to let my wife go, for I am dry, and I want a drink." So she returned, bearing his message. Komahlkanko answered: "Go and tell him I said, 'Come down here and drink."' She took the message to the chief, who protested: "I will not go there. Go and tell him to let my wife go. I am going to sharpen my knife now." Once more she returned to the stream, and Komahilkanko cried, "Let him sharpen his knife!" When the chief heard this, he sent the woman once more with the word: "I am getting up to come down there!" Komahlkanko merely laughed, "Let him get up and come down here!" This she reported to her husband, and then returned to the creek, saying, "The chief is coming!" "Let him come!" cried Komahlkanko. So the chief went to the creek and demanded: "Let that woman go; I want to drink that water!" "You can drink right here," said Komahlkanko; "why don't you drink?" The chief approached closely, and said, "Are you going to release her?" "I am not!" said Komahlkanko. The chief caught him by one arm, the one which held the woman's dress, and cut it off. The hand still clutched the garment, and the arm did not fall. Komahlkanko laid hold of her dress with the other hand, and the chief cut off that arm, which also did not fall. Then the man seized her sleeve with his teeth, and the chief cut off his head, but. it still clung to the garment. The chief cut his body into pieces, and threw them to the dogs, and where the hands and teeth still grasped the dress, he cut pieces from the garment. Then the tribe moved away, and the chief commanded that the parents of Komahlkanko move, too, and not remain with the bones of their son. {view image of page 154} I54 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN The friend of Komafilkanko remained on the hill after the people moved. Just before sunset he went down to look at his companion's scattered bones. All the flesh had been eaten by the dogs, but he found a few bunches of grass and leaves upon which blood had dripped, and all these he gathered. He placed the baby-carrier in front of them, walked back a few steps, and began to sing: "Get up! Get up! Your father is coming; your father is coming! Komahlkanko, Komahlkanko!" As he spoke the last word he sent a little arrow straight up into the air, and as it began to fall, he sang, "Look out, look out, he might strike you!" The arrow dropped near the heap of grass and leaves but did not strike it. Again he shot the arrow and sang, "Look out, look out, he might strike you!" Just as the arrow touched the ground, Komafhlkanko leaped up, laughing. He was still lame and without a nose. He said, "Where are the people?" "They have moved away," replied his friend. "Let us follow the trail," proposed the other. So they did. It was night. When they reached the camp, they walked round the circle twice, singing Komahlkanko's song; but the people thought that they were only some of his friends. Everybody knew he had been cut to pieces. The parents of the young man began to cry, sorrowful that anybody should take his song so soon after his death. After circling the camp twice, Komahlkfnko said, "Let us go to my father's lodge and get something to eat." So they went to the lodge, and his parents were greatly astonished. Komahlkanko and his friend were in the habit of singing all night and then sleeping in the hills the next morning. So after eating they went about the camp, singing through the night, and at daylight they went out into the hills and slept. The sun was high when they awoke, and from a distance they beheld the people at work planting tobacco seed. Komahlkanko ordered his companion: "Go to the creek and bring some clay. I will see if this chief is as strong as I." When the clay was brought, he made it into the shape of a man with all the features and parts of a man. He took a pine needle, and ran it into a finger of the image under the finger-nail. He sat with his back to the people, who were planting, and said to his friend, "Watch the chief!" Soon his friend cried, " One of his wives has gone to where he is!" "Watch him closely," said Komahlkanko, as he pressed the needle deeper. "The other wife, too, has gone," was the report. Soon his companion said: "The whole crowd is there. Now they are placing him on a robe, and now they begin to carry him to the camp." {view image of facing page 154} Author's camp among the Spokan [photogravure plate] {view image of page 155} THE KUTENAI I55 While at work the chief had run a splinter under his finger-nail, and each time he pulled at it the sliver penetrated only the deeper. He called one wife, and then the other, but their efforts were worse than unavailing. His arm began to swell, and all the people gathered around, placed him on a robe, and carried him into the camp. The two young men followed. When they reached the camp, they heard the people in the chief's lodge crying: the chief was already dead. Komahlkanko said, "Let us go and see what is the matter with the chief." They hurried on to the lodge and found it crowded with people. Komahlkanko went in, pushing his way between the people, and saw the chief lying dead. One of his widows was just about to cut her hair, when Komahlkanko took the knife from her, saying: "Why do you wish to cut your hair? I am not yet dead!" He seized the body of the chief by the leg and dragged it outside and cut it to pieces, saying the while: " Now we will see if you have as much power as I had. I will cut you just the same as you cut me, and see if you will come back to-night." The people had opened the lodge-cover to make room, and he said to the women, "Fix our lodge!" They closed the cover, the people went out, and the two young men took the women for their wives. The next morning Komailkanko commanded the people to prepare to plant their tobacco seed. He was the chief. {view image of page 156} {view image of facing page 156} Returning to camp - Spokan [photogravure plate] {view image of page 157} Appendix {view image of page 158} I {view image of facing page 158} Spokan matron [photogravure plate] {view image of page 159} APPENDIX Tribal Summary The Yakima LANGUAGE - Shahaptian. POPULATION Estimated by Stevens in 1855 at about 1,200. Of recent years there has been such an admixture of alien blood that a reliable estimate is impossible. In I9Io the Office of Indian Affairs reported 2,679 " Klickitat, Yakima, and Wisham (Confederated Yakima)" under the Yakima school superintendency, Washington. DRESS - At the beginning of the nineteenth century breech-cloth and moccasins were the usual garments for both sexes. About that time began a change which eventually resulted in the adoption of the complete plains style of dress. At the earlier period men cut the hair square in front and did not braid it. Ear-pendants were elk-teeth or dentalium shells, but nose ornaments, according to native information, were not in use. The Nez Perces, however, make the same denial, although it is known that they pierced the septum and wore nose ornaments, and it is probable that the same custom existed among the Yakima. DWELLINGS - In the summer they used the tipi form of dwelling with mat covering. The permanent winter lodge was of somewhat similar construction, but the ground-plan was a much-flattened ellipse, and the walls were banked with earth to a height of about three feet. Such houses were as much as a hundred feet in length, and each sheltered a number of related families. Another style of winter house was rectangular, with steep-sloping walls, and truncated roof, supported on eight forked posts, the whole being thatched with poles, brush, and matting. The flat-roofed, underground room common to the plateau region of the Northwest was used as a common meeting-place for the women during the winter days. PRIMITIVE FOODS -The principal foods were salmon, fresh and dried; a great variety of roots and berries, particularly camas and huckleberries; the flesh of deer and of other mountain game. (See the list in the Vocabulary, pages 174-175.) ARTS AND INDUSTRIES - The Yakima were advanced in their handicraft. Baskets of several kinds were made: the water-vessel and the berry basket of coiled cedar-root with imbricated designs in bear-grass; root baskets of coiled willow-bark fibre or split tules; large storage baskets of narrow strips of cedar-bark; pouch-shaped bags of Indian hemp. Other household articles were cottonwood dishes and spoons, the stone pestle and oaken mortar, knives of chipped flint and obsidian, plain-woven blankets of jack-rabbit skin, cut into strips, and tule and cattail matting. The short bow was of oak, the war-club a stone wrapped in rawhide. GAMES - There was nothing distinctive about the games of the Yakima. Most prominent was kalilafh, the wheel-and-pole game, in which the wheel, about fourteen inches in diameter, consisted of willow wrapped in its own bark. It was played by four men, each pair of opponents standing at one end of the course, and throwing their willow wands simultaneously after the wheel. JVatloktlokkit, the game of shinny, was played by six men in each opposing side. The ball was cut out of choke-cherry root, and the object of play was to force it into the hole at the opposite end of the ground. Palyur was the common hand-gambling game. Patqaitaliwit was a contest of casting darts by hand at a stick, a couple of opponents standing at each end of the range. A play at dice, in which were used four beaver-teeth, each pair being marked distinctively, and the one called "men," the other "women." In playing {view image of page 160} I6o THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN pailstamawaikt, boys rolled a ball of dry rushes along the ground and shot at it with their little arrows. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION - Each of the cognate bands collectively known to us as Yakima was master of the territory where its winter camp was made, and possessed an interest in the common grounds for hunting and fishing, and for gathering berries and roots. Each band had its chief, but in several cases men extended their influence so as practically to control several adjacent and closely related bands. Chiefship was mainly hereditary, although there was no rule preventing men below the rank of chief from attaining it. There was no social unit between the band and the family. MARRIAGE - Early in the nineteenth century matches were consummated at a public dance, given for the purpose by the chief, at which a young man danced before any of the dancing young women he desired, and placed his hand on her shoulder. She could refuse him by pushing his hand away, or accept him by permitting it to remain. There was no further ceremony. At a later period a marriage was arranged by the young man's father, who paid to the girl's family the agreed price. Polygyny was practised. CULTURE HERO - Coyote, Spilyai, was both transformer and trickster. RELIGION AND CEREMONIES - Religious conceptions were simple and practices few. All objects, animate and inanimate, were believed to have supernatural attributes, and a child was sent repeatedly on solitary journeys that some spirit might speak to him and become his guardian through life. Those to whom a spirit revealed itself would later in life join in the winter ceremony called Wanpt (" sing"), which consisted in repeated singing of the revealed songs of each participant. Men whose tutelary spirits supposedly gave them power to cause and to exorcise sickness were called tuwatti. These shamans were much feared because of their alleged ability to produce sickness and even death, and the killing of a medicine-man for a deed of this kind was not rare. No definite conception of an after-world was entertained. BURIAL - Formerly the Yakima buried their dead in canoes placed in rocky shelters, covering the body, which was wrapped in deerskin, with the broken pieces of another craft. Mourning women cut the hair to half-length and purified themselves in the sudatory, and men refrained temporarily from eating fresh fish and fresh meat. NAMES FOR INDIAN TRIBES - Chelan ChilSl-pam Kittitas Pshwanoa-pam Klickitat Hwiahlwai-pam Nez Perces Shiwanish (Different Speech) Palus Palus-pam Puget Sound tribes Wan6kghi-flama 2 Shoshoni Wahp6ihpAl (Rattlesnake) Taitnapam Taitna-pam 3 Umatilla Umatullum-hlama Wallawalla Walawala-pam Wenatchee Winaitha-pam 4 Wishham Withham Yakima bands Atanim-hlama (on Atanum creek) Nahchish-hlama (on Nachess creek) Pisko-hlama (at the mouth of Toppenish creek) Si-Mlama (on Yakima river above the mouth of Toppenish creek) Sila-hlama (on Yakima river, between Wenas and Umtanum creeks) '-pam is a form of the locative suffix (cf. Klickitat -pum, Nez Perce -pu). 2 -hiama is equivalent to "those living at." In the names for many of the tribes either -Fiama or -pam may be used at the option of the speaker, and in those cases where one or the other must be used euphony seems to be the deciding factor. 3 A tribe at the head of Lewis river, closely related to the Klickitat. 4 WinatAha is the Shahaptian name of the fishery at the forks of Wenatchee river. {view image of facing page 160} Klickitat basketry [photogravure plate] {view image of page 161} APPENDIX i6i Yakima bands -Continued Simkoe-filama (on Simcoe creek) Th~ipnis'h-hilama (on Toppenish creek) Tkaiwaichagh-flama (on Cowiche creek) Winas-filama (on Wenas creek) The Klickitat NAMES FOR INDIAN TRIBES Cayuse Chinook Kiamath Klickitat Modoc Molala Nisqually Palus Puyallup Shoshoni Umatilla Wallawalla Wasco Wenatchee Wishhamn Yakima Kayi's Chiniik Hbimahli Hwifilhwai-pil1m M6dak Mijialis Sqall'i Pahis Puy~lflp Wahpiispal (Rattlesnake) Yurnatilla Walawila W~isku Winitiha-pilm Wiisham 1 Marnachilt KLICKITAT MEDICINE SONG M. M. T iI3 I~~~~~~~~~~~~ - - -~~~~~~O W - VOL. VIJ138 {view image of page 162} I62 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN r -llll., I. E I; S _ I I -,- C,~. f| -IN [L x- 'r r o, r, ' -L B I I I I I I L I If-o E. —'_3 - -1 Lg I rc I - '1! I ',I I_1'. 'r c_ [ f v, rc r,,YELL Mf L~;r~~~~~ ~ r~ r-~flr~xbx.~ Salishan Tribes of the Interior LANGUAGE - Salishan. POPULATION-Under Flathead school superintendency, Montana: Flatheads, Pend d'Oreilles, Kalispel, Spokan, 2,265 in I9Io. This number, however, includes about Ioo Kutenai. Coeur d'Alene reservation, Idaho: Coeur d'Alenes, 537; Spokan, 96. Colville school superintendency, Washington: Spokan, 504; Colvilles, 418; Kalispel (non-reservation), 95; "Lake and Colville," 294; Nespilim, 45; Okanagan, 538; Sanpoel, 189; Wenatchee (non-reservation), 66; Sinkiuse, 521; Methow, not reported. Total population of the interior Salish, 5,468. {view image of facing page 162} Pukimanstula - Spokan [photogravure plate] {view image of page 163} APPENDIX i63 Stevens in 1855 estimated the total population as 4,900. A Government investigator in I870 took a census of the Salishan tribes in Washington, and returned the following figures: Colvilles, 616. Kalispel, 403. Lakes, 239. Methow, 300. Nespilim and Sanpoel, 532. Okanagan, 340. Sinkiuse, I,ooo (estimated). Spokan, 716. Five years later agency officials made these estimates for the Salish in Idaho and Montana: Cceur d'Alenes, 500. Flatheads, 450. Pend d'Oreilles, 850. These figures give the Salish tribes of the interior a total population in 1870 of about 6,000. DRESS - When first observed, all these tribes wore clothing of the plains type, although there is evidence that many of them had not long passed the state of practical nudity. Cox, in I816, noted of the inhabitants of the Columbia between Yakima and Okanagan river, that the men were naked, while the women wore only a scanty breech-cloth. Men secured the hair in a knot at the back of the head, and curled upward the square-cut forelock; women folded up the braid at each side of the head and wrapped the resulting knots with strings of beads. Both styles changed about the middle of the nineteenth century, when they also ceased to wear bones or dentalium shells in the nose. DWELLINGS - Lodges were covered with rush matting, the ground-plan of a domicile for a single family being either circular or elliptical, and that of the community structure being long and rounded at the ends. Shelters of this last form, banked with earth at the bottom, were used in winter. The Flatheads have no tradition of any lodge-covering other than buffalo-skins. PRIMITIVE FOODS- Primarily they were fish-eaters, but parties of the Flatheads, Pend d'Oreilles, and Kalispel made annual journeys to the buffalo plains, and the other tribes even as far westward as the Sinkiuse occasionally crossed the mountains. Deer and other mountain game were abundant, and roots and berries, especially camas, kouse, choke-cherries, and huckleberries, were staples. (See list in the Vocabulary, pages I82-i83.) ARTS AND INDUSTRIES- Baskets were made of coiled cedar-root, of woven cedar-bark fibre, or of Indian hemp. The mortar was a cedar-root basket, lined with rawhide; bowls were hollowed out of wood, and knives were chipped flint. Blankets were of mountain-goat hair, strips of fur, or occasionally of a soft grass, and matting was of rushes. Fish were taken with spears in connection with the weir, by baskets suspended at waterfalls, by submerged basket-traps, and with hooks. The canoe of the easterly tribes (except the Flatheads, who were not boat men) was of white-pine bark; that of the Spokan and other westerly tribes was the hollowed log. Wood-working tools were the elk-horn chisel or wedge and the stone maul. GAMES - The wheel-and-pole game, played by all these tribes, was called by the Flatheads ~sn2?dakni, by the Spokan soliolokolmu, by the Nespilim skolokolodtum. In all cases the wheel was small, about four inches in diameter, and among the Spokan there were, on the inner surface, six equidistant marks, which, with reference to their position relative to the pole, determined the score; while among the Nespilim the same purpose was served by seven beads hanging toward the centre. Details of the sport have long been forgotten. That other widespread amusement, the hand-game, was found here in essentially the same form as elsewhere, and was called by the three above-named tribes respectively, silaihlkum ("sticks," referring to the tally-sticks), tsYldlkum, and sfialaldkum. These two were the principal games, and with issililg ("they throw arrows") were the only ones played by the Flathead men. The same paucity of games is observed among all these tribes. Flathead women played simichtimch~? (Spokan, michYmichu) with four bone dice, and nspukulmi ("they play ball"), a form of shinny with ten to twenty women on a side, goals about three hundred yards apart, and wagers piled in the middle of the course. {view image of page 164} 164 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION- The local band was the unit, there being no clans or gentes. The office of chief descended, as a rule, from father to son, and although the council of old men and warriors went through a form of naming the successor of the deceased incumbent, their meeting usually brought forth only oratory in favor of the logical successor. Public opinion, however, was able to divert the succession to another member of the family. The degree of authority exercised by a chief depended on his force of character. MARRIAGE - Primitively, says tradition, parents sent a daughter in quest of the man they had tentatively chosen for her. Later the custom was reversed and the father of the young man sought his bride, sometimes making moderate remuneration, but never ostentatious gifts. Polygyny was permissible and, normally, a man had prior claim to the younger sisters of his first wife. A widow could marry outside the family of her adoption only by permission of her brothers-in-law, one of whom, as a rule, took her for his wife. MYTHOLOGY - Coyote is the transformer and the trickster. The Columbia River Salish have their version of the myth in which Coyote brings the salmon up the river, and in the mythology appear also Eagle, Salmon, Frog, and others, the tales suggesting coastal influences. RELIGION AND CEREMONIES -These tribes were animists, and religious practice centered about the belief that men could obtain the power of supernatural creatures. Between childhood and puberty frequent trips to lonely places were made in order to give the spirits opportunity to reveal themselves. The eastern Salish were somewhat under the influence of the conceptions of plains Indians, but the Salishan tribes of the Columbia resembled the Shahaptian and Chinookan people of that valley in their religious practices. All excepting the Flatheads observed a winter ceremony, usually of four days' duration, in which persons possessing guardian spirits sang their sacred revealed songs and danced in single file around a pole. Among the Spokan, and probably others, there was a ceremony of tribal purification before the winter hunt. Most, if not all, of these tribes had a peculiar dance called Skaip, the chief feature of which was that one possessed of the skaip spirit wished to dance constantly and give away all his property. Apparently it was a form of emotional insanity, due to intense religious excitement. It was, they say, derived from the coast. The Flatheads, influenced by plains culture, performed a ceremony of calling the buffalo; and most of the tribes indulged in a war dance and a scalp dance. Shamans were believed to obtain their magic powers from their guardian spirits, and to be able to cause or to expel a mysterious illness. BURIAL - A corpse, clothed in garments and ornaments given by relations and friends, was wrapped in a robe and interred in a small grave or deposited at the foot of a hill and covered with stones. It was placed on its back and with the head toward the east. Horses were sometimes killed beside the grave, and in the case of a woman the mat covering of the lodge was occasionally rolled up and tied in a tree. This was out of respect for the dead, not because it was believed these things would accompany the spirit. Belief in a future existence seems to have been very vague. {view image of facing page 164} Typical Spokan woman [photogravure plate] {view image of page 165} NAMES FOR INDIAN TRIBES English Apsaroke Arapaho Arikara Assiniboin Atsina Bannock Blackfeet Blood Cayuse Cheyenne Coeur d'Alenes Colvilles Cree Delawares Flatheads Iroquois Kalispel Kutenai Lakes Flathead Stemchi Laph6 2 Chilikahluu (Earthcovered Houses) Tfttkutunhutu Sinkaiy6skaischi Ahwe, Schikoi Sinhuhlschi (Blood People) Kaiyius Chlkikaiyu (Spotted Eyes) Schiftui Shaye; Shayehlpi Nhutuhtu Chalai 3 Se'lisgh Yelqe2 Ka'llspe Skatlse Spokan Kalispel Stemchi Colville Sanpoel Nespilim Sinkiuse Stamchi Slnkaioskaischi Schkwaishini (Black Foot People) Snihulischi Stoqaikn Staqikanuh Skaiyusish M Schiftui Shuyahlpi Schifsui Skifsuuh Skiftuh Shichwilh Soyehlpi Sohhweihlp Sohwayiilp Sinchatiliah Shkichuu SohyaIlpu Kalsplm Kallspillm Se'lsgh Se'lish Ka'llspllhm Skallse Kahilspllm Skatlsi Sinuaiftchilti KalIspillm Stiltik Slnuaiftkstak KalIspel Kalispilrm Schimt is said to be a related obsolete word meaning "people." 2An adopted word. 3 Referring to the short hair of the immigrant Delawares. {view image of page 166} NAMES FOR INDIAN TRIBES —(Continued) English Nespilim Nez Perces Okanagan Palus Pend d'Oreilles Piegan Sanpoel Shoshoni Sinkiuse Sioux Spokan, Lower Spokan, Middle Flathead Saa; Saiptfni Ochlniak Takamchi Shikatlkomschi SchIkoi SInpoe Sinnuwe Sinkaieusi Nhutu Sinhome Sinhome Spokan Sinspili (Meadow People) Saaptini OchInaken Shtakamechini Sinpoelish Snuil Sinkaausi Tskaisftihlni 3 Sinhomene (Salmon-trout People) Sintutuili (Muddy[Creek] People) Yumatulla 4 Iakame Kalispel Colvllle Sinspilih Sanpoel Snespiluh Nespilim Sinspilih Sinkiuse Srnnespiloh ShahaptTnuh Shokannakfm Saaptini Saaptinik SaaptIn Shaaptenik Ochinaken Okanaken Okinaken Okinaken Nayaqfln Sinpoe'h-li Sinpoelikuh Sinpoelihuh Sinpoelihhil Sinkaeusi Sinkaieus Sftkastihni SInhomenli STnpoellhuh ShnaChkinku Skoahchnuh 3 z,1 04 Skoehchtnuh2 Skoahchenuh Spokenih Spokenik Spokenih Spokenik Shpokenuih Shpokenuhi t Shpokenuh! Slyumata11llo Spokan, Upper Sinhome Umatilla Ute Yakima Stntutuuli Ohemii Iakami Spokenih Spokenik Syumatilla Ydt64 Yute4 lakame Iaklma Yaakmil Nayaqichlnum5 NayaqichtnIm 1 The Spokan call the Nez Perces on lower Snake river UhSma. 2 Name of a single band. For complete list of Sinkiuse bands, see page 66. 3 Referring to the native name of the Little Falls of Spokan river. 4 An adopted word. 5 Possibly the Palus are meant. See the Sanpoel name for that tribe. {view image of facing page 166} In the mountains - Spokan [photogravure plate] {view image of page 167} APPENDIX I67 The Kutenai LANGUAGE- Kitunahan. POPULATION- Under Flathead school superintendency, Montana: about Ioo (agency reports untrustworthy; see page 120). Unallotted in Idaho, probably about IOO (not separately reported by the Federal census). Canada- Arrow Lake, 23; Lower Columbia Lake, 73; "Lower Kootenay," '57; St. Mary's, 208; Tobacco Plains, 54. Total, 515. Total in the United States and Canada, about 700. In I855 Stevens estimated the Kutenai in the United States to number 500. DRESS- Since they were first observed, the Kutenai have worn skin clothing made in the fashion of the plains costume, but their robes were skins of the elk and of the mountaingoat rather than of the buffalo. The hair hung loosely, that of the men being parted at the side and that of the women in the middle. Of late years they have adopted the custom of braiding it at the sides. DWELLINGS - The summer house consisted originally of a small, tipi-shaped framework of poles covered with bark or spruce boughs, with rush matting, or with elk-skins, according to the wealth of the occupants. Later, buffalo-skins were much used. The permanent lodge was a low structure thatched with willows and covered with bark and earth. All houses faced the east. PRIMITIVE FOODS - The principal foods were the flesh of the horned animals, such as deer, elk, caribou, moose, and buffalo; fish, and roots and berries of considerable variety. (See list in the Vocabulary, pages I74-175.) ARTS AND INDUSTRIES - The Kutenai women formerly made excellent water-tight cedarroot baskets of several shapes. The men evinced great skill in the manufacture of canoes, of which they made two varieties' a sharp-end pine-bark craft, and a skin-covered boat with bulging sides and upturned ends. The wooden and horn dishes, rush mats, stone hammers, elk-horn chisels, and stone and bone projectile points common to the region were made also by the Kutenai. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION - The several bands were distinct, and separate geographically, and independent, each led by an hereditary chief who possessed little or no authoritative power. The band was not subdivided into consanguineous groups. The Reckless Dog Society, resembling in name and ritual one of the age-societies of the Blackfeet, was practically a secret organization, for membership depended on the vision experience. MARRIAGE - There was no marriage rite; the woman was obtained in return for presents given to her father. Sometimes she was selected at a public dance, in which case acquiescence was optional with her. Polygyny was general. BURIAL - Painted, dressed, and wrapped in a skin, the corpse was placed in an earthen grave on its back and with the head toward the west, in which direction the life was supposed to travel. The primitive conception of the nature of its destination has been forgotten. Bodily defilement was the principle underlying mourning customs. RELIGION AND CEREMONIES - Animism was the basic religious conception of the Kutenai, and, like so many other tribes, they began to send their children at an early age into lonely places, so that some supernatural creature would reveal itself and impart its magic powers. Those who received from these spirits the special ability to cause and to counteract malign ills of the body or the mind were called wdmu. They employed the usual shamanistic methods. The ceremonies of the Kutenai were distinctive. At the end of the winter they performed a rite called Kankohohl for the purpose of securing the continued favor of the deity Kukhluktnam. He was believed to have influence over the game animals, and to grant good fortune and health. Each spring they offered ritualistic supplication to the grizzly-bear, which was implored not to send sickness upon them, and not to attack them. A fall or winter ceremony was for the especial purpose of making deer plentiful. MYTHOLOGY - Some of the myths seem to be distinctive and original, while others are clearly of plains origin, and yet others bear unmistakable resemblances to the coast mythology. Those presented in this volume belong to the first class; many of those recounting the adventures of Coyote are of the second, and creation myths are of the third. {view image of page 168} I68 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN DIVISIONS OF TIME - The Kutenai used the following names for the moons, which only approximate our months. January Naktasu February Nipko Natanik (Black-bear Moon) March Hlikok Natanik (Melting-snow Moon) April Kak'kmi Natinik (Earth-cracks Moon)l May Ohilmi Natanik (Deep-water Moon) June Kokok upku Natanik (Ripening-strawberries Moon) July Kokuskumu Natinik (Ripening-service-berries Moon) August Kchihlmitlhlkihl:kkwaiylt Natanik (Berries-ripen-even-in-the-night Moon) September Kuhlmakaku Natanik (Ripe-choke-cherries Moon) October Kupikpik Natanik (Falling-river Moon) November Kitahuftipka Natinik (Killing-deer Moon) December Nistamu Natinik (meaning not known) NAMES FOR INDIAN TRIBESApsaroke Kokumkantik (Ravens) Assiniboin Khiuhlama'ka (Cut Heads Off) 2 Blackfeet Kaftkakfilsaka (Blackened Legs) Bloods ' Wanmukintlk (Blood People) Coeur d'Alenes Skifuk (adopted word) Colvilles Kapklinik (Live At Falls) Cree Kufskiawi (Liars) Flatheads Mukw6kenik (Red Willow People) Kalispel Konanmitukhu (Down River) Kinbasket Khiltkatuwimhila't (No Shirt) Kutenai Ksanka Nez Perces Saptin (adopted word) Okanagan Okinnak6 (adopted word) Pend d'Oreilles Akukilnukhu (Live At Lake) Piegan Sinhla (Bad Ones) Shoshoni WIhImahlkintik (Rattlesnake People) Yakima Yaaklm6 (adopted word) ADDITIONAL KUTENAI SONGS HAND-GAME SONG4 M. M. -= about 168 DRUM M. M. ^" - 132 In this month the drying soil opens in cracks. 2 Referring to the reputed custom among the Sioux tribes generally of beheading a captive enemy, whence the common designation "Cut-throats" through misinterpretation of the sign for the Sioux in the sign language of the plains. 3 Referring to the native name of Bitterroot river, on which the Flatheads lived. 4 The Kutenai were, and still are, in an unusual degree devoted to gambling. The favorite game is that in which the two contesting parties, sitting in rows, face each other and sing excitedly, while one of the players with swift, rhythmic motions, intended to deceive the eyes of his opponents, passes from one hand to the other a pair of bone markers; after which one of the opposite side indicates with dramatic gesture which hand he supposes to contain one or both of the markers. The songs of the Kutenai game are unusually spirited. {view image of page 169} APPENDIX 169 V- tar r rtcta'>-NKI r; r' ' I larity of the drum rhythm is ignored by the singer. GUN-MEDICINE SOG ' ' d.... ' '" ~ ' '- O. M.M. -. 3.~8 1-___ _____ r _ _. I _____,, -Z The fate ther of t he singer had u hen such weapons were scarce, and in falling from tions of theii sit and stucceeded qie in ding the break. The above song was given to him bary the spi rrit. h is ioe ing GUN-MEDICINE SONG M.M..- 138 f The father of the singer had a gun when such weapons were scarce, and in failing from a cliff he broke it. Nobody knew how to repair it. Then one night he dreamed, and a man appeared before him and told him how to repair his gun. In the morning he followed the directions of the spirit and succeeded in mending the break. The above song was given to him by the spirit. {view image of page 170} 170 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN. _ _ ~_ _~.: _ _ 0J ff I I ' - - II - [L i Ii I i N l GLAD SONG Si f1 I I M dim...... M.-.. Dn | _r- l 1^ lisa b, ^ r = =; 8 r G 1 —f - r4 I^ r ^' ^di.......... o... I-'~.+ ~ J-v~-~~ —~,.~ r ~ I,'. A, UN i {view image of page 171} APPENDIX 17I SONG OF A KUKISAK DREAMER1 M.M. ^ 182 DRUM _I a '" _o _ * "-Ffz A __- -- ' -' I - ' ^ - rill dw OF dip N ^6 Isee page 34. ~s ~0 ' '0,~,.t~, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~0 On,,I / ' i!~'~___.~_ r~,e ~e' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~.,R ro r See,page --- 134 {view image of page 172} 172 172 ~~THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN I L L. ~ ~ - I Vocabularies Yakima, Klickitat, Kutenai ANATOMICAL TERMS English Yakima Klickitat Kutena; ankle-joint lkohs-lk6hs ia-kalil-i-kafi-ka-ni'm-ki arm 16-pa i-klat blood ti-nii-wan ti-li-wal wi'n-mo bone pipih mA'k chest t1-n'i-qa a-ko-'It-T-kak chin til-nin tigh-ai a-kam-ffln-kak ear mlih-yii a-k6-ko-ilt elbow-joint ka'-1~i-nu ia-kah~l-a'-kaf6-ka-nim-ki eye a-chagh a-ki-klhil face tqi-pd~h a-ka-kni-nam finger a-h-la il-pip-hila-lila a-kich-kail finger-nail a-sa' a-kiik-pl-nam (human claw) foot wa-hi wo-hi' a-klyk hair tii-ta-nik a-k6-wilt hand II-pdp a-ki-nam head tlam-taih paliil-ka a-khla'm-nam heart tdim-ni a-ki-hilui knee kohhil a-kai-nak leg wa-hai wo-hi' ak-ghak lips ilm a-ko-ki-yii-qillil-mia-nam lungs I-ghii-ghu a-ki-h-la-lila-hi'm-nam mouth il m a-kah-l-mai-nam neck tain-wtit a-k6'-kolk. nose nd-ghnu i'-kon nostril a-kas-hlali-kak 1 The Yakima vocabulary was obtained from a member of the Sila band; that of the Kutenai from members of the Akiyinnik and the Akanuhdnik. Klickitat words exactly like the corresponding Yakima are not repeated. {view image of page 173} APPENDIX English toe toe-nail tongue tooth antelope* badger* bat bear, black* bear, grizzly* beaver* buffalo* Yakima a-wa-hi-lhla-lila a-sa mi-ligh i1-tiut chat-wi-l'i wi-lila li-chat-'li-chat a-na-hdi tu-it-taslh yiu-ha mds-us-fg!n Klickitat a-wa-hin-chi ANIMALS'1 ai-paih-pa-mi tu-wiltaih (prairie grizzly-bear) fii-taks '73 Kutenai a-kich-kik-mak a-kdk-pl-nam, wa-lhi1-nak a-k6-namn i-kh-lomn nip-ko khl6'-hla ~hin-na kam-ko-k6'-kolll i-yi'-mu ( lack horned-animal) buffalo-bull nil -sik buffalo-cow hllldk-po buzzard k~hpa-lil na-frlas-wai-_2 carlbu*ni-hni coyote spil-yai spill-ya skin-kuf6 crow a-a hi-ha deer, black-tail* yi-ma~h na-kihil-nik deer, white-tail* fflp-ka dog 3 ko-si-ko-si hil-chin (little horse) eagle, bald a-kid-nuk-hhi6 eagle, golden hwali-yam-ma ho-ya-ma' ki&k-n6~-ko-a elk* wi-ya-pa-nit k~lil-ki-file fox lu-fbi na-kiu goose* ai-kak k~le-kl~a-mah grouse* pti horse* k6-si ka-lila-hi'l-ch lamprey* a-sum meadow-lark* hwflfil-1hwi~il ylk-fi~na mink pl-ti-y6 piks i-nti-ya moose* ni-fgn'p-ko mountain-goat* w5 kia-nd'k-hu mountain-lion qai-ya-wil SU-Wi-ai 4 mountain-sheep* tiLn-nui-un nf-hli-ap muskrat* hi'n-ko otter* nuk-~hai a-k6-hahli owl6 a-ma~fh ki'-pi prairie-chicken* kai-hnu raccoon* ka-lis rabbit, cottontail* aiqs rabbit, jack-* wi-la-Ilk tilil-nia-ko rabbit, snow-shoe* ki~-no-kltim-i raven h6'-huh h6'-hoh k6-qin sagehen* pai-yidmih 1The names of animals used for food are indicated by stars. 2 Compare Spokan sAldyg and Wishhamn isko'lya. 3 Dogs are eaten by the Kutenai. 4 A borrowed Salishan word. Mountain-lions were eaten by the Kutenai. 6 Owls were eaten by the Kutenai. a-k a 1-111am at uTn (? -dog) na {view image of page 174} '74 English salmon* salmon-trout* skunk spider weasel (in summer) weasel (in winter) wildcat* wolf wolverene THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Yakima nii-suh Klickitat ti-ska'i wi-hal-ha-l'i wa-tai pi-chflm wa-ghi-pa-ni Kutenai su-i-ki-mo tii-hufil hii-ha~h nu-kiin-ka mai-yok afa-pu ka'-kin CARDINAL POINTS east north south west haai-ytlht~=kl-nik (daylight, this side) kpis-as-kan (kpisas, [no word] cold) ktih=ki-nik (across, k-ti,'h=kT-nik this side) a-niigh-agh-kan (even- a-na'-ghagh ing) ya-ka-kan-m'it-ki (where day comes) [no word] [no word] ya-kan-aflil-walil-qai-'it-ki kam-ko-k6-koml ka-kik-ho-mi-ka ka-kaik-ho-ma'-ka ka-n6s kamn-n6k-hlu ka-ma'-kich black blue gray green red white yellow chmuk lumt p~ph lumt lu-6ai pd-haiih ma-ht1sfh COLORS lu-chai ko6-yiih mil-kiIslh PRIMITIVE FOODS acorns artichoke bitterroot blackberries blueberries camas carrot choke-cherries cranberries currants, red currants, yellow elderberries gooseberries grapes, Oregon hazelnuts huckleberries lichen onion parsley partridge-berries pine-nuts prickly-pear fruit wa-wa-ch'i pi-nit pi-a-he' wi-sik wi-wil-lii-wi-wil-lu tamn-Thi-ta sa-witk to-m6-,h yo'h-pas sii-hi11p hnin mtlti'ip pi-nugh ihM-k6-kok-kiigh a-tit q~n8'h ku-16-wi hi-si-a; ham-sl yah-si-kil na-kaim-chu tam-si-ta a-kilhl-ma-ka sali-po ka-m6-sak WI-wil-nu ki-Thi-ti ni-uk lhla-wil-aMi i-Mla shaii-yuk a-k6-pahll pa-ihail-ah; iih-tiiigh 1 See also under the head of Animals. {view image of page 175} APPENDIX English raspberries, black raspberries, red raspberries, yellow red-osier berries rhubarb salmon-berries service- berries strawberries sunflower root sunflower stalk Yakima ghih-hat a-tu-na-tti-na Klickitat '75 Kutenai ko-w6-ka k6-ku (longbrush strawberries) a-k6-ku ai-i-tuin w-wan thu ch-chaii-ya sus-pain ha'-h-li-a i-tui-wuin HANDICRAFT arrow arrow-point arrow-shaft basket (for berries) basket (for roots) basket (for water) basket-dish basket, sto rage blanket (woven skin) bowl, wooden breech-cloth canoe (generic word) canoe, bark cap, skin deerskin dress fi re-d rill house, summer house, winter leggings matting moccasins mortar pestle shirt snow-shoes spear, fishspear, warspoon, wooden sweat-lodge kai-ya'-su wa'h-ti~h pa-ti hhlm an-nai il-tai ti-ka'i ti-tagfh sh6-kas sman-ni-yafihl na'hik yfch-ki a-k6-ku-ok gfhfm-mllh tu-nis fi~hw6-lfi a-nu-tagh ni-yich khli hikam kpuhlI pnai tat-pas ti-a-ha'i wa-ke'chu a-ko'k-fla'ihi-lak yak-s6-mlh-l chikn-no a-kai-a-qa'-na a-ki-nok-mi-bila a-ka-td'm-hla a-ki-tla'-nam a-k!-thi-nam a-ka-tik-hihuk lila'm skilm-skilm-nmi a-ka-td'm-fla a-ki-kai a-ko'n-ko-t'i-yafil chu-ko-t'i-yahl so-has wa-si-yalIl NATURAL PH ENOMENA ashes charcoal cloud darkness day. earth fi re fog la-pul-pul a-l'ii sfi~at hlqi ti-chaim 1-h uq ~h pas-aiat la-lui flI'-qi ti-nailkt a-kd'k-il-m6-ku a-kahl kta-md'-hu yu-kuit-ni-mu a-mak a-kin-k6'-ku a-kun-ka'-h-lak {view image of page 176} 176 176 ~~THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN English ice lake light lightning Yakima ti-tih wa-tim kai-iAi il-li-kd-wa Klickitat tuh li-kai-ilh-hit Kutenai a-kuit a-kdi-kg~-nuk a-kah-l-mu-ku-wai-it a-kahlI-mu-ku-wit ti-t'is Nd-ma (thunder his light) na-ti-nik a-kuk-h-li-it moon al-ld-haf-idh mountain mountain (snowpeak) Mount Adams Mount Rainier nig~ht ran rainbo river rock sky smoke snow star sun thunder water wind nl-po't ta-h16-ma. flwihil-hwai-pam-i tah16-ma (Klickitat peak) Pihwi-no-a-pam-i tah16-ma (Pshwanoapamn peak) sfiit-pa. tah-tah ka-p~a-Ahai-yat n-Chi-dt-wan ("large stream" pihwa pd-i has-Id an i-nurm-hlli chi-i~h Pa-tu Na~n-nik-aih (Pinenuts) P'i-fi-ha-tu (Bitterroot) cha'-pa-Ahai-yat wan-na to-hun no-wi-na-hla wai-ti-6-na wa-hlok-ku-kuit-ne i-nis-mi a-kin-mi-tuk a-kil-wfia-nuk a-kifil-mi-yit ya-mu aik-hilu a-kilil-nd'-hus na-ti-nik nu-ma wo-o a-k6-o-mi NUMERALS one nah~h two nipt three mud-tat four pi-nipt five pi'-hat six pt9-hni-rn1ih seven tos-has ti's-kas eight pa-ha-to-mait nine fiq-md-skt ten p6-tidrnt eleven p6-tilmt-ko-naihih twelve p6-tLimt-ko-niipt thirteen p6-tqimt-ko-mu'-tat fourteen p6-titimt-ko-pii-nipt fifteen p6-tqimt-ko-pi-hat sixteen p6-tt~mt-ko-pta'-hni-nTAh seventeen p6-tL~mt-ko-t6s-has eighteen pO-t~imnt-ko-pa-ha-to-mait nineteen p6-tqmt-ko-6O-mid'fh twenty nip-tit twenty-one nip-tit-ko-ni~hh 1 A borrowed Salishan word. See footnote, page 6. 6-ke as kihil-ssa hi-&ia yi-ku In-m-is-sa wis-ti-Hila wo-hwi-fga kai-i-ki-tuo f-tuo i-tuom-hila-6'-ke i-tuom-hili-as i-tuom-lia-kilfil-sa i-tuom-hla-yil-ku i-tuom-lhla-!n-mf s-sa i-tuom-hila-wls-ti-la i-tuom-hMa-kai-i-ki-tuo ai-i-wo ai-i-wom-fila-6-ke {view image of page 177} APPENDIX '77 English thirty forty fi fty hundred Yakima Mfl-tip-tit pi-nip-tit pi-hap-tit pii-tap-tit Klickitat Kutenai kafil-sin-uo ha-f6in-uo yi-kiin-uo i-tu-un-uo PERSONAL TERMS aunt, maternal aunt, paternal baby boy brother, elder vocative form MY ~ your ~ his or her brother, younger (feminine pronouns) vocative form my ~ your her ~ (masculine pronouns) vocative form my ~ your his chief enemy father (feminine pronouns) vocative form my ~ your her ~ (masculine pronouns) vocative form my ~ your - his girl man medicine-man mother vocative form my ~ your ~ his or her people (Indians) people (white) pa-hih pi-~higb mi-yi-nagh is-wan kilkt-Is (his aunt) tihil-tit-Ts (his aunt) a-ko-kip-malil ya1-ya na-yi-yas i-yi~h pfln-mink-pi-yip nup-pa nmi-pacht pit-san p~in-mink-pacht nuk-ka in-kaks; or, is-hi'p k6k-san plan-mink-a-wa-af6 to-wil-ha-ma nmi-pi-yu'p in-mink-pi-yi'p pfln-mink-pi-yidp in-pa6~ im-paf6 nd-cha in-esaf im-f6af in-to-wil-ha ki-tat ki-tat tit-nis tit-is ka-ffi-ya ka-ffii-ya ki-fga ki-gia fi~i'-nis na-sid-ko-Tn In-ni-kl-nam ki'-su ki-su s~i'-nis Sid'-is tu-ta na-tii-tas i-tiit pffit tu-ta na-tu-tas i-tdt pghlt pti-niks a-wingh tu-wit-ti kai-tit ki-tit tit-u-nis tit-u-is na-ut-na-na tit-kat wi-miu i-Mla 'i-hbas ih1I piq-cha' tin-ma Su-ya-pu1 na-i-bilas in-milnk-pchi' piin-milnk-pchi' k6-ycih tfin-ma. (white people) See Volume VI, page I155. ki-ma ki-ma mi '-nis mi'-is akhil-smi-knik su-yi-pi 1 1 A borrowed Piegan word. VOL. VII-I2 {view image of page 178} I78 English person sister, elder vocative form my yourhis or hersister, younger (feminine pronouns) vocative form my your her (masculine pronouns) vocative form my your his uncle, maternal uncle, paternal woman THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Yakima tin na-na na-na-nas i-nigh pian-mnink-pat Klickitat ni-ya, i-naks a-sip pi~n-milnk-a-sip ni-cha in-fiafg afa pun-mink-afi kai-ka pi-milih ai-yat Kutenai akh-l-sma'-knik ka-hMff-kiH-Is a-hlffg-kffil-is ka-na'-na ka-ni-na na-na -nis na-na -is ka-ni-na ka-ni-na na-na -nis na-na -is a-fiai-is (his uncle) hi'-is (his uncle) pifil-ki yuqih in-milnk-af& pith TREES alder aspen birch, red birch, white cedar choke-cherry cottonwood fir juniper maple oak pine red osier spruce tamarack willow a-hi' ni-n'ii psu-ni nan-nd~k tii-mi-gfu hiiphp papslh fidn-nai-yaih fi~u-n'ips ta-paih lu-fga-n'i hildk-a-chxn mus-swal a-ku-wai-hlh-wok f-giT-nat a-kihl-ma'-ku-ok ak-hid6-mak Mu a-kukp-h-ld'-llafil hi'-mu; i-kam kt'is-tit a-ku-fildk-pak h6'; ti-thghh MISCELLANEOUS food a - pil kf-kffi forest ptun a-kans-hlai-in large n-ch'i ko-wihil-ka small ik-silks kT-cha-ku'-na spirit-creature tah pai-yo-&ha nl-pi-ka spirit (ghost) pa'-ti-wa-ta-flilai a-'li-wi-9ha, spirit, human haiih-wit (haah, breath) spirit-land ho6-la'k tobacco tai-wah ya'-kait IAfter such a spirit-creature appears to a faster in a vision, it enters his body and becomes his guardian spirit, or ta/i. {view image of page 179} Salishan Comparative Vocabulary ANATOMICAL TERMS English ankle-joint arm blood bone chest chin ear elbow-joint eye face finger finger-nail foot hair hand head heart knee leg lips lungs mouth neck nose nostril teeth Flathead Spokan skohl-chim-ftin- slm-mui-ko-fsi-na Kalispel shin schwa-hun sin-hhil sfsa'm schtwah-fs-ch ku-ye-p6 te-ne sAn-ta-pip-se schi-ku-tlu sku-tlus stia-ha-chis-tid il-chelsh-kah-ke (hand claw) sfds-shin kamm-kin chelsh spihil-ken spu-us schum-kai-sln-ne sfto-shin spT-lim-fsin smihi-chu-me sin-cht-matl-kadlt chds-pin stin-pe-sa ha-le-hu na-shin schi-wa-hin sin-ni-hul sftom schlhl-chi'-mi-hin schihi-chl-ma-pa'-st ta-na-a si-mil-i-ho-k-sa-hIn schku-tlos-tn schku-tl6s sfso-wacht koh-ken"ht ftu-u-shin ko-mukn chfl-Tsh splhl-ken spu-us ka-a-k6n-shmn sfsu-u-shin spi-lim-I-fsln spi-lim-T-stIn schi-chi-mat-lps s'pI-saks sin-ni-pI-saks-tn ha-la-huh AWenatchee Sinkiuse smuk-sI-na-nahin ka-lih mihl-kai-ya sfaam skap-min kai-ya-pa-na ta-na sna-filu-smtn slu-smin fio-fio-wihst fil-pa-ikst fsu-hTn ski-y6kn ka-lih ko-mukn sftpu-is ka-ke-nikn su-fsu-hin skilm-chin sp6-p6 skilm-chfn kus-pin muk-sin h -l16h Colville Nespilim It ^0. x MT z; e {view image of page 180} English toe toe-nail tongue Flathead stiah-shln stiah-shin-kah-ke (toe claw) tiuh-f-ch Spokan sfta-a-ki-n u-shTn koh-ken-4hin ti-hu-ch-ch Kalispel Fenatchee snk-kam-kam-kan fMl-pa-akst mf-Ik Sinkiuse Colville Nespilim 00 0 ANIMALS 1 antelope* badger* bat bear, black* bear, grizzly-* beaver* buffalo* buzzard chipmunk* coyote* crow deer, black-tail* deer, white-tail* dove* duck* eagle elk* elk, cow* fish* fox* goose* sta-an si-hoi-I-ho tel-te-lu-wi n-h-am-I-k6 sim-mu-he; sImmuf-hai-i-chin ska-le-u qe-qai ffi-ka-wi-ye sis-ch6 sin-che-l1 sfta-a-a st6l-fi ftu-ui he-mis-hem ses-tlI-hum mll-ka-nu tsh~e-f6 su-w&-uhhwa-hwi ku-si-uh shtan ie-hoi-fi-hot-shYn tan-ni-wai-ye-4 n-hMim-ka sim-mi-hai-i-chln ska-la-u sta-mal-ti fta-ko-ye ko-ku-fiu-wai-ye-6 spil-y6 3 ghsta-a-l stul-ft6 ftu-u-liuh ha-mfs-ha-mTs sestl-hum mil-u-kan-ups 4 ts'he/ shin-e-chll-ftl ghi-wi-uhsha-ha q u-sihw io-hoi-o-h6 yo-hio-hot-hn sa-pi-ya-hin n-tla-mif-ke mi-hahM sim-mu-he stfim-tam-ll io-hio-h6t-kn io-hweo-hot-ktn io-hwio-h6t-kin mi-haih sklm-u-hlst skqm-u-hist ght6m-ta-mil sim-he-I-kin ki-lo6-na ska-le-u koi-u-qai fta-ka-wi-y~ sin-chkt-li sagu-a-u stul-fiu hlti-fu-utliuh mT-h-li-ka-nuh tghe-fit si-ne-chl-fts sti-we-wu-hli ska-16 2 qisp fia-ka-wi-a qa-fiu-wai-ya smi-yo hi-ha stul-fta tuk-tups ha-mfs-ha-mfs shat-hat mul-ka-nips tu-haft na-sa-uhlq ghh6-ha s-ha-hant ghkq-16 qeshp chi-ko-y6 shIm-mi-y6 ha-ha stla-u-chi-ntm tiuk-wU-tops mll-u-kan-uips tlh-aif na-sha-wo-liq stu-nik qai-stum-ilt chi-ko-ya stn-kel-lip ha-ha stul-fta tuq-tops mll-u-kan-ops n-si-ulq stunh qisp chi-ko-ya sl-ni-ka-lip hi-ha stla-chi-nim tfik-wo-t6ps mfl-a-kan-ops pa-pa-lift 6-3 z 0 Pd 241 z z M Co 14: n"-hi-olq 1 The names of animals used for food are indicated by stars. 2 The beaver-skin was the unit of value between traders and Indians, and skal6 now means "dollar." 3 Compare Yakima spilyai and Wishham iskolya. 4 In the Quinault (coast Salish) language mfl-ups means "tail transversely striped." {view image of page 181} English horse* lynx* magpie mink* moose* mountain-goat* mountain-lion*, mountain-sheep* muskrat* otter* owl* pheasant* prairie-chicken* rabbit, cottontail* rabbit, jack-* rabbit, snowshoe* raven salmon* salmon-trout* skunk* spider squirrel, pine* swan* weasel* (in summer) weasel* (in winter) wildcat* wolf* wolverene Flathead sin-chll-ftas-ka sTn-ka-fds onn a hlwt-tsu-ha-le shi-silks shu-tle-i sku-ti-si-mi-yi h-lu-u-mt-ne chI-chi-leuh Il-ta-ku shni-nm ka ska sh-lqa wi-u-s6-l1sh-chln Tm-m-laa-i ha-ha-ste-yi sche-it is-s-ch6 spu-ka-mi hTlchim Spokan sfn-chll-fias-ka sTn-ka-chuhil an-n tsu-ha-let6n sha-silks suh-tle-i sqti-si-mi-y6 hlu-u-mT-ne chi-chT-leuh il-ta-ku sl-ni-ni-6 sqls-qils sqe-6 ghhu-la-tks wa-n A-nich sqa-ku-fsi sbhchi-lu-p6-6 sI-ma-hlich hu-me-n6 hfh-stai-y6 tupl tsh-fiT-cha spa-ka-mis ko-sdmn Kalispel Wenatchee sin-chll-fiss-ka hdtl-fsin Sinkiuse hitl-chin Colville Nespilim sn-klfsas-ka-ha sin-kil-ch's-kaha sfn-ka-sfi ann fsa-hat-le sko- ti-si-mi-ye hol-hwa chlt-leuh Il-tu-ku wup-wup-kln wiln-a-wan-Ips fta-ha-li-fsIn fsa-ha-li-chim shwi-y6-tu su-wa-u-wa lit-ku spu-h-l1 se-us-a-wis sqi-kul-qa shwu-16-tks shu-wa-wa i-li-qa-luh-kin ha-na-uh il-tt-ku spu-hla ha-ne-nfk n-ti-ti-yah ho-m,-n6 snak-t&-ye wap-wip-kin nn fsa-ka-litsn soh-tli-! su-wa sa-ni-uh il-tu-ki spi-pi-li-na n-ti-ti-ik ho-mi-n6 sn&k-sti-yd wap-wfip-kn an fsa-ka-let-chln sgh&-w-a i-li-qu-lah-ktm sha-a-ndoh Il-tl-kt ghni-na wa-na-nik ha-na-nfk sqa-ku-fsi sko-qi-fsumh rI t: 1-3 n-ti-ti-ik ho-me-nl-I ha-st&e ko-la-ka n-ti-ti-ih lak-tai-a tu-pi-la n-ti-ti-ik ho-mi-nF snek-sti-yi spik-a-miuh ku-sumn hipa pap-kh-f-st pe-chYn r-fs-i-ifIn shwe-yln pichn n-tsi-I-chn n-fsi-itf pu-kam n-ta-lan-na kuhl-tW-mai-In n-tu-la-na n-&i-ifsn n-fsi-i-fsn o00 {view image of page 182} CARDINAL POINTS 00 N English east north south west Flathead shatl-pu-tin; sflech-tin (rise) chi-ftitl-tu-liuh chIsn-tah-ke schel-uh-tin Spokan shqi-tld-pi-tin fta-dhA-tu-la-uh ihhui-i-tis spu-kani schi-l-hu-tin Kalispel sq -tlu-pu-tin ftatl-tu-leuh qa-fsa-leuh sche-tlu'-qu -tin JYenatchee Sinkiuse Colville Nespilim ghqitl-pil-tln squtl-pl-tan ghqiltl-pii-tan [no word] [no word] ha-ghi-shos-tn nT-Itltk ho-timtk [no word] [no word] ska-lI-qil-tan ska-lu-qil-tlan COLORS black blue brown gray green red white yellow ia-kwai ia-kwen i-chnil-che! ich-hi ia-qi ia-qidl ia-pik ia-qa-li-i kwai qai chi-l-chatl-uh chh6e-lps kwin qil pi-ak qa-dhi ii-kwai il-qai kwe qi kwe qe kwai qai ii-qin ii-qitl i-pi-uk i-qat-li-I pah qi f~ah pai-yik qe-dhai-fiht kwai qai qai chah; qil pai-yek qe-dhe qen fiuh; qil pa-y6k qa-dhai-ak qin qil plk qe-dhi f!2 0 V.! PRIMITIVE FOODS bitterroot camas carrot choke-cherries currants gooseberries grapes, Oregon huckleberries spe-tltlm i-thwe stlo-kum hlah-hlah stem-tu n-te s'fsals sti-sha spa-tlm i-thw6 stl6-kum hlih-hlah sfsi-dhush n-ta-ta-mllps sk6-yu st-shahilk i-thw6 spa-tldm i-thwa stokm pkal-lIh sti-fdhis pi-nugh 2 qe-yo su-wun-nl-duh fso-ho-16-sha cho-ho-lo-s'ha 1 See also under the head of Animals. 2 A borrowed Shahaptian word. {view image of page 183} English partridge-berries pine-nuts raspberries red-osier berries rose-hips service-berries strawberries Flathead sku-lis sfs-fti-che Itl-lafi ste-chi-fsu shu-ya shiak kai-tl-kam Spokan sku-lis Kalispel IVenatchee qi-lis Sinkiuse Colville Nespilim sfsi-fsi-cha nu-wa-wis-shllsh st,-chi-fsuh swai-ya-pahlk shlak ket-kdm sko-ko stik-hlu te-laq HANDICRAFT arrow arrow-point arrow-shaft basket bow bowl, wooden breech-cloth canoe deerskin dress house (tipi) leggings matting moccasins shirt shirt of mail snow-shoes ta-pa-mi sI-nll-chtl-pel sho-tlo-hw6 hlchfiin fsqi schko-ma n-I-l-qai sfpo6-mlhl-ku su-pu-hwa spi-ye t shait-ll-shin kai-shin sI-na-ftih-l-ke sin-chi-la'-pa 3 stge-w6-fsI-shrn ta-p~t-min sin-fst-l-lIstn sho-lo-hwe-tl-Ist ya-mo-hwe fsqi-Ingh sho-hwai-tlfm n-hlq -postl-shln sti-tltm fsu-li-hwa-luh shup-hwap-hln si-iak-shilh 2 scha-chafs-kenshin si-yai-Oks si-p-9hi-pi-i —htin sI-na-fslhl-kai-it ski-lln n-ta-pik-nuilks shutl-hwat-last nihl-qa-p6-ishn sis-sihp llu-pai-ya shat-llm-ht n It It M 2 tt cc x spu-fta-ni-tliuh ti-hu-16-tia ska-ahn hlu-pai-ya I Hide-covered; from sipi, a hide. 2 Mat-covered; from siyaigks, matting. 3 A sleeveless shirt composed of several thicknesses of tanned deerskin. 00 w> {view image of page 184} English sweat-lodge travois water vessel Flathead sin-la-ke la-as-ten su-kds-tin Spokan sl-li-kesh hl-l-chl-tsi'n Kalispel Wenatchee Sinkiuse Colville Nespilim 0-0 00 4 - NATURAL PHENOMENA ashes charcoal cloud darkness day earth fire fog ice lake light lightning ko-lI-min tafh-o-ftaht schI-tu-mip chi'm shatl-ha stu-liuh sa-li-shi s-he-mip s-hu-ylmtk chihl-ka-li spa-a-ka su-we-chfm Milky Way schi-pa-kas-kat (light in the sky) moon ils-ku-ku-e spika-ni (night sun) mountain m-ka-ma-ka ko-lu-min fsiuh-fsoht schT-ti-mip i-chimp sha-la-hilt st6-liuh su-wudh-e-shist s-hA-mip shu-int chihl-ka-li-i i-pe-ehw su-u-we-chlnt n-pa-ak ghu-shuwehm (white road) sa-ka-am A-ftl-moq sku-qa-afs sti-i-peis skum-ku-mi-utghin n-thwe-tIq 'he'-nish schu-chu-mas-kdt schu-tU-mip ska-la-hia-ilt stu-liuh si-atqp Thu-wap-ta-nlm ghhu-i-nik ta-kut ti-la-hilp su-we-chimt shi-an-nm-musum su-ka-am sko-lat-Iqp stu-huhl ski-yuftp kum shu-l i-htlt fim-umt ski-tfs-ap tL-mi-6-mat ski-a-ni-mo-shim sho-ka-am tl-mo-h6-lauh su-wi-kist so-kem-m fiI-maq smn-ko-ko-afs sket n-to-hwetq htlot stik-u-mas-kdt skY-tim-tamt ski-ti-map z tim-hu-16-'ih m 3 su-w6-kest 0 z hai-Thn-ah si-mak mountain (snow-peak) night rain rainbow a-ftI-muq tkom-ma sko-lo-qalt ku-ku-tfb sti-pes sku-mi-ut-shln s-ku-ku-efs ya-y6-til-sfsu-wi ste-pes shti-u shkun-qen-nuni-hwa n-to-hw&et-iq n-pu-qatq s-AhensCh htlut s-chu-chi-mas- kl-lach-ha-tum kut river rock sky n-thwe s-The-nlsh schl-chT-mas-kit shta-o shi-wo-lhq hu-tl6t kilm-om-tas-kit; sti-k l-mas-kit sket shi-ulq hii-tl6t sti-kU-mas-ktlt {view image of page 185} English smoke snow star sun thunder Flathead slm-at sIm-me-kut ku-ki-sIm sput-ka-ni stttl-te-la Spokan sl-m i-6t sl-ma-kut ku-kii-slm spu-ka-ni st6-dha-ta-dha-Am se-uilq sl-na-ut Kalispel ku-ku-slm spu-kl-ni stdl-te-la-am se-ul-lq JVenatchee sfim-mut smi-kut pki-ya-ut ko-sum stu-pum sa-uqlq shap Sinkiuse plk-pdk-i-a-ut k6-4hum sht6-pim iha-wo-llq Colville sku-kd-sint hai-Ah-l-ah sfut-kl-tfnkam-m si-ulq Nespilim sko-k6-skint hai-ahn-ih slk-d-fsi-kam shi-ulq water wind se-uhl-ku sl-ne-ut MONTHS (MOONS) May June July August September October November December January February Sp&tlim Spika- Spatlm (Bitterroot) niis (Bitterroot Moon) Ithw6 Sptfkaniis Sahch (Onion) (Camas Moon) Shlak Spakaniis Piithwa (Camas) (Service-berry Moon) Ifliahlah Sptika- Saanilk (Summer) niis (Chokecherry Moon) Schee Sptikaniis Silimp (Autumn Moon) Schiliwas (White Salmon) Scheai (Autumn) Estichilsh (Win- Chlnuylilhuttn ter) (Houses Built) Thweussiistch ChasChmaqailn (Midwinter) Tey6 Spilkaniis Shqt^hus'h (Windy) (Bad Moon) It It z e4 u x tl M 004 00 {view image of page 186} English March April Flathead Kusiuh Spukaniis (Geese Moon) Chsachltallku Spukaniis Spokan Schinidhimuin (Buttercups) Shkapch (Spring) Kalispel ZVenatchee Sinkiuse Colville Nespilim -4 00 ON NUMERALS one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve thirteen fourteen fifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen n-ko-o &-sehil ch6-h-e mos ta-kun si-spetl h6-6-nfm h-ha-n6t opn opn-hl-n-k6-o (ten and one) 6pn-6hl-e-sehil 6pnh-lh-ch6-hle opn-ehl —mos opn-eh-fsihl 6pn4h-l-tfi-kfin opn-eh1-ta-kun opn-h-l-si-spetl opn-eil-he-e-nlm nl-ku-u a-sel ch6-6-hles mus fsil ta-kfin si-spll ha-a-nTm ha-ha-nut upn upn-eil-nt-ku-u upn-h-el —e-sel ipn-6hl-ch — h&-les upn-ehl-e-mus upn-eh-l-fil upn-hl-ta-kiun upn-ehl-si-spll upn-hFl-hA-a-ntm n-k6-o ai-sel che-hles mos f(il ta-kan si-spil hi-anm ha-ha-n6t opn 6pn-ehi-n-k opn eh-l —sel 6pn-eh —chehies opn-ehl-e-m6s 6pn-hffl-fil naks 2 tko-ts tka-filas mu-sus fi-likst ho-ftu-makst si-spulk tu-win ha-n6t hutl-huilk al-naks (and one) al-tk6-Is al-tka-hlas naks ti-ka-us ka-hlas mo-shus chi-likst ho-chT-makst si-spilk tu-win ha-ha-n6t huftl-htitlt hitl-hutlt-al-naks naks d1-sil ki-hlis mus fsi-lykst ta-kum-lkst si-spilk ti-mihE ha-ha-not opn-ikst 6pn-lkst-hl-naks naks a-sll ka-hlis mos fsi-likst ta-ka-mikst si-spIlk ti-mfil ha-ha-n6t 6pn-lkst hil-niks; opnIkst-ilhl-naks th —a-sil; opnIkst-lh-El-a-sil z C) 0 z al-ll-mu-sus al-fti-llkst hiitl-hitlt-al-ti- opn-lkst-hl-i-sil ka-us opn-ikst-hl-kahis 6pn-tkst-il-mus opn-lkst-hil-fsilikst opn-lkst-hl-taktim-lkst 6pn-Ikst-hfl-sispilk opn-Ikst-hi-timthl 6pn-fhl-ta-kan al-ho-fiu-mikst 6pn-hil-si-spl al-si-sptilk opn-hil-hi-anm al-tu-win 'Referring to the snow adhering to only one side of the trees. 2A borrowed Shahaptian word. {view image of page 187} English Flathead nineteen opn-eil-h-ha-n6t Spokan upn-ehl-ha-ha-n ut twenty &-sehl-u; e-stl-opn e-sel-li-ulpn twenty-one e-sehl-6u-eil — e-sel-li-upn-ehl-nIk6-o ku-u thirty che-hli-i ch-h-l-li-upn forty m-sll- mIs-hli-upn fifty ftihl-chI-hlu-i fiil-chhli-upn hundred n-kl-a-ke nI-ki-a-ken Kalispel Wena 6pn-eh-l-ha-ha al-hi-not n6t d-sel-6pn sa-li-hutlti-sel-opn-h-l- sa-li-hutln-k6 al-naks che-h-l-6pn mis-hil-opn f8il-chh-i-6pn n-ka-/-ken rtchee Sinkiuse Colville 6pn-ikst- hi- haha-n6t l-sil-6pn-Ikst tl-sil-6pn-IkstHl-naks Nespilim a-sil-6pn-ikst hitlk hihltlk sal-hutl-hltlt nl-ko-ken; ha-chi-chikst hui-ft-ftikst ha-chi-chikst PERSONAL TERMS aunt, maternal aunt, paternal (feminine pronoun) (masculine pronoun) baby boy brother, elder (feminine pronoun) (masculine pronoun) ka-he-e ka-ha-e ka-ha It It M tl z S; 0 ti-kul-se ti-qa sku-ku-i hloh-t6lt gho-ko-se-& sko-qe-i a-ih-telt ti-ta-wit tlah-te til-tu-it ti-qa ft-fA-malt t-tu-wft wah-talt ti-tu-wit uk-ti-lat t-tu-wit wah-tilt til-tu-it hlka-ka-te-e h-lkak —tsa kaflk kachk kUflch brother, younger (feminine pronoun) si-sTn-fte (masculine pronoun) sin-fs6 chief i-lfl-mi-hum enemy Shl-m6'n hlka-ki-fte-e sin-fi sin-fie i-1Im-hum ghi-ml'-na khi-it-i-in-a- kafsk k6afch kachk hl-kak-I-ta il-kak-i-cha si-sTn-fe sin-ft i-li-mi-hum bhi-na hl-si-sIn-f8a shin-fgas shin-cha il-O-mi-hum il-si-sTn-cha il-mi-hum in-nl-hu-man 0o "-,. {view image of page 188} English Flathead father (feminine pronoun) mes-tem (masculine pronoun) Il-l4-w girl she-u-tum man skal-ta-miuh medicine-man tle-qilsh mother (feminine pronoun) tu'm (masculine pronoun) sk6-i people (Indians) ske'liuh people (white) so-yi-pi1 sister, elder (feminine pronoun) Flchi-ch-she-e (masculine pronoun) hchi-ch-4he-e sister, younger hlfs-fti-ups uncle, maternal si-is uncle, paternal si-me-ehl woman sim-mu-4m Spokan Kalispel Wenatchee Sinkiuse mes-tum le-e-o hhe-sho-tum skal-tf-miuh tla-a-qiish Ie-e-u ghe-sghui-ttm skal-tui-miuh tla-qilsh tu'm la-i-wa la-a-wa te-an-na skal-ti-miuh tla-qi-lih skui-yis sku-yls ghkin-tilh su-ya-pnu fa'-kas sku-i ski-liuh su-ya-pi hlchi-che hlchi-che hlchl-f-i-ups si-i si-ma'hl sIm-mu-am sku-i skat-liuh so-yi-pi flchit-gh6 ma-aih-tim la-6 ki-an-d skal-t t-mioh tla-qi-luh tu-ma ghk6-i ghkint ghu-yapn-uh cha-ka he-la ghym-t-am Colville mi-stim li-i-u hi-ho-tam skal-tu-miuh tal-qi-llk tu'm sko-i ske-luh so-ya-pik hlki-ka-a Nespilim mi-shtim li-i-u hi-ho-tum skal-tu-mioh tla-qi-luh tum sk6-i ske-luk su-ya-pik il-ki-ka 00 00 oo z Il C) z ghi-it-i-in-hilchi fa-kas hilfl-ftu-ups ka-sa Is-ma-il sIm-miu-em sma-am hilfi-fio-ops il-chi-chil-6ps tlk-hila-mi-luh tkhla-mi-nu TREES alder birch cedar cottonwood fir pine si-fsy-ka-n6 pin-ihlp mulsh ftketlp sa-a-ti-qutlp chi-chi-te-nahlp astq mu-lish fsu-kahlp sa-a-tI-qulp qs-qai-ailp koq-hlil su-kum tiih-taihlp fikehlp fikahlp sa-i-tt-qilp koh-koh-fSin fti-kailp koh-koh-chin fikeilp chu-kelip si-S-to-qtlp Ohi-it-o-qtilp 1A borrowed word, from Piegan Sayapi (Red River half-breed), which in turn is from Piegan Sayiw (Cree). {view image of page 189} English tamarack willow Flathead fpa-kotlhf p-pa Spokan fta-ku-llsh ko-ko-li-sa-luq Kalispel fia-kulgh Wenatchee Sinkiuse ch6-ko-luh ha-wahlp Colville fi-ka-l1k Nespilim ch6-ka-lIh MISCELLANEOUS food forest kinnikinnick large small spirit-creature spirit, human tobacco si-i-hin in-nq-q'ef skutl-se ku-tdnt Elku-ki-yu su'-mesh sln-ah-p&-us sl-m6-nuh stl-q&-ne-e a-fti-yia-ftll-fsil sku-li-sahmp qtunt ku-ku-y6-ma su'-mash sI-nah-pe-us si-i-lA-k6-lauh st-qiltn kti-sul-luh ku-tunt t-tfi-6-ma su-mah slu-lu-hwin-fut sma-nuh It It t4 T1 -z e 00 {view image of page 190} I {view image of page 191} Index {view image of page 192} {view image of page 193} INDEX Adams county, Washington, Yakima in, 15 Adolf, a Flathead sub-chief, 50 Adultery, how regarded by Yakima, 9 how treated by Kutenai, 121 how treated by Salish, 74, 75 Piegan punishment of, 152 Adze of the Salish, 72 See IMPLEMENTS Agriculture abhorrent to certain tribes, I6 A7lamhlmYla, note respecting, 54 Aiataiat, a Hood River Indian, 27 Ais, a name of Sh66wai, I5 Akam, a Kutenai locality, 118, 119 Akdmnik, a Kutenai division, II8 Akanutihnik, a Kutenai division, 118-120 Akisik, a Kutenai woman, 129 Akisknuknik, a Kutenai division, II8 Akiyfnnik, a Kutenai division, II8-120 Akukhldhiliu, a Kutenai division, 118 houses of, 122 Alashiikafh, site of Vancouver, Washington, 38 Alexander, attitude toward treaty of I855, 48 Allen, Lieut. Jesse K., in Yakima campaign, 3 Alpowa band of Nez Perc6s, 59 Altar in Bear ceremony, 141 in health ceremony, I34, I37 in Horned-animal ceremony, 143, 144 Anatomical terms, vocabulary of, 172, I79 Animals, native names for, 173, I8o Animal spirits in dreams, 80-83 See SPIRITS; SUPERNATURAL POWER Animism among the Kutenai, 167 among the Salish, 77, 80 among the Yakima, IO Antelope in Kalispel myth, 97, 98 Apsaroke and Kalispel hostility, 52 enemies of Flatheads, 44 hostility of, 56 Kutenai name for, I68 Salishan names for, I65 Arapaho, Salishan names for, I65 Arikara, Salishan names for, I65 Arlee, a Flathead sub-chief, 50 Arrow game of the Flatheads, 163 of the Yakima, I60 Arrows in Kalispel myth, 100, 107, Io8 in Kutenai myth, 148, I54 in Sinkiuse myth, Io8 Arts. See BASKETRY; HANDICRAFTS; IMPLEMENTS; UTENSILS Ashes in Kalispel myth, o10 Ash Hollow, Flatheads killed at, 46 Assiniboin, alliance against, 45 Kutenai name for, 168 Salishan names for, 165 Astoria, trading post, 46 Astoria Company. See PACIFIC FUR COMPANY Atanzm, Kamaiakln returns to, 39 Atanuim band of Yakima, 15, i60 Atanum creek, Yakima near, 3 Atsina, alliance against, 45 Salishan names for, 165 AtstYlakamiAf, a Spokan ceremony, 86 Baby-carrier in Kutenai myth, I52, I54 Badger in Spokan vision, 80, 83 Bad Head, a Spokan chief, 55 Bad Road, a Tunaha, 119 Banff Park, buffalo herd in, 70 Bannock, enemies of Flatheads, 44 Salishan names for, I65 Baptism, magic power lost by, 49 Baptiste, a Kutenai chief, 120 Bark, Kutenai houses covered with, 122, 167 rope of, in Sinkiuse myth, IO9 used for canoes, 71, 72, 127, 163, 167 utensils of the Kutenai, I26 See CEDAR-BARK; WILLOW-BARK Basketry of the Klickitat, 39 of the Kutenai, I26, 167 of the Salish, 72, I63 of the Yakima, 5, 159 Basket-traps of the Spokan, 71 Bathing by the Salish, 72 See SWEATING Beads, bone, of Salish, 72 given to hired warriors, 38 {view image of page 194} I94 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Bear in Sinkiuse myth, IO9 parts of, used in ceremony, 141 See GRIZZLY-BEAR Bear ceremony of the Kutenai, 140-143 Bear-grass used in basketry, 5, 72, 159 Bear-medicine in Kalispel myth, 105 Beaver in Kutenai myth, 147 in Sinkiuse myth, Io8 Beaver fur, robes of, 72 Beaver Head river, Shoshoni on, I 8 Beaver-teeth in Yakima game, 159 Beds of the Yakima, 5 Benton county, Washington, Yakima in, 15 Berries as food, 6, 44, 70, 159, 163, 167 in dreamer-cult vision, 78 Besom in Spokan ceremony, 88 Big Blackfoot river, Kalispel hunting route, 52 Big Hawk, a Flathead chief, 44 Big Knife, portrait of, folio pl. 230 Big Sam. See NOT INDIAN Big Star on Walla Walla treaty, 20 Bitterroot river, Flatheads on, 43, 44, 168 mission founded on, 47 Bitterroot valley, Kutenai in, I 19, I20 Black as symbol of war, 44 Blackfeet and Kalispel hostility, 52 and Kutenai enmity, ii8, II9 enemies of Flatheads, 45 hostility toward Columbia River tribes, 66, 67 influence of, on Kutenai, 120 Kutenai name for, I68 Salishan names for, 165 smallpox among, II9 Black-tail Hawk, Flathead warrior, 46 Blankets, hair, traded with Yakima, 14 of the Salish, 163 skin, of the Yakima, 159 Blood Indians, Kutenai name for, I68 Salishan names for, I65 Blood-letting for treating colds, 128 Bolon, A. 7., Yakima agent, killed, 22, 23, 39 Bone, beads of, of Salish, 72 fish-spears of, 71 ornament worn in nose, 72, 163 See DEER-BONE; EAGLE-BONE Bonner's Ferry, a Kutenai boundary, II8 Bowls of the Salish, 72, 163 See UTENSILS Bowzs of the Yakima, 5, 159 Box canon of Pend d'Oreille river, 43, 51 British Columbia, Colvilles in, 63 British Columbia, Kutenai in, 117, II8 Lake Indians in, 64 Broken Leg, a Flathead hunter, 70 Brother Jonathan, wreck of, 33 Brush people in Kalispel myth, 105 Buck-brush, roots of, used as medicine, 128 Buffalo, range of, in Northwest, 70 reared by Flathead, 70 Buffalo ceremony of Flatheads, 92 Buffalo hunting by Columbia River tribes, 66 by Flatheads, 44 by Kalispel, 52 by Kutenai, 18 by Northwestern tribes, 45 by Salish, 70, 163 by Sinkiuse, 66 by Spokan, 56 Buffalo-skins for house covering, 69, 70, I22, 123, I63, 167 Burial. See MORTUARY CUSTOMS Butte, Montana, Flatheads near, 119 Caching of canoes by Kalispel, 52 Cairns built by Salish girls, 75 Calendar of the Kutenai, 168 See MONTHS Camas, appearance of, in bloom, 51 in Kalispel myth, 101 used as food, 53, 6I, 70, 71, I59, I63 Camas prairie, Klickitat at, 26 Klickitat name for, 37, 38 Camp-circle absent among Kutenai, I17 Canoe in Kalispel myth, 96 Canoe-burial by the Yakima, 9, I6o Canoes of the Kalispel, 52, 53 of the Kutenai, 127, 167, folio pl. 250 of the Salish, 71, 72, 163 Cardinal points, native names for, 174, I82 regarded in rite, 135 smoking to, 131 See ORIENTATION Cascade Indians hanged by troops, 26 hostilities of, 26, 38 Cascade mountains, a Sinkiuse boundary, 68 Catholic influence among Flatheads, 46 mission burned by troops, 25 See MISSIONARIES Catlin, George, visits Indians, 46 Cattails, basket-traps of, 71 mats of, in house building, 69 Yakima matting of, 159 See MATTING; RUSH MATTING {view image of page 195} INDEX I95 Cayuse and Klickitat hostility, 37 at treaty of 1855, 15, i6, I9, 48 hanged for Whitman murder, 23 in Yakima outbreak, 25, 57 Klickitat name for, 16I origin of name, 66 plot to kill commissioners, 19 Salishan names for, 165 Cedar, canoe frame made of, 71 dugouts of, 72 Cedar-bark, baskets of, I59, I63 lodge of, in Kalispel myth, 99 See BARK Cedar-root used in basketry, 5, 72, 126, I59, 163, I67 Ceremonies of the Kutenai, I32-I46, 167 of the Salish, 164 of the Yakima, 12, i6o See DANCE; RELIGION; WINTER CEREMONY Chamberlain, A. F., cited, 46, ii8, I40 Chamnapam located, 3, 4 Chamokane creek, a Spokan boundary, 62 Charlo, a Flathead chief, 49, 50 Chthl-skaiyYmi, a Flathead chief, 44 Chelan, Yakima name for, I60 Chelan county, Washington, Yakima in, 15 Cheyenne, Flatheads visit, 47 Salishan names for, 165 Chicken-hawk in Kutenai myth, 147, 148 Chief Raven, a Spokan chief, 55 Chiefship among the Kutenai, I20, I2I, 167 among the Salish, 73, 164 among the Yakima, 9, I6o Chief Sun, Garry's proper name, 55, 56 Children, naming of, 75 purification of, 134 seek supernatural power, 80, 8I, 128, i6o, 167 Chimnahpum identified, 3 See CHAMNAPAM Chinook and Klickitat affiliation, 37 and Salish myth compared, 94 and Yakima intermarriage, 9 Klickitat name for, I6I territory occupied by Klickitat, 37 tribes at 1855 treaty, I5 tribes in Yakima outbreak, 26 tribes refuse reservation, 34 Chfnuahl, a Hood River Indian, 27 Chrsaiakn, a Spokan chief, 55 Chisels of elk-horn, 5, 72, 163, I67 Chittenden and Richardson cited, 46 Choke-cherries eaten by Salish, 70, 163 See FOOD Christianity. See MISSIONARIES Civilization. See WHITES Clams in Kalispel myth, I04 Clans absent among Kutenai, I22 absent among Salish, 74, I64 absent among Yakima, 9 Clark, General, in Yakima campaign, 31 Clarks fork, Flatheads on, 43 See PEND D'OREILLE RIVER Clay used for dyeing, 72 Clothing of the Kutenai, I27, x67 of the Salish, 72, 163 of the Yakima, 6, 7, 159 prescribed by spirits, I29 Club in Kutenai myth, I50 See WAR-CLUB Caur d'Alene reservation, Spokan on, 62 Creur d'Alene river, trading post on, 56 Caur d'Alenes, account of, 53, 54 and Flathead intermarriage, I5 and Kalispel hostility, 52 and Spokan hostility, 56 at Walla Walla council, 20 buffalo hunting by, 45, 66, 70 enemies of Flatheads, 44 hold council with Wright, 6i interview Stevens, 58 in Yakima outbreak, 26, 30-32, 58-60 Kamaiakin among, 57 Kutenai name for, i68 mode of hunting by, 70, 71 population of, 162, 163 refuse reservation, 63 Salishan names for, i65 Colors, native names for, I74, I82 Columbia lakes, Kutenai on, 118, I46 Columbia reservation established, 66, 68 Columbia river, a Colville boundary, 63 a Spokan boundary, 62 blankets of tribes of, 72 Colvilles on, 62, 63 Lake Indians on, 64 Methow on, 65 Nespilim on, 64 Sanpoel on, 64 tribes of, xi, 3, 66 tribes of, at I855 treaty, 15 tribes of, in Yakima outbreak, 26 Colville district, gold discovered in, 57 {view image of page 196} I96 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Colville district, Steptoe attempts to visit, 58, 59 Colville reservation, Wenatchee settle on, 69 Colvilles, account of, 62, 63 and Flatheads intermarry, 5 canoes of the, 71 confidence of, in dreamers, 78 fishery of the, 64 Kutenai name for, I68 marriage gifts made by, 74 population of, 162, 163 probably the Ho-hil-pos, 43, 63 Salishan names for, 165 Spokan urge peace among, 55 vocabulary of the, 179-188 Continence enjoined on dreamer, I35 Cooking vessels of the Salish, 72 See UTENSILS Cottonwood, utensils made of, 5 Coues, E. See HENRY, ALEXANDER; HENRYTHOMPSON Cougar in Kalispel myth, 107 Coulee City, Sanpoel camp near site of, 64 Council Bluffs, Flatheads visit, 46 Coups among Salish, 93 recounted in ceremony, 140 Cowiche creek, Yakima on, I6i Cox, Ross, on Flathead hunting, 70 on Salish clothing, 163 Coyote and Nahlm6kchi compared, 147 Coyote in Kutenai belief, 131 in Kutenai myth, 167 in Salish myth, 93, 95-112, I64 in Sinkiuse myth, IO8, 112 Yakima culture hero, I60 Crab creek, Sinkiuse near, 66 Craig, agent for Nez Perces, i8 Crawfish in Sinkiuse myth, 112 Cree, Kutenai name for, I68 Salishan names for, 165 Cricket in Kutenai myth, 148 Crime, how punished by Salish, 75 how treated by Kutenai, 121 Crow creek, Kutenai on, I29 Crow Nest pass, a Kutenai crossing, 118 Crows. See APSAROKE Culture of the Salish, 69 Culture hero of the Yakima, I6o See COYOTE Curlew in Sinkiuse myth, IO9 Curry, Governor, charged with fomenting Yakima war, 28 Cusick, Washington, Kalispel camp near, 53 Cuts-sah-nim, application of term, 3 Dalles. See THE DALLES Dance, betrothal at, 7, I6o, 167 in dreamer-cult vision, 77 of the Kutenai, 124-126 to sun by Nespilim, 75 See SCALP-DANCE; VICTORY DANCE; WARDANCE Dearborn river, Kalispel route to buffalo, 52 Death, origin of, in Salish myth, 95-97 Decatur, sloop of war, defends Seattle, 26 Deer, how hunted by Salish, 70 personated in Kutenai rite, I44 Deer-bone, needles of, among Kutenai, 122 Deerskin cap of Nespilim, 75 corpse wrapped in, 9, i6o effigy in ceremony, 134 traded with Yakima, 14 Deer song of the Kutenai, 144 Delawares and Flatheads intermarry, 51 Salishan names for, 165 Deluge myths of the Kutenai, IX7, 146, 147 Dentalium for ornaments, 7, 72, I59, I63 See SHELLS Deschutes in Yakima outbreak, 25 De Smet, P.-J., among Flatheads, 47 Dew-claws in ceremony, 136 on rattle, 143 Dip-nets used by Salish, 71 Dipper in Kutenai myth, 146 Dishes. See UTENSILS Divorce among Yakima, 8 See MARRIAGE Dog as spirit among Kutenai, 123 Door-of-lodge Grizzly, note regarding, 47 Douglas county, Washington, Yakima in, 15 Dreamer cult of Columbia River tribes, 77 Dreams, game-drive derived from, 70 Salish belief in, 78 Dress. See CLOTHING Drum in health ceremony, I33, I34, 138, 140 in Kalispel myth, 102 in Kalispel rite, 88 rawhide used as, 125 Duck in Kutenai myth, 146, 147 Dugouts of the Kutenai, 127 of the Salish, 72, 163 Dusty Dress, Kalispel girl, folio pl. 238 Dwellings of the Kutenai, II7, 122, 167 of the Salish, 69, 163 {view image of page 197} INDEX I97 Dwellings of the Yakima, 4, I59 Dyes, basketry, of the Salish, 72 basketry, of the Yakima, 5 Eagle in Kalispel myth, IO9-111 in Kutenai myth, 150 in Salish myth, 164 in Sinkiuse myth, o09 Eagle-bone, whistle of, in rite, 135, 137, I40 Eagle-feathers on effigy, 134 Eagle Robe, a Coeur d'Alene, 59 Ear-ornaments of the Yakima, 7, 159 See ORNAMENTS Ear-piercing among Yakima, 9 Earth cult of Flatheads, 77 of Kutenai, 131 of Northwestern tribes, I6 Eaton, a miner, killed, 21 Eells, Gushing, missionary to Spokan, 55 Effigy in Kutenai myth, 154 of spirit in ceremony, I33, 135, 140 Elk-horn, chisels of, 5, 72, 163, I67 Elk-skin, canoes of, 127 for house covering, 122, 167 used for clothing, 127, 167 Elk-teeth as ear-ornaments, 7, 159 worn by Kutenai, 126 Entiat creek, a Methow boundary, 65 Wenatchee band on, 69 Equisetum used as medicine, 128 Erect Hair, a Sintutuili chief, 54 EsAiainutiwe, a Flathead ceremony, go Eshatltstmac, a buffalo ceremony, 92 Esytli, Salish scalp-dance, 93 Eureka, Kutenai near site of, 152 Face-painting by Yakima, 7 learned in vision, 82 of corpse, 76 of Spokan girls, 75 See PAINT; PAINTING Family relations among Yakima, 9 Famine in Salish myth, 78 Fanjoy, a miner, killed, 21 Farrand, L., on the Cuts-sah-nim, 3 Fasting at puberty, Io, 75 by mourners, 76, i6o for supernatural power, 8i Father-in-law taboo absent among Yakima, 9 Feast at Yakima naming, 9 Feathers, eagle, on effigy, 134 woodpecker, in winter ceremony, 87 Feces as medicine-spirits, 101, I02 Fire in Sinkiuse myth, Io8 used in woodworking, 5 Fire-drill used in puberty ceremony, 76 Fish destroyed at command of prophet, 78 how cured by Yakima, 5 traded with Yakima, 14 Fishhooks of the Spokan, 71 Fishing by the Kalispel, 52 by the Klickitat, 37 by the Lake Indians, 64 by the Salish, 78, 79, 163 by the Yakima, 4 implements of the Spokan, 71 magic power efficacious in, 8I of the Sanpoel, 64 See SALMON; WEIRS Fish-spears of the Yakima, 5 Five Crows at treaty council of I855, 19 Flathead lake in Kalispel myth, 102 Flathead river, Kalispel route to buffalo, 52 Flatheads, account of, 43-51 buffalo hunting by, 56, 66, 70, 163 camp of, folio pl. 23I, 232 chiefs of, 73 children of, folio pl. 235 dance of, folio pl. 234 houses of, 70 Kutenai name for, I68 marriage gifts not made by, 74 population of, 162, 163 religious beliefs of, 77 Salishan names for, I65 teach Kalispel scalping, 52 Tunaha join, 119 vocabulary of the, 179-188 See SALISH Flint, arrow-point of, in Kalispel myth, Ioo in Kutenai myth, 152 knives made of, I59, I63 Flood in Sanpoel vision, 78 See DELUGE MYTHS Food, certain, tabooed during mourning, 9 divided at funeral, 76 native names for, 174, I82 of the Kutenai, 167 of the Salish, 70, 163 of the Yakima, 5, 6, 159 Foot-race in Kalispel myth, i I Fort Colville. See COLVILLE DISTRICT Fort George, trading post, 46 Fort Simcoe during Yakima outbreak, 59 {view image of page 198} 198 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Fort Simcoe established, 30 fight near, 23, 24 strengthened, 68 See SIMKOE Fort Steele, Kutenai near, Ii8 Fort Steilacoom during Yakima outbreak, 23 Fort Vancouver, General Miles at, 68 warned of Yakima outbreak, 27 See VANCOUVER Fort Walla Walla, campaign started from, 58,59 established, 58 plundered, 25 Fox in Kalispel myth, 99, 104, I05 Franklin county, Washington, Yakima in, 15 Frenchmen among Spokan, 57, 58 Frog in Kalispel myth, 99, III in Kutenai myth, 148 in Salish myth, I64 in Sinkiuse myth, Io9 Fur used in hairdressing, 7 See BEAVER FUR Gambling by the Kalispel, 89 by the Kutenai, I68 in Kalispel myth, 96 Game, division of, in Salish cult, 78 parts of, in ceremony, 134 rite for increasing, I31, I35, I43, I67 Game-drive built after ceremony, 146 of the Salish, 70, 79 Games of the Salish, 163 of the Yakima, 159 Gaming song of the Klickitat, I6I of the Kutenai, I68 Garfield, James A., treaty commissioner, 49, 50 Garnett, Maj. R. S., in Yakima war, 31, 67 Gatry, account of, 55, 56 interviews Steptoe's troops, 59 interviews Stevens, 57, 58 introduces punishment for crime, 75 on Walla Walla treaty, 20, 21 proposes peace, 60, 6i speaks regarding reservation, 62 Gatschet, A. S., cited, 43 Gentes absent among Kutenai, 122 absent among Salish, 74, I64 absent among Yakima, 9 Gibbs, George, cited on Kutenai, 37 on Flathead population, 5I on Spokan population, 57 Gifts, marriage, by Kutenai, I21 marriage, by Salish, 73, 74 Gifts of meat to lodge-builders, I36 of meat to Reckless Dogs, I24 of property during mourning, 76 to guests by Salish, 73 to medicine-men, I30 to singers in ceremony, 13 to the dead, 76 See OFFERINGS Girls. See CHILDREN; MARRIAGE; PUBERTY Glad song of the Kutenai, 170 Gold discovered in Washington, 21, 57 Goldendale, Washington, Yakima scouts near, 24 Gopher in Kalispel myth, 103 Government of the Yakima, I60 See CHIEFSHIP; POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Grand coulee, Sinkiuse near, 66 Grass, robes made of, 72, 163 See BEAR-GRASS Grasshopper in Kutenai myth, 148 Gray, W. H., accompanies Flatheads, 46 Green river, Flatheads meet De Smet on, 47 Grizzly-bear in Kalispel myth, o15 in Sinkiuse myth, 112 necklaces of claws of, 7 supplication of, I40, 167 See BEAR Grizzly-bear Claws, a Flathead chief, 49 Gun-medicine song of the Kutenai, I69 Guns among Northwestern tribes, 45, 56 Habitat of the Coeur d'AlInes, 53 of the Colvilles, 62, 63 of the Flatheads, 43, 45 of the Kalispel, 5I, 52 of the Klickitat, 37 of the Kutenai, I I7, I8 of the Lake Indians, 64 of the Methow, 65 of the Nespilim, 64 of the Okanagan, 65 of the Pend d'Oreilles, 43 of the Sanpoel, 64 of the Sinkiuse, 66 of the Yakima, 4, I5 Haddon, Dr. A. C., with author's party, xii Hair, sacred symbols worn in, 129 See MOUNTAIN-GOAT HAIR Hair-cutting during mourning, 9, 76, 127, I60 Hairdressing at puberty, 75 of the Kutenai, 167 of the Salish, 72, 163 {view image of page 199} INDEX I99 Hairdressing of the Yakima, 7, 159 Hailer, Capt. G. O., in Yakima war, 23, 24 Hand-game song of the Klickitat, I6X of the Kutenai, I68 Handicrafts, native names for, I75, I83 See BASKETRY; IMPLEMENTS; UTENSILS Hangman creek, boundary of Spokan, 54 origin of name, 6i Spokan name of, 54 Hasotoin, a Nez Perce settlement, 85 Health ceremony of the Kutenai, 132 Hell Gate river, Flatheads on, 43, 45, 48 treaty of, in I855, 120 Hemp used in basketry, 5, 72, 159, 163 Henry, Alexander, cited, 45, 56, II7, II8 Henry-Thompson cited, 49, 117 Heredity. See CHIEFSHIP; PROPERTY Hladahiat, native form of Klickitat, 37 Hoecken, Father, among Kalispel, 52 Ho- hil-pos, probably the Colvilles, 43, 63 Holaiakn, Kalispel medicine-man, 89 Hoop in Kalispel myth, 102, 103 Horn implements of the Salish, 72 See ELK-HORN Horned-animal ceremony of Kutenai, 143-I46 Horse plains, Pend d'Oreilles at, 43 Horses among Flatheads, 44 among Kutenai, 127 among Nez Perces, 44 among Northwestern tribes, 14 among Spokan, 56 as medium of trade, 14 as wedding gift, 8 in Kutenai myth, 149 killed at grave, 76 Kutenai, stolen by Piegan, 119 painted in ceremony, I40 Palus, captured by troops, 6I presented to warriors, 39 Shoshoni, captured by Kutenai, 1I8 tails of, docked in mourning, 76 used in purchasing names, 75 white, as symbol of truth, 30 Hospitality of the Flatheads, 73 Houses. See DWELLINGS Huckleberries as food, 70, 146, 159 See BERRIES Hudson's Bay Company at Fort Walla Walla, 58 deserts Fort Walla Walla, 25 Garry educated by, 55 implements introduced by, 5 Hunter, Kutenai, folio pl. 249 Hunting ceremony of Kalispel, 88 controlled by dreamer cult, 78 customs of Flatheads, 73 customs of Salish, 79, 80 magic power efficacious in, 8i medicine in Kalispel myth, I07 See BUFFALO HUNTING; GAME-DRIVE Hustas-summahaiakYn, Okanagan chief, 65 Hustl-ptu'smn, Spokan chief, 55 HwchlAiwai, a Klickitat locality, 37 Hwchl7iwaipim, native name of Klickitat, 37 Hwaiak, sister of Timahl, 26 Idaho, Caeur d'Alenes in, 53 Kutenai in, 117-120, 162 Spokan in, 54, 162 Ihllkadat, conjectured form of Klickitat, 37 Illegitimacy, how regarded by Kutenai, I21 Ilimhiu-spakani, name of Garry, 55, 56 Image. See EFFIGY Implements, fishing, of the Spokan, 71 of the Kutenai, 167 of the Salish, 72, 163 of the Yakima, 5 See UTENSILS Inashai, portrait of, folio pl. 220 Incense of juniper leaves, I33, 134, 136, I37, 143-I45 Industries. See BASKETRY; FISHING; HANDICRAFTS; HUNTING; IMPLEMENTS; UTENSILS Ipia, a Klickitat, 27 Iroquois among Flatheads, 46, 47, 51 Salishan names for, 165 Isle de Pierre, habitat, 66 Jack, a half-breed Spokan, 27 Jack-rabbit in Kutenai myth, 151 skin of, used for blankets, 159 Jay in Kalispel myth, I07 Jocko river, Flathead camp on, folio pl. 232 Flatheads move to, 50 Kalispel route to buffalo, 52 John Day river, Methow reported near, 65 Juniper branches on dance-lodge, 136 leaves, incense of, 133-I37, 143-145 Kahlanut, a Hood River Indian, 27 Kahl6kahlmiyit, a Kutenai spirit, I31, I32 Kaiyus, significance of, 66 Kalapuya, lands of, taken by Klickitat, 38 {view image of page 200} 200 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Kalispel, account of the, 51-53 and Flathead relations, 45, 51 buffalo hunting by, 45, 55, 66, 70, I63 canoes of the, 71, I27 girl, type, folio pl. 238 identified with Mick-suck-seal-tom, 43 in Yakima outbreak, 60 Kutenai name for, I68 man, type, folio pl. 237 marriage gifts made by, 74 medicine ceremony of, 89, 90 myths of the, 95-107, 109, III, 13 population of, 162, 163 puberty customs of, 75 punishment for crime among, 75 refuse reservation, 63 rite of, before hunt, 88 Salishan names for, 165 Spokan urge peace among, 55 village of the, folio pl. 239 vocabulary of the, 179-I88 Kalpstntfglf, a Nez Perce chief, i8 Kamaiakin asks aid of Sinkiuse, 67 at treaty of I855, 15, i6, I8 continues hostility, 30, 3I enlists Klickitat, 39 in Yakima outbreak, 22, 24, 26, 6I later history of, 3I, 32 loses influence, 59 makes peace overtures, 28, 29 speech of, I9 spreads discontent, 57 Kankohohl ceremony of the Kutenai, 132, 167 Kaftadkka, a mythic character, 149 Kauslzi, a Flathead hunter, 70 Kelly, Lieut.-Col., in Yakima war, 25 Kettle falls, a Colville boundary, 63 a Lake Indian boundary, 64 Kettle river, Lake Indians on, 64 Khlukahah-l-iyamu, a ceremony, I43-146 Khlriuknam, a Kutenai ceremony, 140-143 Kinbasket, Kutenai name for, I68 Kip, Lawrence, cited, 33 Kisanua, a Cascade woman, 27 Kfsklamahl, a Kutenai chief, II9 KftitaAh band of Salish, I5 in Walla Walla treaty, 21 in Yakima outbreak, 67 related to Wenatchee, 69 Yakima name for, I60 See PSHWANOAPAM Kittitas county, Washington, Yakima in, 15 Kittitas valley abandoned by Indians, 30 Kituna'ia, origin of name, 119 Klackamas lands taken by,Klickitat, 38 Klamath, Klickitat name for, 161 Klickitat, account of the, 37-40, I6I-i62 at treaty of 855, 5, 17 in Yakima outbreak, 26, 39 Klickitat name for, I6i men, types, folio pl. 225, 226 population of, 159 reservation assigned to, 34 vocabulary of the, 172-178 Yakima name for, I60 Klickitat county, Washington, Yakima in, 15 Klickitat valley occupied by Klickitat, 37 Knives of the Salish, 72, 163 of the Yakima, 5, I59 steel, how valued by Colvilles, 72 See IMPLEMENTS K6olua, a Kutenai chief, I20 Komahflkanko, Kutenai myth of, 152-155 Koma'fhYn, a Cascade woman, 27 Kootenai river occupied by Kutenai, 117, lI8 Kootenay lake, a Kutenai boundary, II7 Kootenays. See KUTENAI Kouse eaten by Salish, 70, I63 See ROOTS Kpiyam, a Kutenai dance, I26 Ksa'nka, Kutenai native name, II9, I68 Ktam6hiohl, a Kutenai dance, 126 KukhlukYnam, a Kutenai spirit, I31, I32, I67 Kukfsak, a Kutenai spirit, I31, I32, I34 Kulkul-shnini, a Nez Perc6 chief, 52 Kultemine, Yakima name of Qultninak, 67 KupikahalchYn-nintik, a Kutenai society, 123 Kustahilhlam, a mythic character, I49 Kutenai, account of the, I17-I55, I67, I68 and Kalispel hostility, 52 camp of the, folio pl. 254 country of, illustrated, folio pl. 248 enemies of Flatheads, 44 girls of the, folio pl. 253 population of, I62 Salishan names for, I65 songs of the, I68-I72 Stevens treats with, 48 vocabulary of the, I72-178 Lahto creek, name changed, 6i Lake Chelan, a Sinkiuse boundary, 68 a Wenatchee boundary, 69 Lake Indians, a Salishan tribe, 63 {view image of page 201} INDEX 201 Lake Indians, account of, 64 canoes of the, 71 placed on reservation, 63 population of, 162, 163 Salishan names for, 165 Lamoose, Pierre, a Flathead, 46, 47 La Mousse, Ignace, an Iroquois, 46, 47 See Mo's Lapwai, mission at, 46, 67 represented at treaty of 1855, 17 Latah creek, name changed, 61 Lazy Boy, tale of, 105 Leavenworth, Washington, Wenatchee at site of, 69 Lemhi river, Shoshoni of, 45 Lewis, A. B., on Shahaptian migration, 3 Lewis and Clark among Flatheads, 44, I19 among Methow, 3 describe camas meadow, 51 on Coeur d'Alene population, 54 on Flathead bands, 43 on Flathead hunting, 45 on Flathead population, 50 on Shahaptian clothing, 7 on Spokan population, 57 on the Chimnahpum, 3 on the Colvilles, 63 on the Klickitat, 38, 39 on the Methow, 65 visit the Klickitat, 37 Lewis river occupied by Klickitat, 37, 38 Lilfmaihlimfla, a Spokan chief, 55 LIfhaialiat, son of Owhi, 16 Little Franfois, note respecting, 54 Little Spokane river, a Colville boundary, 63 Little White Salmon valley occupied by Klickitat, 37 Lodge, ceremonial, erection of, 136, 137 See DWELLINGS; SWEAT-LODGE Lonesome Youth, Salish song, 94 Lot, a Spokan chief, 55 Louse in Kalispel myth, IOO, IOI Love-song of the Kutenai, 121, 122 of the Sinkiuse, 74 of the Yakima, 8 Love story of the Kalispel, 113 Lower Arrow lake, a Lake Indian boundary, 64 Lower Spokan. See SPOKAN Luison, note regarding, 52 seeks supernatural power, 81 Lumley, John, informant, 38 Luqai6t, account by, of I855 treaty, 17 Luqaiot acts as peace emissary, 29, 32 marries Qihlchfln's widow, 33 on episode of Yakima war, 28-30 on Owhi and Qihlchln, 32 portrait of, folio pl. 247 Lynx in Kalispel myth, 107 McKenzie, Donald, at Fort Walla Walla, 58 Magic, so-called, practised by Salish, 85, 87, 88 Magic power lost by baptism, 49 obtained from spirits, 97 sought by Yakima, I6o See MEDICINE; SPIRITS; SU'MASH; SUPERNATURAL POWER Marcellon. See MASSELOW Marriage customs of Kutenai, 121, I22, I67 of Salish, 73, 74, 164 of Yakima, 7-9, I4, I60 Masselow, a Kalispel chief, 53 Mats used for beds, 5 Mattice, a miner, killed, 21 Matting, tule, in Kalispel myth, 104 used for house covering, 4, 69, 70, 122, 123, 159, 163, 167 used in curing fish, 5 Mauls of the Salish, 72 See IMPLEMENTS Medical lake, fight near, 60 Medicine, how acquired, 82, I30 in Kalispel myth, I13 magic power efficacious in, 8I of the Kutenai, I27, 128, 130 of the Yakima, II, 12 See BEAR-MEDICINE; HUNTING-MEDICINE; MAGIC POWER; SUPERNATURAL POWER Medicine-bundles in Bear ceremony, 141, I43 Medicine ceremony of Kalispel, 89, 90 Medicine-men in Kalispel myth, Io6 of the Kutenai, 130, 167 of the Salish, 83-90, 92 of the Yakima, 11, I6o Medicine-songs in Bear ceremony, I43 in Horned-animal rite, I43 in hunting rite, 88 in Salish ceremony, 86-88 in Skaip ceremony, 89, 90 of the Klickitat, 161 of the Kutenai, 131 of the Salish, 81, 82 of the Yakima, 11-14 See SONG {view image of page 202} 202 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Me-ni-nock identified as Mnainak, 14 Mental character of the Yakima, 14 Metcowwee, the Methow, 65 Methow, account of the, 65 Lewis and Clark among, 3 placed on reservation, 63 population of, i62, I63 Michelle, a Kutenai chief, 120 opposes treaty of I855, 48 Michelle plans murder of agent, 23, 39 Mick-suck-seal-tom, the Kalispel, 43 Middle Spokan. See SPOKAN Miles, Gen. N. A., interviews Moses, 68 Milkapsi, a Coeur d'Alene, 59 Miners claim Sinkiuse lands, 68 killed by Indians, 21, 22, 57, 58 Missionaries among Flatheads, 47, 77 among Kalispel, 52, 53 among Kutenai, 121, 127, 131 among Spokan, 54 sought by Flatheads, 46 Mission creek occupied by Kalispel, 52 Mission range, Kutenai on, 129 Missoula, Montana, Flatheads near site of, 48 Missouri Fur Company, 46 Mitoi, the Methow, 65 Mlimli, native name of Lumley, 38 Mnainak, note respecting, 14 portrait of wife of, folio pl. 221 Moccasins of the Yakima, 7 used in game-drive, 70 Modoc, Klickitat name for, I6I Mois, a Flathead, 47 See LA MOUSSE Molala, Klickitat name for, 161 Monster in Kalispel myth, 102, 103 in Kutenai myth, 146, 147 Montana, Kutenai in, II7-I20, I62 Salish tribes in, 43, I62 Months, Salishan names for, I85 See CALENDAR Moon, mythic origin of, 97-99 Mooney, James, on meaning of Hwaihlhwaipam, 37 on the Cuts-sah-nim, 3 Mortars of the Salish, 72, 163 of the Yakima, 5, 159 See UTENSILS Mortuary customs of the Kutenai, 127, I67 of the Salish, 73, 74, 76 of the Yakima, 9, i6o Moses, emissary of peace, 30 Moses in Yakima outbreak, 67 later career of, 68 Moses Band, habitat of, 66 Moses lake, Sinkiuse near, 66 Mother-in-law taboo absent among Yakima, 9 Mount Adams, a Klickitat boundary, 37-39 Yakima name for, 6 Mountain-goat, hair of, used for blankets, 14, 72, I67 skin of, used for clothing, 167 Mountain-lion. See COUGAR Mountain-sheep, a Coeur d'Alene, 59 Mount Baker, Snohomish name for, 6 Mount Carlton, a Spokan boundary, 54 in Kalispel range, 51 Mount Rainier, native names for, 6 Mount St. Helens, a Klickitat boundary, 37 Mourning customs of Kutenai, I27, 167 of Yakima, 9, i6o Muddy Creek People, the Spokan, 54 Muhr, A. F., services of, xii Mutlmul, a spring, 22 Murder. See CRIME Muskrat in Sinkiuse myth, IO8 robes of fur of, 72 Myers, W. E., acknowledgments to, xii Mythology of the Kutenai, 146-155, 167 of the Salish, 93, 95-114 Nachess creek, campaign on, 28, 29, 33 Yakima on, I6o Nachess pass, route to Yakima country, 21, 23 Nahchifh. See NACHESS CREEK NahchiAh-hlama, a Yakima band, I6o Nahlmokchi, a mythic character, 146, 147 Nahiutmhi-ko, a STntutuuli chief, 55 Naming customs of the Salish, 75 of the Yakima, 9 Natural phenomena, native names of, 175, I84 Nebraska, Flatheads killed in, 46 Necklaces of the Yakima, 7 Needles, bone, of the Kutenai, 122 Nesmith, Colonel, in Yakima campaign, 24 Nespilim, a Salish tribe, 63 account of the, 64 dreamer cult among, 77 girl, type, folio pi. 246 joined by Colvilles, 63, 65 man, type, folio pl. 244 population of, 162, 163 puberty custom, 75 represented at treaty of i855, 17 {view image of page 203} INDEX 203 Nespilim, Salishan names for, 165 Spokan urge peace among, 55 vocabulary of the, I79-I88 woman, type, folio pl. 245 Nespilim creek, Moses Band settle on, 68 Nespilim valley, Methow in, 66 Nets. See DIP-NETS Nez Perces and Flathead relations, 45, 51 and Kalispel dance compared, go and Kalispel hostility, 52 and Spokan hostility, 56 and Yakima warfare, 14 buffalo hunting by, 56 horses among, 44 in Yakima outbreak, 25, 59-61 Kutenai houses patterned from, 122 Kutenai name for, I68 mission among, 46 mode of hunting by, 70 Salishan names for, i65 Spokan urge peace among, 55 treaty with, in 1855, 15, I8, 48, 57 Yakima name for, I60 wallets of the, 72 Nine Pipes, note on, 44 Nisqually, Klickitat name for, I6I Northwest Company among Spokan, 56 at Fort Walla Walla, 58 introduce guns, 45 Iroquois with, 46, 49 Nose-ornaments not used by Yakima, 7 of Nez Perces, I59 of Salish, 72, 163 Not Grizzly-bear, a Kutenai chief, 119 portrait of son of, folio pl. 120 Not Indian, a Flathead, 47, 48 Nskalta, native name of Victor, 52 Nspiliti, name of Nespilim river, 64 Ntiatq, name of Entiat creek, 69 Numerals, Klickitat, Kutenai, Yakima, 176 Salishan, I86 Oak used for implements, 5 See WOODWORKING Oate-lash-schute, the Flatheads proper, 43 Obsidian used for knives, I59 Ochre as face-paint, 75 Odhopaditn advocates peace, 55 Offerings of clothing to spirit, 136 to sun by Flatheads, 77 See GIFTS; SMOKE; SMOKING 6hai. See OWHI Okanagan, a Salish tribe, 63 account of the, 65 buffalo hunting by, 66 Kutenai name for, 168 opinion of Moses, 68 placed on reservation, 63 population of, 162, 163 Salishan names for, 165 Okanagan river, a Sinkiuse boundary, 68 Colville reservation boundary, 63 Old Ignace. See LA MOUSSE, IGNACE Omak lake, Okanagan on, 65 Ophthalmia, how treated by Kutenai, 128 Oregon, reservation given tribes in, 16 Oregon grape, roots of, used as medicine, I28 Orientation of altar in ceremony, I34 of dance-lodge, I36, I43 of graves, 76, I27, I67 of Kutenai houses, 123, 167 See CARDINAL POINTS Origin myth of the Kutenai, I48 Ornamentation by the Kutenai, 126 Ornaments not worn during mourning, I27 of the Salish, 72 of the Yakima, 7 Otter in Kalispel myth, I09, 110 Otter fur, robes of, 72 Owhi, accused of sorcery, 12 arrest of, 32 at treaty of 1855, I5-17, 21 continues hostility, 30 killed by troops, 33 later history of, 32 leads in Yakima outbreak, 24, 39 makes peace overtures, 28-30, 32 son of, kills whites, 22 son of, on causes of Yakima outbreak, 21 speech of, 19 Owl in Kalispel myth, o09, IIo Pablo, Michelle, buys buffalo herd, 70 Pacific Fur Company among Spokan, 56 Paddles, canoe, of the Salish, 72 Paint, face, how made, 7 See FACE-PAINTING Painting of horses in ceremony, 140 of person by Yakima, 7 of wounds, I30 prescribed by spirits, 129 Palladino, L. B., cited, 46, 48 Palmer, Joel, commissioner at treaty of I855, I5, 21, 31 {view image of page 204} 204 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN Palmer, 7oel, expels Klickitat from Oregon, 38 Palus at treaty council of I855, 15 horses of, captured, 6I in Yakima outbreak, 25, 26, 30-32, 58-61 Klickitat name for, I6I miners killed by, 58 prisoners executed, 33, 60, 6i Salishan names for, 165 under Kamaiakin, 31, 57 Yakima name for, i60 Papuska'hl, a Cascade chief, 38 Pelican song of the Salish, 84 Pelihukun, Kalispel name of Pere Hoecken, 52 Pend d'Oreilles, account of, 43-5I buffalo hunting by, 45, 163 canoes of the, 71 Kutenai name for, I68 mode of hunting by, 70, 71 population of, 5I relations with Flatheads, 45, 51 Salishan names for, I65 Stevens treats with, 48 Pend d'Oreille lake, Kutenai on, I8 Pend d'Oreille river, a Colville boundary, 63 Flathead band on, 43 Kalispel on, 51, 52 Pestles of the Yakima, 5, I59 Petroglyphs of the Kutenai, 131 Pheasant in Kutenai myth, 147, 148 Physical character of the Yakima, 14 Pictographs. See PETROGLYPHS Piegan and Flathead intermarriage, i5 and Kutenai hostility, 119 Big Hawk killed by, 44 enemies of Flatheads, 44, 45 hostility of, 56 Kutenai name for, I68 punishment of adultery, 152 Salishan names for, I65 when met by Kutenai, 1I8 Pine, dugouts of, 72 Pine-bark used for canoes, 72 See BARK Piopio-maksmak |